Honyaku Star - Search: 農民

農民: 662 Terms and Phrases

農民
farmers
peasants

農民の
agrarian

農民詠
Nomin-ei

農民運動
agrarian movement

農民一揆
agrarian revolt or uprising

農民戦争
Peasants' War (Germany: 1524-1525)

農民文学
peasant literature

農民らしさ
peasantry

農民負担金
farmer's burden

農民である
be a farmer

素朴な農民
rustic farmers

質素な農民
a frugal farmer

中国農民銀行
Farmers Bank of China

全国農民団体
National Farmers' Organization

全国農民組合
National Farmers Union
NFU

農民の朝雑用
the farmer's morning chores

甲午農民戦争
Donghak Peasant Revolution

ドイツ農民戦争
German Peasants' War (1524-1525)

イタリアの農民
an Italian farmer

農民であること
the state of being a peasant

グルジアの農民
Georgian farmers

ラトビア農民連合
Latvian Farmers' Union

ドイツ民主農民党
Democratic Farmers' Party of Germany

農民党 (台湾)
Peasant Party (Taiwan)

ポーランド農民党
Polish People's Party

農民は作物を作る。
Farmers produce crops.

いずれも農民ではない。
None of them were peasants.

リトアニア農民人民同盟
Lithuanian Peasant and Greens Union

東学農民軍の再蜂起と鎮圧
Recurring uprising of Armed peasants in Tonghak

単調な仕事をしている農民
drudging peasants

農民が穀物の種を蒔いた。
The peasant scattered the seeds of grain.

農民は、休日にブタを殺した
The farmer killed a pig for the holidays

私は貧しい農民に過ぎない。
I am nothing but a poor peasant.

政府は農民に新税を課した。
The government imposed a new tax on farmers.

他人の所有する土地で働く農民
a farmer who works land owned by someone else

農民は土地で大もうけをした。
Farmers made a lucky strike on estates.

集まった農民たちは動揺する。
Conscripted farmers got upset.

「農民」はその下で働いていた。
Farmers' worked under them.

地元農民のあまりきつくない組織
a loose organization of the local farmers

農民は、土地に作物を作りすぎた
the farmers overcropped the land

その農民は畑に麦の種をまいた。
The farmer sowed his field with wheat.

その税は農民に重くのしかかった。
The tax bore hard on the peasantry.

この日逮捕された農民は約50名。
On this day fifty demonstrators were arrested.

ここは、被害農民の集結所となった。
After that, the farmers and peasants used the office to band together against the company.

が、この時農民の武装解除を命じた。
However, he ordered disarmament of farmers at this time.

寺社門前町支配下の農民、町人の人口
Population of peasants and townspeople in temple/shrine towns

農民は常に天気について不満を言う。
Farmers always complain about the weather.

農民は政府に対して反乱を起こした。
Farmers rebelled against the government.

直後、渡良瀬川右岸の農民らと合流。
Right after that, peasants stationed on the right side of the Watarase-gawa River joined the procession.

土地改良には農民の金銭の負担はない。
The peasants did not have to pay for the land improvement.

農民が起こした初めての一揆でもある。
It was the first peasant uprising.

または美濃の農民出身という説もある。
There is a view that he came from a farm family in Mino Province.

農民宮川久次郎の三男として生まれる。
He was born the third son of a farmer called Kyujiro MIYAGAWA.

農民は実際は今だ時代錯誤の小金持ちだ
peasants are still unreconstructed small capitalists at heart

ぶっきらぼうなニューイングランド農民
a blunt New England farmer

その干ばつの間に多勢の農民が死んだ。
Many peasants died during the drought.

農民からの請負代官への不信が高まった。
The farmers grew to distrust ukeoi daikan.

ある農民が石櫃に入った釜を掘り出した。
A farmer dug up an iron pot in a cist.

その農民は稲が実る日を待ち望んでいる。
The farmer longs for the day when the grain ripens.

そこで農民らは東京大挙押出しと呼んだ。
So peasants called it 'Tokyo Taikyo Oshidashi' (Demonstration in full force in Tokyo).

同日、朝から、雲龍寺に農民が集結した。
On that day many peasants came to Unryu-ji Temple from early morning.

これに怒った農民らが数度に渡り蜂起した。
The outraged farmers raised riots several times

その農民は２００エーカーの農園を耕した。
That farmer cultivated a 200 acre plantation.

農民たちはいつも天候のなすがままになる。
Farmers are always at the mercy of the weather.

農民たちはよいリンゴと不良品を選別する。
Farmers separate good apples from bad ones.

農民のジョーンズは、先週、東側の畑を耕した
Farmer Jones plowed his east field last week

その農民は小麦を無駄にしたことを後悔した。
The farmer regretted having wasted some wheat.

農民たちは、なにをするのかわからなかった。
The farmers didn't know what to do.

ロシアの農民（特に1917年以前の人をいう）
a Russian peasant (especially prior to 1917)

主に農民の中から技術に秀でた者が抜擢された。
For most of the tamori positions, peasants who had expertise in techniques were selected.

農民はしばしば収入を補うために副業をします。
Farmers often moonlight to supplement their incomes.

警官は解散を命じたが、農民らは応じなかった。
The police ordered to wind up, but the peasants refused.

また、農民が武器を使用したという証言もない。
No one witnessed demonstrators using any weapons.

その他の雑兵・農民らは赦免され退城を許された。
The other people such as zohyo (common soldiers) and farmers were allowed to leave the castle.

政府は作物が受けた被害に対して農民に補償した。
The government compensated the farmers for the damage to the crops.

これらが朝鮮農民の反発を受けて買収が停滞する。
This sort of event caused deep resentment among the Korean farmers and the land acquisition was once aborted.

それはほとんど農民側全面勝訴に近いものだった。
It was almost like overall victory for the peasants.

また、一部の農民は、治安警察法でも起訴された。
Some of the peasants were charged with violating the Security Police Law.

軍は、農民を民間防衛グループに引き入れようとした
The army tried to co-opt peasants into civil defence groups

この時点で農民は総崩れとなり、散り散りになった。
The peasant movement was put to rout and broken up at this point.

準備する物だけが農民から農民に口伝で伝えられた。
Only the information on the articles necessary for the demonstration was given from peasant to peasant by mouth.

農村に住んで農業経営にあたり、農民を直接支配した。
They lived in rural areas, conducted farm management and controlled the farmers.

―「農民文学運動」に端を発し、農村に関して詠んだ歌
Poems originating from the 'peasant literature movement' and based on rural communities.

裕福な地主は土地を耕している農民を意のままに操った
The rich landowners subjugated the peasants working the land

美玉三平と中島太郎兵衛は農民に襲撃され射殺された。
Sanpei MITAMA and Tarobee NAKAJIMA were attacked by the farmers and shot to death.

「オーナー」は期限付きであり、農民の小作化ではない。
An 'owner' is time-bound, so farmers are not turned into tenants.

農民軍参加者はのべ13万人を超えると推定されている。
A total of more than 130,000 farmers are estimated to have joined the armed peasants.

丹後国竹野郡間人に農民亀右衛門の次男として生まれた。
He was born as the second son of Kameemon, the peasant in Taiza, Takeno County, Tango Province.

足尾鉱毒事件では田中正造を助け、農民救済運動に奔走。
In the Ashio Copper Mine Mineral Pollution Incident, he supported Shozo TANAKA and devoted effort to relief work for the peasants.

農民らは田中の説得に応じ、惣代50名を残し帰郷した。
Peasants accepted Tanaka's advice and went home, leaving fifty representatives.

挙兵後、各地から続々と浪士、町民、農民らが集結した。
After raising the army, roshi, citizens and peasants joined them from around the country.

下級武士・農民・職人・商人は一括して「平民」とされた。
The low ranking samurai, the peasants, the artisans, and the merchants were collectively categorized as 'Heimin' (commoner).

1つは、名田を農民層の所有・経営単位とする見方である。
One opinion is that a myoden was an ownership and management unit in the farmer class.

自由農民の保有地では、上記の様な貢納は免除されていた。
The lands owned by free farmers were exempt from the tributes like mentioned above.

農民に募兵を呼びかけて2000人が集まり意気を挙げた。
2000 peasants gathered to appeal to raise a small army and built up a group spirit.

田中正造はこのときの農民運動の中心人物として有名である。
Shozo TANAKA is famous as the central figure of the farmers' movement at this time.

翌年、裁判により過納金を農民に返すことで騒動は決着した。
Next year, the issue came to an end in court by returning overpayments to peasants.

農民らは、米を持参して徒歩で数日がかりで東京に向かった。
Peasants walked to Tokyo carrying their rice with them and took a few days to get to Tokyo.

農民が良好な状況の下で彼らの要求で購入することを可能にする
allow farmers to buy their requirements under favorable conditions

米価は下落し、農民は豊作ゆえに困窮するという時代になった。
Rice price declined and the period when good harvests impoverished the peasants started.

しかしながら農民隊を含む尾張藩兵らの銃撃を受け制圧された。
However, it was suppressed by gunfire from Owari Domain soldiers including some from the peasant army.

日本の封建社会における最後にして最大の農民一揆と言われる。
The turmoil is said to be the last and largest peasant uprising in the feudal system of Japan.

これにより江戸時代を農民が搾取されていたとする見解がある。
Because of this situation, there is an opinion that farmers in Edo period were exploited.

毛里田村農民らが足尾線で足尾町の古河鉱業に押出しを行った。
The peasants living in Morita Village practiced the demonstration to the Furukawa Mining Industry in Ashio Town by the Ashio Line.

農民らは川俣にある真如寺に連行され、ここで手当てを受けた。
Injured demonstrators were taken to Shinnyo-ji Temple and received medical treatment.

この後、東京への陳情に出かける農民と警官隊との衝突も起きた。
And after that, actual collisions came to take place between the peasants who were going to make petitions in Tokyo and the police.

5月朝鮮政府、甲午農民戦争（東学党の乱）の鎮圧を清朝に依頼
May: The Korean government requested Qing dynasty to suppress the Donghak Peasant Revolution (the Tonghak Uprising).

当該農民は本村・新田それぞれの耕地において年貢負担を行った。
In this case, the farmers paid Nengu to both lords of their home village and their working fields.

甲午農民戦争→日英通商航海条約→日清戦争（- 明治28年）
The Donghak Peasant Revolution erupted, the Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation was signed and the Sino-Japanese War broke out (- 1895)

江戸時代にお上に対し農民が集団で訴える事を強訴と呼んでいた。
In the Edo period, goso referred to the collective petition of peasants to those in power.

実際に、貴族や寺院が富み栄える一方、農民層の負担が激増した。
Actually, the aristocratic class and temples prospered and grew wealthy, while burdens to the farmers increased tremendously.

農民にとっての山の神の実体は祖霊であるという説が有力である。
It leads to a widely accepted theory that the kami's original identity was that of an ancestral spirit.

その性格や祀り方は、山に住む山民と、麓に住む農民とで異なる。
A number of differences exist between mountain folk and low-land agriculturalists in the character of their yamanokami and respective ways of worshiping such god.

ましてや農民達の中にはもっと苦しい生活をしている者達もいる。
Moreover, many peasants live a harder life.

「自分達の土地は自分達で守るという有力な農民が出てきました。」
Powerful farmers that protected their own lands began to appear.'

彼は地元農民とともに反対運動を起こすも芳しい成果は出なかった。
He started the opposition movement together with the local peasants, but the results were poor.

ひいては領民への負担があり、そのため農民の逃散が絶えなかった。
It also laid a heavy burden of taxation on the people and many peasants ran away.

一方で、通潤橋のような農民発議での開発が着々と進行していった。
On the other hand, developments progressed steadily through the proposals by peasants as Tsujun-kyo Blridge.

大庄屋など上層農民で苗字帯刀御免など武士並の格式を許可された者
Individuals from the upper rungs of peasants and village headman permitted to dress as samurai, use a surname and wear a pair of swords.

その後、貨幣経済の進展に伴って、次第に困窮する農民が出てきた。
After that, as the monetary economy developed, the number of farmers who lived in poverty gradually increased.

官田の小作人には零細農民だけではなく、地主層も少なくなかった。
Tenant farmers of Kanden included many landlords as well as petty farmers.

門人は武士や僧侶が多かったが、町人や農民も1～2割を占めていた。
Although many of the pupils were warriors and Buddhist priests, merchants, and artisans accounted for 10 to 20% of all the pupils.

その中で繰り広げられた長年にわたる戦いで国人衆や農民は疲弊した。
As a result, local samurais and farmers of the province became impoverished due to the long-standing fights.

農民の名前も幼名と呼ばれるが、武士とは違って諱をつける事は無い。
The names of members of the peasant class were also called 'yomyo' (childhood names), but unlike the children of the upper class, they did not receive an imina at adulthood.

零細農民の救済、治山治水等の土木事業により農業政策を充実させた。
Banzan promoted agricultural policy by helping small-scale peasants and by implementing construction work including forestry and flood control.

農民の田の神のような去来の観念はなく、常にその山にいるとされる。
They do not share the agriculturalists' belief that the yamanokami leave and return to the mountain, and they believe that the kami always stay there.

天保年中に日照りがつづいたとき、農民たちが物外に雨乞いを頼んだ。
During the Tenpo era, dry weather lasted, so farmers asked Motsugai to pray for rain.

着任早々の課題は、ワッパ騒動と呼ばれる農民抗議への対策であった。
The immediate issue he had to attend when he was appointed to the post was to take a measure towards Wappa Disturbance, which was a protest of peasants.

小型の齧歯動物を主に主食とし、農民に有益な北半球にすむ大型のタカ
large hawk of the northern hemisphere that feeds chiefly on small rodents and is beneficial to farmers

農村民運動国家と非合法的実力闘争を展開した北ドイツの農民運動。
Peasants and Villagers' Movements: peasants' movements in northern Germany that built up illegal campaigns against the state using force.

築造兵と称した工兵隊、天領の農民で組織した御料兵の編成もされた。
Military engineer troops called chikuzo hei (constructing troops) and goryo hei (imperial property troops) that was composed of farmers in tenryo (a shogunal demesne) were also organized.

また、農民側から荘園領主に対して直務代官の派遣を求める例もあった。
Moreover, the farmers might demand that the lord of the manor send a jikimu daikan.

畠中城では、日根郡の地侍・農民らからなる城兵と中村一氏が対戦した。
At the Hatanaka-jo Castle, the castle soldiers consisting of jizamurai and farmers of Hine County fought against Kazuuji NAKAMURA.

農民たちは騙されたと怒り、国臣らを「偽浪士」と罵って襲いかかった。
The peasants got angry, complaining that they had been deceived, and attacked them, criticizing Kuniomi as a 'bogus roshi.'

三島は官吏を全面的に更迭するとともに、農民に対しては弾圧で臨んだ。
He challenged at the issue by reshuffling government officials completely and oppressing peasants.

ペルーの政府団体を廃して、毛沢東農民政権に取りかえることを画作する
seeks to destroy Peruvian institutions and replace them with a Maoist peasant regime

農民はどちらの候補者を支持するかについて、いまだ決めかねています。
Farmers are still sitting on the fence over which candidate to back.

これを機に朝鮮では旧来の零細自作農民が小作農と化し大量に離村した。
This triggered the transformation of small-hold land-owning farmers into tenant farmers and their massive departure from their villages.

小競り合いのあと、正午すぎに農民らは川俣にある浮き船橋に向かった。
After a scrimmage with policemen, demonstrators headed toward a floating bridge in Kawamata after noon.

このような陳情には当時名がついておらず、農民らは「押出し」と呼んだ。
Although in those days people did not call such a action including petition by a specific name, the peasants called it 'Oshidashi' (literally, 'pushing').

大正15年・昭和元年（1926年）：「労働農民党」結成、大正天皇崩御
1926: Formation of the 'Labour-Farmer Party' and the death of Emperor Taisho

班田が行われなくなると、口分田も事実上農民の私有地化することになる。
When handen-based field supply ceased, kubunden effectively became owned by farmers.

米国の作家で、農民についての小説で知られる（1902年−1968年）
United States writer noted for his novels about agricultural workers (1902-1968)

2月12日に武蔵・上野の農民が渋谷がいる岩鼻陣屋に向かって進撃した。
On March 5, 1868 (表記の変更), the peasants from Musashi and Kozuke Provinces advanced toward Iwahana jinya (regional government office), at which Shibuya worked.

警察側は、農民のうち1名が馬で警察署に乗り入れたのが原因としている。
Police said they tried to arrest demonstrators because one demonstrator tried to break into the police office mounting on a horse.

2月13日午前1時、700から800人の農民が雲龍寺に集結していた。
There were about 700 to 800 peasants at Unryu-ji Temple at 1:00am on February 13.

秀吉は太田開城時に指導層の地侍を処断する一方、一般農民は退城を許した。
While Hideyoshi executed jizamurai of the leading position at the time of the surrender of Ota-jo Castle, he allowed common farmers to leave the castle.

その前後から負担に苦しむ農民の浮浪や逃亡がふえ、社会不安が表面化した。
Around that time, however, vagrancy and defection of heavily-burdened farmers increased and social unease came to the surface.

近郷農民は生きた鶏を奉納し祭が終わると浅草寺観音堂前に放ったのである。
The farmers in the surrounding countryside offered live chickens and, when the festival was over, they released them in front of the Kannon-do of Senso-ji Temple.

1485年、南山城の国人衆や農民らが宇治の平等院に集まり評定を持った。
In 1485, local samurais and farmers in Minami-Yamashiro gathered in Byodoin Temple in Uji to conduct a conference.

大量の餓死者は発生もちろんのこと、土地を捨てて逃亡する農民が多数発生。
Not only did many people starve to death, but also a large number of farmers fled from their homes.

しかし、農民の墾田意欲は必ずしも向上せず、墾田も思いのほか進まなかった。
However, it did not work as motivation for farmers to reclaim rice fields and thus it did not progress as expected.

ニコラウス2世の宮廷での宗教的なアドバイザーであったシベリア人の農民の僧
Siberian peasant monk who was religious advisor in the court of Nicholas II

十分な雨が成長期の早期に降るかもしれないかんばつの望みに影響を受ける農民
farmers most affected by the drought hope that there may yet be sufficient rain early in the growing season

江戸幕府による諸藩や旗本、農民への国役普請はその復活と見ることも出来る。
The Edo bakufu forced the various clans, vassals and peasants to perform engineering work (kuniyaku fushin) and this can be regarded as the restoration of the system of public duties (kuniyaku).

藩士ばかりでなく、農民・町民の間でも凄惨な報復やリンチが繰り広げられた。
Appalling revenges and lynches were done not only among the feudal retainers of the domain but also among peasants and citizens.

一方、武士や町人に対しても農民ほどの厳格さは無くても同様の規制が行われた。
Meanwhile, the same kind of regulation was applied to samurai and townspeople, although they were not as severe as with farmers.

しかし、この時代の兵力は、基本的に配下の農民をかき集めて武器を持たせる程度
However, military power during this period was just for the purpose of gathering farmers under their control and make them hold onto weapons.

大塩に従った農民も多く、地方にも飛び火して幕府や諸藩に大きな衝撃を与えた。
Many farmers followed Oshio, and the uprising spread repercussions in other regions, which gave a great shock to the shogunate government and domains.

しかし既に農民軍は撤収しており天津条約上でも日本軍の派兵理由は無くなった。
However the armed peasants had withdrawn, and the reason of the dispatch of Japanese troops based on Treaty of Tianjin had disappeared.

実際は、花又の鷲大明神の近在農民による収穫祭が江戸酉の市の発端といわれる。
Actually, the harvest festival by the farmers living near Otori Daimyojin in Hanamata is said to be the origin of Tori no ichi in Edo.

実権を握った時平は宇多路線を引継ぎ、権門抑制と小農民保護を遂行していった。
When Tokihira took charge, he followed Uda's policy and controlled influential families and protected peasants.

農民を使役しており、彼が行うのは農具の準備や土木工事、農作業の指揮である。
He uses some tenant farmers, so he only prepares farming equipment, does public work, and directs farm work.

足尾鉱毒事件の調査で銅による汚染を実証し、農民の立場に立ち世論を喚起した。
He verified the pollution by copper through an investigation of Ashio Copper Mine Mineral Pollution Incident and galvanized public opinion from the viewpoint of the peasants.

借金が返済できなかった農民たちは、農地を競売にかけねばならなくなりました。
Farmers defaulting on loans had to auction off their land.

第二に農民統制（宗門改め）、及び宗教政策（切支丹禁令、寺院諸法度）がある。
secondly, they took control of farmers and peasants with 'shumon aratame' (originally, an inquisition for suppressing Christianity, but later, it became like a general research on residents), and took religious policies as well, such as a ban of Christianity and issuance of 'Jiin Shohatto' (the regulations for Buddhist temples in the Edo period);

具体的には、農作物の価格変動リスクを、政府から農民へ転嫁したものといえる。
To be more precise, it can be said that the risk of price fluctuation of agricultural crops was passed on to farmers from the government.

1900年2月、農民らはひそかに会合を開き、次回の押出しの段取りを決めた。
In February 1900 the peasants held a secret meeting and discussed the next demonstration.

当時の軍隊は農民が多く、食料の配給や戦地での掠奪目的の自主的参加が見られた。
Many of the troops in those periods were farmers, who voluntarily participated for food supplies or for the purpose of looting on battle fields.

4回目の押出しでは、農民側と警察側が衝突して大勢の逮捕者が出た（川俣事件）。
In the fourth Oshidashi (petition), the peasants and the police clashed and many peasants were arrested (Kawamata Incident).

しかし、示談金の受け取りを拒否した農民もおり、鉱毒反対運動はこの後も続いた。
However, in fact, some peasants refused to accept money and the movement against the mining pollution continued after that.

国人衆による政治は、国人と農民の対立、また国人同士の対立を生むことになった。
The self-governance administrated by local samurais created conflicts between local samurais and farmers, as well as conflicts among themselves.

反面、自由農民も荘園の裁判権や慣習に従属し、賃借に伴う借金を負わされていた。
However, free farmers also belonged to the jurisdiction or custom of shoens and were put in debt for the lease.

佃（つくだ）：官田や荘園で農民に種子・農具を貸与して全収穫を徴収した直営田。
Tsukuda: rice fields such as kanden and shoen (a private estate) directly managed by other people, where seeds and farming tools were lent to the farmers and all of the harvest was collected.

中級層以下の藩士は、自ら家族と共にこれに当たり、半ば農民化していたのである。
Consequently, the middle or lower class feudal domain retainers were engaged in farming together with their family members, making them virtually farmers.

これにより6月1日朝鮮政府は清の派兵を要請する一方、農民軍への宣撫にあたった。
On June 1, the Korean government asked Qing to dispatch troops and tried to pacify the armed peasants.

9世紀・10世紀頃になると、各地で富豪と呼ばれる有力農民が登場・成長していた。
In the ninth or tenth century, powerful farmers called fugo appeared and continued to increase their strength in various areas of the country.

官奴婢の一部は徴税を代行していたために、地方の農民より裕福な者も存在していた。
Some of the Kannuhi were richer than local peasants because they collected taxes as a proxy.

熊本藩では江戸時代を通じて百姓一揆等が殆ど見られず農民は豊かであったとされる。
It is believed that those peasants were wealthy in the Kumamoto Domain, and almost no peasants' revolt happened throughout the Edo period.

なお、実際の経営は付近の農民による賃租によって耕作されていたと考えられている。
It is considered that actual farming of Koden was done by tenant farmers in the neighbor.

前述の1万2000という数は、途中で合流した農民を含む数と考える研究者もいる。
Some researchers say that the number of 12,000 demonstrators includes those who joined the procession later.

農耕社会では、自己と同一の意識と生活を有する農民に対しては、警戒感は惹起しない。
In the agrarian society, a sense of vigilance was not raised toward the peasants, who possessed the same consciousness and standard of living as one's own.

この頃、早稲の穂が実るので、農民の間で初穂を恩人などに贈る風習が古くからあった。
There had been an old custom of presenting hatsuho (the first crops) to their benefactors around that time when ears of early-ripening rice plants become ripe.

各地で借金苦に苦しんだ農民たちが酒屋、土倉、寺院（祠堂銭）を襲い、私徳政を行う。
Farmers who were troubled with debt attacked liquor stores, pawnbrokers and temples (lenders using donations to a temple) to cancel the debts by force.

しかし領民に対して悪政を敷き、承応3年（1654年）に農民が藩外へ逃散している。
However, his misruling caused the farmers living in the domain to escape to other domains in 1654.

入会山紛争、砥部騒動をはじめ諸農民問題、海上漁業権に関する網代騒動などがあった。
Chief among such problems were, for farmers, disputes over common farming areas on hills and the Tobe Disturbance, while problems for fishermen included the Ajiro (wickerwork) Disturbance over ocean fishing rights.

農民らによれば、土足で本堂に上がりこむなど、警官側が乱暴をはたらいたとしている。
Peasants said the police were very rude and entered the temple with their shoes on.

また、衆徒以外にも興福寺領の荘官が農民田堵を動員して人数を揃えたと考えられている。
In addition to monk-soldiers, peasants and farmers are thought to have been gathered for goso by 'shokan' (an officer governing the 'shoen' [manor in medieval Japan]) of Kofuku-ji Temple.

百姓を農民の意味とした初見は、現在のところ9世紀末に編纂された『三代実録』である。
As of now, that was 'Sandaijitsuroku' (the sixth of the six classical Japanese history texts) edited in the late ninth century in which the term 'hyakusho' indicated for the first time, a person engaged in agriculture.

富豪農民の寄進による既墾地系荘園の増加は、律令体制の財政基盤に深刻な動揺を与えた。
The expansion of Kikonchi Kei Shoen due to donations from wealthy farmers created serious commotion on the financial base of the Ritsuryo system.

これらを解体するためには、寺社や地侍、そして農民をも武装解除することが必要だった。
In order to dissolve these, disarmaments of temple, shrine, jizamurai and farmers were needed.

また、刀狩は農民のみならず寺院をも対象とし、寺院の武装解除に一定の役割を果たした。
In addition, he carried out a 'Sword Hunt' confiscating the weapons not only of peasants but also of temples, which played apart in the disarmament of temples.

そのため、通信使の来朝は農民達にとっては臨時に重い負担を強いられるものでもあった。
Therefore, the visit of Tsushinshi to Japan forced farmers to bear a heavy burden additionally.

国人や農民が協力し、守護大名畠山氏の政治的影響力を排除し、以後8年間自治を行った。
Local samurais and farmers cooperated to eliminate the political influence of the shugo daimyo (military governor) of the Hatakeyama clan, and functioned as self-governing community for the succeeding eight years.

このため、農民層にも経済力がつき始め、領主・地頭への権利意識が高まることとなった。
For this reason, the class of farmers began to get economic power and the awareness of their rights against local lords and jitos heightened.

国人領主の領域支配は、それ以前の在地領主と比べて土地と農民の支配がより強固である。
Regional governance by kokujin ryoshu was stronger against land and farmers compared to governance by the resident feudal lords before them.

また、この時代は身分が未分化で武士から商人、農民になることも、その逆も容易だった。
In addition, in this period, the social status was not yet strictly specialized, and it was easy for a samrai to become a merchant or a farmer, and vice versa.

農民が労働の見返りとして領主から与えられた謄本保有権付き不動産は土地一区画であった
a copyhold was a parcel of land granted to a peasant by the lord of the manor in return for agricultural services

いっぽう、うち続く飢饉から農民の負担の軽減を図るべく、税制や貧窮対策を施している。
On the other hand, the tax system and the rescue plan were implemented in order to lessen the burden of peasants in the time of the continuing famine.

しかし、貧しい農民には重い負担であり裕福な者に土地を売り渡し小作人になっていった。
However, since the tax was a heavy burden for poor farmers, they became tenant farmers, selling their lands to rich people.

三田藩では領内のみならず、領外の多くの有力商人・農民をも自藩札の引請人としていた。
Influential merchants and peasants both inside and outside of Sanda Domain guaranteed these han bills.

警官と農民の証言がかみ合わないのは当然だが、農民同士の証言も全くかみあっていない。
It is no surprise that there were gaps between the police and peasants in their testimonies, but there were gaps in claims between peasants, too.

元寇以後、こうした負担が過重となり、なおかつ農民への負担の転嫁が激しい抵抗を招いた。
After the Mongol invasion attempts against Japan, these burdens became intolerable, and the shifting of the burdens onto peasants aroused the bitterest opposition among them.

この口実には、御師が農民に伊勢参拝の勧誘活動を行っていた事も理由になっていたようだ。
This justification was used, partly because onshi conducted activities to invite peasants to join in on a pilgrimage to Ise.

飫肥藩では「欠落奉行」「逃散奉行」と呼ばれる奉行職を設けて逃亡農民に対応したという。
The Obi domain dealt with escaping farmers by forming the bugyo (magistrate) positions of 'Kakeochi Gyoko' and 'Chosan Gyoko.'

農民に限らず日本では死者は山中の常世に行って祖霊となり子孫を見守るという信仰がある。
Japanese people, not limited to Agriculturalists, have beliefs that the deceased goes to Tokoyo (the perpetual country) in the mountain where it becomes an ancestral spirit to watch over the descendants.

一方で年貢を五公五民にする増税政策によって、農民の生活は窮乏し、一揆の頻発を招いた。
On the other hand, peasants were plunged into poverty by the goko-gomin (fifty percent for the government, fifty percent for citizens) system of annual land taxes, leading to frequent uprisings.

過酷な年貢の取り立ては農民の逃散につながり、かえって年貢の収量が減少するためである。
As severe levy of nengu (annual tribute) led to peasants' chosan (to abandon one's field and flee away to other districts to evade cruel taxes), which adversely decreased the amount of collected nengu.

安土桃山時代に豊臣秀吉が行った太閤検地によって、農地の所有者は耕作する農民とされた。
The nationwide land survey conducted by Taiko (the honorific title for a regent) Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI in the Azuchi-Momoyama period decided that the owner of a farmland was the farmer who cultivated the land.

裁判終結後の農民の言及には、農民側が先に警察署敷地に石を投げ込んだというものもある。
After the judgment, some peasants said that demonstrators first threw stones to the police office.

これが農民から見ると賦課の不公平にも見られ、時には農民一揆の原因になることもあった。
As this was seen to be unfair imposition on the peasants, there are some cases of these estimates resulting in revolts.

一方、現地では請負代官が農民から過酷な取立てを行って自己の収益にする事態も生じていた。
Meanwhile, the ukeoi daikan levied harshly from farmers and made it their own profit on site.

戦争にともなう経済の混乱は貧富の差の拡大をもたらし、多くの農民が没落し小作農となった。
The economic confusion having accompanied the war increased the difference between the rich and the poor, reducing many farmers to tenant farmers.

甲午農民戦争の停戦後、朝鮮政府は日清両軍の撤兵を要請したが、どちらも受け入れなかった。
After the Donghak Peasant Revolution the Korean government requested both Japan and Qing to withdraw their troops, but neither accepted.

土地税の租は，課税対象確保のための農民の最低生活の保障の意味で，低率に抑えられていた。
So of So-Yo-Cho, land tax, was kept at low rate aimed at securing the lowest living standard of a peasant so as to acquire a stable subject of taxation.

開発された田地では、所領田畠とその農民に対する強力な進止権が国衙より公的に与えられた。
At developed farmlands, strong ruling rights were officially given to shoryo (territory) fields and their farmers by kokuga.

１２．国民の資産が奪われると、農民たちは重い年貢の取り立てに苦しむことになるでしょう。
12. When their substance is drained away, the peasantry will be afflicted by heavy exactions.

農民らも、あくまで全員無罪をかちとるために、無罪となった47名を含む全被告が上告した。
All forty-seven defendants including those who were found innocent also appealed acquittals of all defendants to the Supreme Court.

政府は当初、検地が農民からの反発を受けることを懸念し、農民からの自己申告主義を採った。
The government initially ordered individual farmers to report details on their land because the government was concerned about farmers' objection on the nationwide land survey.

川俣の農民は大多数が農民に同情的であり、ほかにも手当て、看護をした者は多くいたという。
Many of the peasants in Kawamata had compassion for the demonstrators and took care of them.

これを口実に年貢を納めない商工業者に対して農民の年貢に相当する冥加を求めるようになった。
With the above pretext, feudal lords imposed Myoga, which corresponded to nengu (land tax) imposed on farmers, on merchants and traders who were not required to pay nengu.

農民の服装に対しては続いて寛永19年（1642年）には襟や帯に絹を用いる事を禁じられた。
Regarding clothing for farmers, in 1642, they were banned from using silk for their collars and obi (kimono sash).

網野善彦は職能民など非農民層に着目し、南北朝時代が日本史の転換期にあたると主張している。
Yoshihiko AMINO focused on people with occupations other than farmers and suggested that the Nanbokucho period was a transitional time in Japanese history.

当時の荘園・公領で現地での生産活動の中心だったのが、上層農民の名主（みょうしゅ）である。
In shoen and koryo in those days the center of production activity on the spot was myoshu (owner of rice fields) of high-ranking farmers.

この場合、生活の基礎はあくまでも農民的土地所有や商業にあり、また家臣団には入っていない。
In this case, the foundation of this 3rd group's livelihood was the possession of agricultural land or a commerce, and they did not belong to the ranks of vassals.

農民でありながら乗馬・苗字帯刀などが許されるなど農村部において最も身分の高い存在だった。
Although each of the officers was a farmer, he was permitted to ride on a horse, to own his family name and to wear a sword, being the highest-positioned person of farmers.

元禄2年（1689年）2月27日：病馬を捨てたとして陪臣14名・農民25名が神津島へ流罪
On February 27th, 1689, 14 indirect vassals and 25 farmers were exiled to Kozu island due to abandonment of sick horses.

多くの研究者は、農民の証言がより正確だと考えているが、それでも説明のつかない部分が多い。
Many researchers think the testimony given by peasants are more exact than those given by the police, but many of peasants' testimony had no proof.

水戸黄門などでは農民を徳川光圀が呼称する場合 'お百姓' と接頭辞 'お' を付けている。
In TV dramas such as 'Mitokomon,' Mitsukuni TOKUGAWA uses the term with the prefix 'o,' i.e., 'ohyakusho' when addressing a peasant.

支配階層を武士として、それ以外の農民、職人、商人はその下に入る階層として厳密に区別された。
The social class in Japan was precisely divided into four classes, putting the samurai at the top as the ruling class and farmers, craftsmen, and merchants into lower classes in order to put them under the samurai class.

しかし、最新の鉱毒防止装置の維持費は、その後も用水利用料増加という形で農民の負担となった。
However, after that, the peasants kept paying the running costs and costs for new pollution-preventing system in the form of water rate which had kept being raised.

その中で、支配層は農民を育成するため、年貢による収奪だけでなく、様々な勧農施策を実施した。
Meanwhile, the ruling class not only exploited farmers by nengu, but also implemented several measures of kanno to cultivate farmers.

農民が書いた土地証文などの数もしだいに増加し、文字が庶民層にまで広く普及するようになった。
A growing number of land deeds were written by peasants, which means that literacy was widespread even among the commoner class.

逃散（ちょうさん）とは、日本の中世から近世にかけて行われた農民抵抗の手段、闘争形態である。
Chosan was means of resistance and forms of struggle waged by farmers in Japan from the middle ages to the early modern period.

農民の保有地が小地面から成っていたように、領地（領主の直轄地）も単一的な土地ではなかった。
As the land owned by farmers consisted of a patch of land, the land directly controlled by the lords was also not a monolithic land.

農民らは結束して東京に請願に出かけることにし、1897年3月2日、第1回の請願が行われた。
Peasants gathered and decided to go to Tokyo for the first petition on March 2, 1897.

ただし原文には「由是農夫怠倦、開地復荒（これにより農民が怠け、開墾した土地が再び荒れる）。
The original text said 'by this (the Sanze Isshin Law), farmers became lazy making their cultivated lands desolate again.'

同じような形状のものは、捕り物道具（龍太や万力鎖など）や農民の武器（鎖鎌など）などに多い。
Similar shape as kaginawa may be mostly found in torimono dogu (tools of arrest) (such as ryuta, manriki-gusari) (manriki-gusari is a traditional Japanese chain weapon with two steel-weights on the ends designed to strike, ensnare or trap an opponent) and peasants' weapons (such as kusarigama) (kusarigama is a traditional Japanese weapon that consists of kama (the Japanese equivalent of a sickle) on a metal chain with a heavy iron weight at the end).

逆に政府側は地主・農民の税負担が軽くなっていることを理由に地租の増徴を計画するようになる。
Contrarily, the government planned to raise the land tax on the grounds that the taxation on landowners and peasants had been reduced.

これらの初期荘園には荘民が存在せず、耕作労働力は周辺の班田農民に対する賃租が一般的であった。
In general, nobody lived in the Shoki Shoen, so farmers from neighboring handen (allotted farmlands) worked the fields by renting them under the Ritsuryo system.

租を納める農民の個人負担によったが、後に民部省格式によって官による運送費の支給が定められる。
The costs of milling and transport was paid by the farmer who paid So, but later the transport costs were paid by the government according to the Kyakushiki (regulations) of the Ministry of Popular Affairs.

特に江戸には飢饉などにより地方から流入してきた農民も多く、幕府はしばしば帰農令を出している。
Especially, many peasants flew into Edo from rural areas due to famines, and the shogunate government often promulgated the orders to support peasants to return their own communities financially.

この農民の商売熱を冷まそうと幕府は田畑永代売買禁止令や帰農令などを発布するも効果がなかった。
The shogunate government intended to dampen peasants' enthusiasm for business by promulgation of the ban against buying and selling of fields and the back-to-the-land order, but neither was effective.

とくに大貴族や大寺院は、広大な土地を囲い込み、一般の農民や浮浪人を使役して私有地をひろげた。
In particular, powerful nobles and temples fenced off vast lands and increased privately owned land by using ordinary farmers and furonin (people escaped from their registered domiciles).

この事が官や荘園領主、農民に安定をもたらした事で、『古事談』はこれを延久の善政と称えている。
Given this fact, it provided security for the feudal lords of the private estate and the farmers, and consequently in 'Koji Dan' (the collection of stories from the Kamakura period) it is described as a good government during the Enkyu period.

疫病を撒き散らすと同時に親切に迎え入れた農民に対しては万病に効く術を授けたとも言われている。
It is said that although he spreads diseases, he bestows remedies for all diseases on farmers who welcome him kindly.

これらの演者は元々農民や僧侶だったが、平安末期頃から専門的に演じる職業集団も成立していった。
Although these performers were originally farmers and monks, from about the late Heian Period, occupational groups performing their own specialties were also established.
Performers of such art were originally farmers or Buddhist monks, but some of them were organized into professional artists groups at the end of Heian period.

しかし度を越した収奪が行われれば没落する農民が現れ富の寡占が進んで富農が出現するはずである。
However, under extreme exploitation, some farmers would become ruined, which should lead to the concentration of wealth and the emergence of wealthy farmers.

士族や富裕商人、富裕農民だけではなく、身分を問わず苗字を付けることが認められた（国民皆姓）。
All people, not only those in the warrior class and affluent merchants and farmers, were allowed to have their surnames regardless of their titles (Kokumin kaisei).

禄制改革をはじめとする留守政府の政策に対しては反対意見も存在し、農民一揆なども勃発していた。
Some people were opposed to the policies of Rusu-seifu including reforms of the stipend system, and peasant uprisings occurred in many places.

警官側が農民に対し砂を投げた、という証言と、警官と農民の両者が砂を投げた、という証言がある。
Some said police threw sands at demonstrators and other said police and peasants both threw sands to each other.

院宮王臣家は下級官人を家人化し，有力農民を保護することで、これらの私有地の集積を進めていった。
Under these circumstances, the Engu oshinke accumulated these privately-owned lands by protecting influential peasants and turning lower-ranking government officials into their own subordinates.

第3回押出しで、与党議員であった田中は農民等を説得して大部分を帰郷させたが、直後に政権が崩壊。
At the third Oshidashi, Tanaka (Shozo), who was a member of the House of Representatives and belonged to the ruling party at that time, persuaded the group of peasants and followers away from the direct petition, and most of them went home, however immediately after that, the government collapsed.

秀吉は降伏して城を出た農民に対し、農具や家財などの在所への持ち帰りを認めたが、武器は没収した。
Hideyoshi admitted the farmers who surrendered and left the castle to bring back farming equipment, furniture and household goods to their home, but he seized weapons.

民衆を良民と賎民（五色の賤）とに分け、農民である良民には租・庸・調・納税・雑徭の義務を課した。
The people were divided into Ryomin (law-abiding people) and Senmin (Goshiki no sen, five lowly castes), and the obligations of So (rice), Yo (capitation), Cho (textile products), tax payment, and zoyo (irregular corvee) were imposed upon Ryomin, who were peasants.

この時代の蕎麦はあくまで農民が飢饉などに備えて僅かに栽培する程度の雑穀だったと考えられている。
It is considered that, back in those days, buckwheat was a minor grain that peasants grew on a very small scale to provide against emergency situations such as famine.

こうして、平安時代以降、各地の自衛農民団、もしくは自衛海運業者団としての武士団の発展を促した。
Thus, many bushidan (samurai group) were organized in the Heian period as self-defense groups for farmers and shipping agents.

そのため、中農、富農が成立しないということは逆に農民が自立可能な程度の年貢であったことになる。
Therefore the reason why middle-class or wealthy farmers could not become established was land taxes which were sufficiently heavy to prevent farmers from becoming independent.

また、東大寺田を賃租し、それをさらに他の農民に賃租させるような経済活動も行っていたようである。
He also conducted economic activities such as renting the paddy field of Todai-ji Temple and making other peasants rent them.

農民が麦刈りをする様子を氏政が見て、「あの取れたての麦で昼飯にしよう」と言ったという話である。
Ujimasa saw peasants harvesting wheat and said: 'we should have a lunch with that fresh wheat.'

特に混同しがちなのは3点目の上層農民や豪商などで苗字帯刀御免など武士並の格式をもつ者であろう。
It is particularly easy to confuse goshi with individuals in this third category: upper-rung peasants and wealthy merchants, dressed the same as samurai, permitted to adopt a surname and wore a pair of swords.

また1643年には江戸幕府によって農民間で田畑の売買を禁止する田畑永代売買禁止令が公布された。
Furthermore, in 1643, the Edo bakufu issued the Denpata-eitai-baibai-kinshirei (the permanent prohibition on the sale of arable lands) to prohibit the sale of cultivated fields among farmers.

これを根拠として、むしろ農民というより、富豪や大寺院の利益誘導ではなかったかという見方もある。
Based on this, some view that this was the result of inducement of profit by the wealthy or large temples rather than by farmers.

この飢饉は、全国的にも影響を及ぼし、但馬国出石藩では農民による打ちこわしが起き米価は騰貴した。
This famine affected the entire country and the increase in rice prices lead to destructive urban riots by farmers in Izushi Domain, Tajima Province.

しかし、松方デフレで農民の小作人化が進み（小作農率の全国平均38％→47％）、大地主が発生した。
However, due to the Matsukata deflation (also known as the Matsukata finance, a financial measure to induce deflation to eliminate inflation generated by raising funds for the war cost of the Seinan War), more and more farmers became tenant farmers (the ratio of the tenant farmers to all of the farmers increased from 38% to 47%), generating large landowners.

6月11日には毛里田村の農民らが足尾を訪れるが、古河側は自身に責任はないという主張を繰り返した。
On June 11, the peasants of Morita Village visited Ashio, however the Furukawa side just repeatedly disclaimed any responsibility for the damages.

この時、一族の中には昭光に従い角田に移ったものと、刀を捨て農民・商人として残るものとに分かれた。
On this occasion, some members of the clan followed Akimitsu and moved to Kakuda, the others abandoned the samurai status and remained in Ishikawa as farmers and merchants.

まだしっかり身分の差がないためか天皇、貴族、武士、農民などあらゆる階層の人の歌が収められている。
The poets' status of 'Manyoshu' (compiled in about year 759) are full of variety, they are the emperors, the nobles, the swordsmen, and peasants; it is considered to be because there was no distinct hierarchy yet.

農村の生産力の増大と、荘園領主の没落で、農民の地位はしだいに向上し、やがて自治的な惣村をつくる。
Farmers improved their status through the increase of productivity in villages and the decline of lords of the manor, so that soon they were able to create autonomous villages (惣村).

また、領主側の立場からの史料ではなく、農民側の立場からの史料である点にも、史料価値が認められる。
And what is better, the value as a historical material can be recognized in that it is not a historical material left from the position of the lords' side but is a historical material left from the position of the peasants' side.

山城国一揆は惣の農民らが参加している点で厳密には国一揆ではなく惣国一揆とでも言うべきものである。
Strictly speaking, the uprising in Yamashiro Province was not a 'kuniikki' but a 'sokoku ikki', because the uprising was started by farmers belonging to so (a community organized by a self-governing association of farmers).

保元の荘園整理令　1156年（保元元）後白河天皇　荘園で使役できる農民の数を制限、「保元新制」。
Hogen-no Shoen Seiri-rei 1156 Emperor Goshirakawa Restricted the number of farmers that can be used on manors ('Hogen new administration').

また明治維新の際には時代祭行列で知られる山国隊が当地の農民により編成され、官軍に参加し活躍した。
Also Yamaguni-tai, which is now famous for its Jidai Matsuri Parade, was formed by local farmers to participate in the imperial army and played an active role in the Meiji Restoration.

しかし、領地（領主の直轄地）のみから成る荘園や、自由農民の保有地のみから成る荘園も存在していた。
However, there existed shoens which consisted only of the land (the land directly controlled by the lords) or shoens which consisted only of the lands owned by free farmers.

その準備をしていた8月8日、甲州で税法統一の際に紛争が起き、農民騒動へと発展する（大小切騒動）。
On September 10, when it was being prepared, there turmoil occurred as they tried to unify the tax law in Koshu, which developed into a riot by farmers (Daishogiri sodo (Daishogiri riot)).

秀久の治世においては農民達に過酷な課役を与えた事から佐久郡では一郡逃散という失態を犯す事となる。
He committed a blunder when he over worked farmers under his rule, causing all farmers within his country to abandon their fields and flee to the cities or other districts in order to evade onerous taxes.

ただし、先頭の船を運んでいた被告農民の中には、停止命令は聞こえなかったと裁判で主張した者もいる。
Some of the accused demonstrators who were carrying the boat claimed in court that they heard no winding-up orders.

日本と清とが緊張するなか、悪政と外国による侵略を排除すると唱えた農民反乱・甲午農民戦争が起きた。
While tension arose between Japan and Qing, a peasant rebellion, the Donghak Peasant Revolution occurred, calling for the removal of the misrule and foreign invasion.

元は石高から貢租としての納付分を差し引いて、残りの農民による自由な処分を免（ゆる）した分を指した。
Men originally meant the rest of the Kokudaka after deduction of Koso which farmers were allowed to use without restraint.

江戸時代中後期の社会変動によって、百姓内部での貧富の差が拡大していくようになる('農民層分解')。
As a result of social changes in the middle and the later Edo period, the disparity between rich and poor in hyakusho became significant ('dissolution of the peasant class').

結果的に多くの土地が国有地に編入され、朝鮮の農民の多くが土地の所有権を喪失したとする研究者もいる。
As a result, many lands were incorporated into the public land, and many Korean peasants lost their ownership of their land, some researchers say.

また松方デフレ等で困窮した農民たちも国会開設を前に準備政党化した自由党に対し不満をつのらせていた。
There was also a growing discontent among the peasants, who were suffering the Matsukata deflation, against the Liberal Party that was preparing to become a ruling party with the establishment of the National Diet imminent.

これは被支配者である農民による階級闘争の結果、支配層から土地所有権を奪取したと評価するものである。
In this view, they think peasants, who had been unilaterally controlled by rulers, captured land ownership from the rulers as a result of a class struggle.

放火や刈田による略奪、そして一般民衆や農民を奴隷として拉致する行為は戦国時代といえども犯罪である。
Fire setting, robbery by karita (to reap rice), and kidnapping common people or farmers as slaves were criminal acts even in Sengoku Period.

養和年間（1181～1182）の頃、二年間にわたって飢饉があり、諸国の農民で逃散する者が多かった。
A famine took place during the years 1181 and 1182, and many farmers in various provinces abandoned their lands.

しかし、榎本の視察があまりにおざなりだと感じた農民らは、同1897年3月24日再度押出しを行った。
Peasants felt Enomoto's inspection was not good enough and went to Tokyo again on March 24, 1897.

（単に農民らの到着が遅かったため、という説もある。当時は夜更けには浮き船橋は通常、外されていた。）
(Some people say that the floating bridge had been removed simply because peasants arrived too late. In those days floating bridges were usually removed by the midnight.)

前々回の反省から、この回の押出しでは、橋が外されたときに備えて農民らはあらかじめ船を用意していた。
From their bitter experience in the demonstration before last, peasants had made arrangement of boats in case the floating bridge had been removed by the police.

かつて、古代的な貴族統治体制を打破したのは武装農民層に由来する武士であるとする説が有力とされていた。
In the past, it was said to be most plausible that samurai originated in the armed farmers who defeated the ancient aristocratic control system.

また、防人制も人民負担の軽減から健児制に取って代わられ、農民徴用も九州地方出身者のみに限定している。
The system where soldiers were garrisoned at strategic posts in Kyushu was replaced with the 'kondei' system of military service for the purpose of lightening the burden on the people, and only peasants from northern Kyushu were conscripted.

近世になると、新田開発によって本村に住む農民が居住地をそのままとして新田側に出作する例が多くなった。
In modern times, when more lands were reclaimed, more farmers living in villages went out to newly developed fields to plow, leaving their villages quite alone.

こうして酒造りは冬に限られた仕事となったので、農民が出稼ぎとして冬場だけ杜氏を請け負うようになった。
In this way, sake brewing was limited to winter so that farmers came to take on toji as a seasonal migrant worker only in winter.

戦国時代 (日本)における落武者は、首に対する恩賞や所持品を狙う農民による落武者狩りの対象とされた。
During the Sengoku Period (Period of Warring States), ochimusha were hunted by farmers who sought their belongings or reward in exchange for their head.

そこでは、有力農民を経営にあたらせ、畿内で流通貨幣としても有用に機能しうる舂米を利益として得ていた。
He put influential peasants in charge of management and obtained shomai (rice made by pounding it in a mortar) as profit that was used as current money in Kinai region.

農民の間では、春になると山の神が、山から降りてきて田の神となり、秋には再び山に戻るという信仰がある。
Agriculturalists believe that the yamanokami descend from the mountain in the spring and enter the rice field, where it becomes the tanokami (rice field goddess), and then it returns to the mountain in the fall.

またあくまで農民を不公正な税制と重税から解放するために積極的に推し進めた地租改正や武士の特権を廃止。
He tirelessly promoted a land-tax reform and abolished the privileges of the samurai class in order to liberate the farmers from unfair and heavy taxation.

また、買米仕法を再編強化し、農民から余剰米を強制的に供出させ、それを江戸に廻漕して利益を増大させた。
Also, he reorganized and reinforced the kaimai shiho (rice trading system) that he forced farmers to provide the domain with surplus rice which was shipped to Edo to gain more profit.

ただし、宝暦3年（1753年）、預かり地の農民が重税を京都町奉行所に箱訴に及び、芝村騒動が発生した。
However, in 1753, the Shibamura Village riot occurred because famers in the deposit place went to Kyoto Magistrate's Office to put a complaint against heavy taxation in a box.

このため、事件となった第4回押出しも、農民側が先に警官に暴力をふるった例はないと考える研究者が多い。
Thus, many researchers think that it was unlikely that peasants first did violence to the police on the fourth demonstration which developed into an incident.

目安とは訴状のことであり、政治・経済から日常の問題まで、町人や農民などの要望や不満を人々に直訴させた。
Meyasu means petition, and he let townspeople and farmers to petition requests and complaints regarding politics, economy and other issues in their daily lives.

3月31日、農民971人が古河鉱業に賠償金総額39億円の支払いを求め群馬県公害審査会に調停を申請した。
On March 31, 971 peasants filed for arbitration to the Gunma Prefecture Pollution Council seeking compensation of 3.9 billion yen from Furukawa Mining.

工事には士卒や農民らを動員し、1俵に付き銭100文、米1升という当時としては非常に高額な報酬を与えた。
Soldiers and peasants were recruited for the embankment and paid 100 mon of money and one sho of rice per bale, which was extremely high-paying for the time.

困窮した零細農民の土地を集積するなど地主的な側面の強くなる近世後期には後者の面を持つものが多くなった。
In a second half of the early-modern times, as headmen (naushi or shoya) accumulated lands of impoverished petty peasants, their landowner-like character grew, and those with the latter aspcet increased.

1894年10月9日全琫準を指導者とする東学農民軍が侵入した日本軍を秀吉軍の再来と受け止め再蜂起した。
On October 9, 1894, armed peasants in Tonghak led by Jeon Bong Jun regarded the invading Japanese troops as the second army of Hideyoshi and rose against it.

もともとは食事が朝夕のみ1日2食の時代に、農民たちが体力維持のため休憩時に取っていた間食のことである。
It originally meant a snack between meals eaten by farmers to maintain body strength during a break when people took only two meals a day in the morning and evening.

近世初期の関東で一般的な農民の住まいは、土間に囲炉裏を作り、床にむしろなどを敷くようなものも多かった。
In the Kanto area in the early modern period, ordinary dwellings of farmers were mostly built in such a way that an irori fireplace (open hearth) was made on doma (dirt floor) and straw mats were laid on the floors.

彼らの多くは、似たような状況下に置かれた農民達に同情的な者も多く、一揆側に寝返る者が現れる始末だった。
Many of such samurai were sympathetic to peasants who lived in the similar conditions, and eventually, some of them even went over to the side of ikki.

「尾張国郡司百姓等解文」により、元命は私欲に基づき貧しい農民から苛烈な収奪を行う受領の代名詞とされた。
Owari no kuni Gunji Hyakusho ra no Gebumi' bolstered Motonaga's image as emblematic of a zuryo severely extorting farmers based upon their own greed.

臨時雑役（りんじぞうやく）とは平安時代中期に国衙から農民に身役・交易などの名目で賦課された雑役の総称。
'Rinjizoyaku' is a collective term for the odd-job tasks that kokuga (provincial government office) obliged local farmers to perform as a kind of tax payable in labor or in kind.

（2-c）非御家人・凡下（武士以外の庶民・農民や商工業者）の買得地は年限に関係なく元の領主が領有せよ。
Article 2-c specified that a land purchased by higokenin (non-Gokenin) and bonge (common people, peasants, merchants, and traders other than samurai) should be possessed by the original feudal lord irrespective of length of term.

検地により農民への課税は重くなる傾向が強いため、農民も一揆などでそれを阻止しようと試みることもあった。
Since such surveys had a strong tendency to increase the tax burden on farmers, occasionally farmers would riot in an attempt to prevent the surveys from being completed.

このうち、不平士族を中心にした段階の運動を士族民権、農村指導者層を中心にした段階の運動を豪農民権という。
The movement dominated by dissatisfied shizoku was termed the 'Shizoku Minken' (Popular rights movement among shizoku), whereas one dominated by leading members in rural villages was called the 'Gono Minken' (Popular rights movement among wealthy farmers).

自由農民の保有地が占める割合は、一定範囲内に収まっていたが、小さな荘園では幾分大きくなる傾向が見られた。
The ratio of the land which free farmers occupied was in a certain range, but in small shoens the ratio tended to be somewhat larger.

冬嗣から基経まで、権門に有利な政策が実施されてきたが、宇多は権門抑制策そして小農民保護策を進めていった。
Although policy which was advantageous for influential families had been conducted from Fuyutsugo to Mototsune, Emperor Uda promoted the control of such families and protected the peasants.

途中の川俣にあった浮き船橋が、警察によって外されており、怒った農民らは対岸まで泳いで渡って船をつないだ。
On their way to Tokyo, peasants found that a floating bridge in Kawamata had been removed by the police and in anger they swam to the other side of the river and hitched up boats.

真土事件（しんどじけん）は1878年（明治11年）、神奈川県大住郡真土村（現平塚市）に起こった農民暴動。
The Shindo incident is a peasants' revolt that took place in Shindo Village (present-day Hiratsuka City), Osumi County, Kanagawa Prefecture in 1878.

こうした歴史学の影響で百姓はすなわち農民であり、封建的遺制のもとで収奪される被支配民という概念が生まれた。
Due to such history, an idea emerged that hyakusho were peasants and ruled people who were exploited under the feudal system.

農民以外が農地を取得するのは、農地法上問題であるため、「オーナー」とは名ばかりであり、不動産取引でもない。
It is against the Agricultural Land Act that persons other than farmers should acquire any agricultural lands, so being an 'owner' is merely nominal and does not involve real-estate transactions.

1974年10月25日、太田市韮川地区鉱毒根絶期成同盟会の農民546人が、13億円の賠償を古河鉱業に請求。
On October 25, 1974, 546 peasants of the Mining Pollution Eradication Association in Niragawa area, Ota City, demanded compensation of 1.3 billion yen from Furukawa Mining.

徳川御三家紀州侯の大名行列は格式と威光を感じさせる大行列だったため、多くの農民が見物に訪れるほどであった。
The daimyo gyoretsu carried out by the Kishu Tokugawa family, one of three privileged branches of the Tokugawa family, were so gorgeous and prestigious that many peasants spared the time to see the scene.

また、武家だけではなく農民も和歌を嗜んだと言われており、その背景には寺子屋の普及があったと考えられている。
It is also said that waka (Japanese poetry) was not only cherished by samura, but also peasants- it is considered that this is a result of the popularization of terakoya (elementary education offered in temples).

水車はその百年以上も前に、「徒然草」（第五十一段）に記されており、当時には農民達の手で取り付けられていた。
As described in 'Tsurezuregusa' (Essays in Idleness) (in the 51st section) written 100 or more years ago, water wheels were built and used by farmers themselves at that time.

農民の自立が進むと、それまで宮廷に属していた工人も解放されて自立し、手工業が一般的に行われ市場が成立する。
As farmers made progress towards political independence, artisans also were freed from the control of the imperial court--which had dominated their livelihoods until this point--and achieved independence, leading to the general proliferation of handicrafts and the establishment of markets.

山城国南部では山城国一揆が形成され、地域住民（在地支配層の他、農民等も参加）による自治に至った事例もある。
In the southern part of Yamashiro Province, where the Yamashironokuni Riot occurred, self-government (in addition to regional ruling classes, farmers, etc.) also participated.

天明7年吾川群名野川川郷村の農民が伊予の国に出奔した際、龍臺の働きかけでとがにんを一人も出さず村に返した。
When the farmers of Kawasatomura, Nanokawa, Agawa County ran away to Iyo Province in 1787, Ryudai encouraged and made them return home with no one being punished.

地元の農民は無実を信じ、教育者、宗教者であり、遠縁にもあたりかねてより森近を良く知る佐藤範雄に助命を依頼。
The local farmers believed his innocence, and they implored Norio SATO, who was the distant relative of Morichika to know him well and also a well-known educator and religious person, to spare the life of Morichika.

天保13年（1842年）、当社社頭に数万の農民が集まり幕府の検地に反対して決起した「甲賀騒動」が起こった。
In 1842 the 'Koka incident' occurred, in which tens of thousands of farmers got together in front of the main building of this shrine and rose against the land survey conducted by the bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun).

官人らは、支給された職分田の耕作権を、希望する均田農民へ与えて、収穫の一部を私的な租税として徴収していた。
Government officials (especially of low to medium ranks) devolved the right to cultivate shikibunden to peasants who only had equally allocated fields, and instead collected part of the harvest as a private land tax.

また、奇兵隊士の一部は農民一揆にも参加しており、明治時代初期に多発した士族反乱にも影響を与えたと言われる。
It is also said that a part of the members of Kiheitai Army had participated in peasants-uprisings which would have influence on Shizoku no hanran (revolt by family or person with samurai ancestors) that often occurred in the early Meiji era.

鎖鎌は主に農民の武器で、戦場に駆り出された農民が武器として鎌を使ったことから発展したとされるが詳細は不明。
It is believed that kusarigama was mainly used as a weapon by farmers who were forced to fight in a battlefield, and eventually developed into a martial art form, but the details remain unknown.

「ひでりに備えて、農具や用水の整備にいそしんで農民の育成にあたり、種播期には農民の作業をうまく指揮する。」
He nurtures farmers while preparing for drought by maintaining farming tools and irrigation channels and leads farmers well when it's time to sow their seeds.'

これはかつて賀島家の先祖が、地元の農民たちの依頼で彼らを苦しめる牛鬼を退治し、その首を持ち帰ったのだという。
People say that the ancestor of the Kashima family did away with Ushioni harassing local farmers at their request and brought the head back home.

濁り酒は、農民たちが自家製するどぶろくを含めて、清酒よりも安価で手軽な格下の酒として製造、流通されつづける。
Unfiltered sake, including Doburoku (unrefined sake) brewed by farmers in their houses, had been continuously produced and distributed as a low-grade liquor which was cheaper and handy than seishu.

奇兵隊は身分制度にとらわれない武士階級と農民や町民が混合された構成であるが、袖印による階級区別はされていた。
Although Kiheitai Army had a mixed personnel organization which consisted of samurais who were free from the class system, peasants and citizens from any social rank, they were hierarchically distinguished by the emblem on sleeves.

同じくイギリス労働党 (イギリス)の1983年までのマークでは農民を意味する鍬にたいまつをクロスさせていた。
Likewise, until 1983, the mark of Britain's Labour Party featured a torch crossed with a spade, representing a farmer.

農民が怠けたというのは単なる言い訳であり、大寺院や豪族が私有地を拡大するための利益誘導であるとも考えられる。
It is also possible to think that it was a mere excuse that farmers were idle and it was influence peddling for large temples and local ruling families to enlarge their private properties.

6月11日農民軍の弊政改革案を受け入れて全州和約を結び、清および日本の武力介入を避けるべく農民軍は撤退した。
On June 11, the government accepted the government reform plan proposed by the peasants, and the peasants withdrew to prevent military intervention by the Qing and Japan.

これに対して黄金を下したため、これを見た農民たちは武田方の名のあるものを探して殺し、その首を織田方に献上した。
Given gold in exchange for these heads, farmers searched for important members of the Takeda clan to kill them and present their heads to Oda's army.

この他にも諏訪刑部・諏訪采女・段嶺某・長篠某といった者たちを農民を使って殺させ、その首が織田方へと献上された。
Nobutada ODA also employed farmers to kill many other people, including ministers of justice, court ladies and persons named Damine or Nagashino, whose severed heads were presented to his army.

また農作業の合間に里山に入って薪やキノコを得ることは、近世の農民にとって現金収入を得る最も簡便な方法であった。
Moreover, it was the easiest way to earn cash income for farmers in recent times to collect firewood and mushrooms in Satoyama by making use of their spare time.

当時、国衙は在地領主・田堵農民層との闘争でその支配体制が危機に瀕していたため、武力による補強が求められていた。
At that time, military reinforcements were necessary because the organizational system of Kokuga was threatened by conflict between local landowners and the Tato farmer class.

また、王公諸臣が山川藪沢を不法に占有し、農民の利益を損なっているとして、大宝令遵守を求める詔勅も出されている。
An imperial edict was issued to demand lords and retainers to strictly observe Taiho Code, as there were cases in which they illegally occupied lands (hills, rivers and marshes) and undermined the peasants' interests.

このため、士族反乱と農民一揆の結合を恐れた大久保利通の意見で、前述のとおり、に税率が2.5％に引き下げられた。
For this reason, the government lowered the tax rate from 3% to 2.5% as mentioned earlier and it was Toshimichi OKUBO who advanced his opinion on lowering the rate to the government because he was afraid of the collusion of the revolts of samurai or ancestors of samurai and peasants' revolts.

しかし、それでは三代後に国に返さなければならないことが見えており、農民の墾田意欲を増大させるには至らなかった。
However, since the owner had to return their land to the state after three generations, the law did not increase farmers' willingness to develop new lands.

本来は「従者」の意味であり、貴人・武家・寺社・有力農民などに付属して、雑務労役を担い、譲渡や相続の対象となった。
Shoju originally meant 'subordinates,' and those in this category were owned by nobleman, military families, temples, and shrines and propertied farmer and so on for servile labors, and were regarded as properties to be transferred or inherited.

城下町などと違い、商工業者のほかに農民をが多く在住しているも特徴で、都市部と農村の性格を併せ持つのも特徴である。
Unlike such towns as Jokamachi, Zaigomachi was characteristic of many farmers as its residents and those engaged in commerce and industry, and has both features of being an urban district and a farming village.

後に他の地域でも農閑期の農耕馬の活用のために輸送に従事した農民などが輸送を専業としていく例が増加することになる。
Later on in other areas as well, farmers who engaged in transportation by utilizing their farm horses during the slack season increasingly concentrated on transportation.

過去の経験の蓄積、良好な土地選定、農民出身者が多かったことなど、好条件が重なり、後期屯田の経営は好成績を収めた。
Under favorable conditions such as accumulated past experiences, favorable land choices and a large number of former farmers, the management of the late-period tondenei settlements gained good results.

しかし、農民でなく、定住もしていない芸能人や手工業者に対しては、自己と異なる特別の世界に住む者として認識された。
However, they recognized the non-peasants, as well as the unsettled entertainers and handicraftsmen, as people who lived in a special world that was different from theirs.

当時、庶民の移動、特に農民の移動には厳しい制限があったが、伊勢神宮参詣に関してはほとんどが許される風潮であった。
Around that time, the movement of commoners, especially of peasants, was strictly regulated, but in most cases they were allowed to make a pilgrimage to the Ise-jingu Shrine.

国司請負の流れの中で、10世紀後半ごろから国司は田堵（有力農民層のこと）へ官物や雑役などの租税を賦課していった。
In the line of kokushi ukeoi, kokushi imposed taxation such as kanmotsu (tribute goods paid as taxes or tithes), zatsueki (odd-job tasks) and so on to tato (cultivators, powerful farmers) since last half of the 10th century.

宋以後を封建制と見る立場からは均田制の下におかれた農民たちを奴隷とみなし、宋に入って登場した佃戸制を農奴とみなす。
From the standpoint that the Hoken system became prevalent after the Song period, peasants under the Equal-field system were slaves and the Tien Hu system which first appeared in the Song period was regarded as a serfdom.

しかし、非常に使い勝手が悪く、戦闘では主流な武器にはなれず、せいぜい農民が害獣を追い払うのに使用する程度であった。
However, they were not made user-friendly to such an extent that they could not be used as a major weapon in fighting, being used only by farmers for expelling harmful animals.

後に有力な農民や土着した在庁官人などがこの規定を利用して荒田の再開発に乗り出し、私領するようになる（在地領主制）。
Later, prominent farmers or local bureaucrats used this rule to redevelop Koden and make it private property (resident landholder system).

一方、私奴婢は、破産農民などでしめられており、地方の大地主の元で農作業やその他の雑務に従事していることが多かった。
Meanwhile, Shinuhi mostly consisted of bankrupt peasants, and was often engaged in farming work or other routine tasks for local large landowners.

折口信夫は、天つ罪は元は「雨障（あまつつみ）」で、梅雨の時期に農民が忌み蘢ることを指していたという説を唱えている。
If one follows Shinobu ORIKUCHI's theory, originally amatsu tsumi was written as 雨障, implied how during the rainy season, farmers stayed indoors and were repentant of their misdeeds.

1894年6月、甲午農民戦争が発端となる朝鮮出兵に派遣され、続く日清戦争では第1軍 (日本軍)隷下に移り参戦する。
In June 1894, he was dispatched in troops to Korea where Donghak Peasant Revolution was beginning, and in the following Sino-Japanese War, he moved under the 1st Army (Japanese Army) to take part in the war.

そのため、農業技術の指導、農業に関する調査研究、農産物価格の統制、小作争議の抑制、農民の福利増進などに取り組んだ。
Therefore, it worked on assistance of agricultural technique, research study on agriculture, regulation of price of farm products, control of agrarian dispute, and welfare enhancement of farmers.

ロシアの軍事介入を極度に警戒した日本は農民軍の北進を恐れ朝鮮最西南端の海南さらに珍島まで追いつめて徹底的に殲滅した。
Extremely cautious about a military intervention by Russia, Japan drove the armed peasants to Haenam and further to Chindo island to annihilate them totally out of fear of the expansion of armed peasant in the north.

争乱の排除をめざして浄土真宗本願寺教団によって組織された武士、農民、商工業者などによって形成された宗教的自治である。
In an effort to avoid disturbances, the leadership of the Jodo Shinshu Honganji organization organized its followers of warriors, farmers, and craftsmen/merchants, thereby instituting a religiously based autonomous government over them.

ハンプシャー農民はドーキングを含む様々な種類の鶏を飼っていた、そして、彼は器用に『黒いもの』と『白いもの』を区別した
a Hampshire farmer had fowls of different breeds, including Dorkings, and he discriminated ingeniously between the `dark ones' and the `white ones'

収容期間満了後、江戸での商売を希望する者には土地や店舗を、農民には田畑、大工になる者にはその道具を支給するなどした。
After serving their terms, land and shops were provided to those who wished to do business in Edo, and fields were provided for peasants, and tools for carpenters.

雲龍寺でも農民が1100人程度集結したが、警官の監視が厳しく、実際に東京に向かえたのは養性寺組の700名だけだった。
About 1100 peasants came to Unryu-ji Temple to join the demonstration, but under the strict supervision by the police only 700 peasants who started from Yosei-ji Temple managed to go to Tokyo.

病気にかかると、キリスト教徒の農民は聖堂に助けを求めましたが、ムーア人の農民は訓練を受けた医師に助けを求めたのです。
When smitten with disease, the Christian peasant resorted to a shrine, the Moorish one to an instructed physician.

歴史を取り扱ったテレビ番組で本来の意味での百姓身分を指す場合ですら '農民' という言葉に置き換えることが通例である。
In TV programs taking up a historical issue, it is common to replace the term with 'peasant' even when the term indicates its original meaning which is the hyakusho rank.

百姓＝農民というイメージは江戸時代から続く古い俗説であるが、実際には現代の '兼業農家' よりも広い生業を含んでいる。
The image hyakusho=peasants was an old, popular saying from the Edo period, but the actual scope includes a wide range of vocations similar to today's 'part-time farmer.'

日本の中世期においては、幕府の地頭、御家人、その郎党といった正規の武士以外に地侍（土豪）、野伏、農民等も武装していた。
In the medieval period of Japan, not only regular samurai who were jito (land steward appointed by the central military government to each of the estates [shoen] into which the countryside was divided), gokenin (an immediate vassal of the shogunate in the Kamakura and Muromachi through Edo periods) and other roto (retainers) but also jizamurai (local samurai [or dogo: local ruling family]), nobushi (unofficial warrior hidden in a forest) and farmers were armed.

定免法は、豊凶を考慮しないため農民を、剰余を持たせて逸楽に耽らせ、また困窮させ、逃散（ちょうさん）させる傾向があった。
Since jomen ho didn't consider the crop situation, it had a tendency to make peasants have surplus and laze, or feel distressed and escape.

松方デフレにより、農民層は貧困することになり、これに自由民権運動が連動、に秩父事件が発生した（自由民権運動の先鋭化）。
Peasantry suffered poverty due to the Matsukata Deflation which in conjunction with the Freedom and People's Rights Movement caused the Chichibu Incident (Radicalization of the Freedom and People's Rights Movement).

いっぽう、商工業の発展や郷村制の成立にともなって、都市の商工業者（町衆）や農民のあいだにも新しい文化がうまれていった。
Meanwhile, with the development of commerce and industry and the establishment of Gosonsei system (the self-governing system of coalitions of villages), a new style of culture developed among commercial and industrial workers in urban areas (Machishu) as well as peasants.

平安時代中葉の10世紀後期から11世紀の頃、地方の有力農民である田堵（たと）による田地開発とその私有地化が活発化した。
In the mid-Heian period, from the late 10th century to the 11th century, farmland development and their privatization by Tato, local powerful farmers, had been accelerated.
In the middle of the Heian period, around the late tenth century to eleventh century, development and privatization of rice fields by locally influential farmers called Tato (cultivators) were accelerated.

複数の要素が重なって、旧来の奴隷の地位と旧来の自由農民の地位を併せ持ったコロヌスという従属的な階級が生まれたのである。
With several factors, the subservient class called colonus, which had both the traditional status of slaves and traditional status of free farmers, was born.

兵力として藩士からなる正規兵だけでなく、町民や農民、無頼の徒や他国藩士によって結成された混成部隊が戦力とされ活躍した。
Not only the regular soldiers consisting of retainers but also mixed forces consisting of townspeople, peasants, outlaws, and retainers from other domains played an active part in their military forces.

これは、旧藩時代からの県令や官吏が、中央の布告を無視して旧藩時代同様の税と労役を課したことに対する農民の反抗であった。
The protest was against Kenrei and government officials from former feudal domain, who imposed tax and royaku (labor service) no different from former feudal domain period, ignoring a proclamation by the central government.

また、農民や町人も苗字なしでは家の区別がつかなかったため、地形地物の名などを苗字として私称することが公然と行われていた。
Because it would have been difficult distinguish between houses if farmers and townspeople had no family name, the unofficial practice of using landmarks etc. as family names was common.

更に12世紀の公領においては実際は公領に居住しながら、表面上は荘民身分を得て国衙からの税負担を逃れようとする農民がいた。
In addition, in the 12th century, there existed some farmers who tried to evade the tax from 'kokuga' (provincial government offices) by disguising themselves as 'shokan' (people living in a manor, who were exempt from the tax), although in reality they lived in koryo.

彼らもまた、小さい単位ながら、農民を支配する側の荘園下級役職者であると同時に、小規模ながら、その「村郷」の領主であった。
They were also the estate owners of that 'village' at the same time they were lower ranking officers of Shoen that ruled over peasants despite being in a small scale unit.

地方三新法が制定された頃は、西南戦争は終結に至るも、農民一揆が頻発し、また自由民権運動が拡大しつつある社会状況であった。
When the Three Local New Laws were enacted, the Seinan War had drawn to its close, but peasants' uprisings were occurring frequently and the Jiyu Minken Undo (Movement for Liberty and People's Right) was growing.

1971年に毛里田で収穫された米からカドミウムが検出され、直後、農民らは80年分の賠償金120億円を古河鉱業に請求した。
In 1971, Cadmium was detected in rice harvested in Morita, and the peasants immediately demanded from Furukawa Mining 12 billion yen as compensation for the previous 80 years.

殿原衆（地侍）と全人衆（商工業者・周辺農民）からなる「堅田衆」による自治が行われており、「堅田湖族」とも呼ばれてもいた。
In Katata, they governed themselves, by 'Katata-shu' (autonomous organization in Katata) composed of Tonobara-shu (a group of Jizamurai [local samurai]) and Zenjin-shu (a group of artisans, tradesmen and farmers) and they were also called 'Katata Kozoku' (autonomous organization in Katata).

また、従来の農書とは別に、角力番付、一枚刷り、小冊子など、農民にわかりやすい形式を活用して、自らの農法を積極的に広めた。
He actively tried to pass his agricultural methods to many farmers by utilizing easily understandable form of information rather than a traditional agricultural method book, such as the formats of sumo wrestling ranking list, single-sheet block print, small booklet, etc..

それに対して、西上州を中心とする農民が反対一揆・打ちこわしを起こし、居城高崎城を攻撃するという前代未聞の事態に発展した。
In response, peasants in West Joshu and other areas revolted and did Uchikowashi (an act where people destroyed residences of privileged merchants or officials who were involved in misgovernment) against it; they even took the unprecedented step of attacking Takasaki-jo Castle where he resided.

妙見山に布陣していた河上は生野の町で闘死しようとするが、騙されたと怒った農民たちが「偽浪士」と罵って彼らに襲いかかった。
Kawakami who was on Mt. Myoken with his men for the battle formation, tried to die heroically in Ikuno Town, but the farmers, who thought they had been deceived, got angry, execrated them as 'fake roshi' and attacked them.

高橋多一郎ら脱藩した水戸浪士達は長岡（現・茨城県東茨城郡茨城町）に集結し、同志・農民など数百人がこれに賛同して合流した。
The roshi (masterless samurai) of the Mito Domain such as Taichiro TAKAHASHI gathered at Nagaoka (present Ibaraki machi, Higashiibaraki-gun, Ibaraki Prefecture) and several hundreds of comrades and farmers joined them.

これは百姓＝農民＝田舎者＝ダサい奴という図式での、格好を重視する不良やヤクザの間でのあまり深い意味のない単なる悪口である。
This is mere vilification without any serious meaning among juvenile delinquents and mafia who valued appearance, in the picture that hyakusho = peasants = country fellows = unfashionable people.

一方、明治以降、東北地方において、当初士族層・一定の資力のある農民・マタギの間でクマタカによる雪山の鷹狩が広がりを見せた。
However, after Meiji Period in the Tohoku Region, Taka-gari in the snowcapped mountains using mountain hawk-eagle had spread among the warrior class, rich farmer, and Matagi hunter groups, at an early stage.

同様に、農奴の保有地と自由農民の保有地の割合には地域差が大きく、領地での農作業に係る賃金・労役への依存度を大きく左右した。
Likewise, the ratio of the serfs' lands and the free farmers' lands largely varied in each region and thus the dependency on the wage and labor services concerned with the agricultural work in the lands also largely varied.

また吉政の出生地は浅井郡の三川村または宮部村（現在の東浅井郡虎姫町内)で、吉政自身はそこに住む農民であったという説もある。
In another theory, his birth place was Mikawa Village or Miyabe Village, Asai District (present-day Torahime Town, Higashiazai District) and he may have been a peasant there.

また、大宝3年（703年）から慶雲4年（707年）にかけて連続的に発生した飢饉と税体系の不備により貧窮する農民が続出した。
Further, as a result of a series of famine occurred from 703 to 704 and the flaws in the tax system, there were many peasants who suffered of serious poverty.

主に帯刀を許されない身分の者（農民・商人・職人）の護身用の武器として、また、日本の武術各流派では隠し武器として用いられた。
Kusarigama was mainly used as a weapon of self-defense for the rank of people who were not permitted to wear a sword (peasants, merchants, craftsmen) and in addition it was used as a hidden weapon in various schools of Japanese martial arts.

必要に応じて屋敷地には居住者の身分（村役人・僧侶・神官・後家など一般農民と年貢・諸役の負担に違いが生じる人々）が記載された。
If necessary, the inhabitants' social position was entered into the blank space left in the item of residential area of kenchi-cho, because the degree of the burden of nengu and shoyaku differed between the common farmer and the other people, such as village officer, Buddhist priest, Shinto priest, and widow.

ただし、これらの改革は急激に行われたため矛盾も少なくなく、士族や農民の不満を招いたため、後の征韓論につながったとも言われる。
However, these rapid reforms had many contradictions and many warrior-class people and farmers were unsatisfied, and it is said that these reforms led to 'Seikanron' (the policy of conquering Korea by military force).

しかし、農民の移動に規制があった江戸時代に旅をするにはそれなりの理由が必要で、その口実として伊勢参拝が使われるようになった。
A good reason was required, however, to make a journey in the Edo period when the movement of peasants was restricted, and the pilgrimage to Ise came to be used as justification for their journeys.

明治新政府に不満を持つ旧会津藩藩士渡辺悌輔らが、大河津分水掘削工事の負担に苦しむ農民等を糾合し、新潟県庁の襲撃を図った事件。
It was the incident in which Teisuke WATANABE, a former feudal retainer of Aizu Domain, and others, being dissatisfied with the Meiji government, rallied peasants who were suffering from the burdens of excavation work of Ookozu-Bunsui Canal, and attempted to attack Niigata Prefectural Office.

警官隊は解散命令を発した直後に農民らに殴りかかり、先導の船を運んでいた農民らを相次いで逮捕、拘束した（農民らの証言による）。
(According to some peasants) the police made a raid upon peasants right after they gave a winding-up order and arrested demonstrators who were carrying the headmost boat.

これら水利事業の整備は台湾の農業に大きな影響を与え、農民の収入を増加させるとともに、総督府の農業関連歳入の増加を実現している。
The development of water facilities influenced agriculture in Taiwan, increasing the income for farmers as well as agriculture-related revenue for the Sotoku-fu.

毛里田地区の鉱毒反対運動は、どこからも主だった支援を受けず、農民の手弁当による活動であるところが他の同種の運動と大きく異なる。
The opposition movements in Morita area were independent and not funded by anyone or anywhere, the peasants made their lunch packs and continued the activity which makes it different from any other movements.

その醸造の現場へ地元の農民を派遣して技能を習得させ、やがては領民だけの力で藩造酒（はんぞうしゅ）の生産が可能になるよう図った。
They also sent local peasants to actual brewing sites so that they could learn brewing skills which would enable them to produce hanzoshu (local sake brewed by a clan) without experts' help afterward.

かつての日本的儒教＝朱子学は武士や一部の農民・町民など限られた範囲の道徳であったが、近代天皇制のもとでは国民全体に強要された。
The former Japanese Ju-kyo, or Neo-Confucianism was ethics for a limited target, such as samurai, certain farmers, and townsmen, but under the modern emperor system, it was imposed on all citizens.

反面、通信使の往来路であると否とにかかわらず、武蔵・相模以西の東海道・畿内・西国の農民には労役の提供や費用の負担が求められた。
On the other hand, regardless of the route Tsushinshi took, it was requested for farmers in the Tokaido, Kinai, Saigoku regions located to the west of the Musashi and Sagami Provinces to provide physical labor and to bear costs.

また、都市部で町人の文化が発展する一方、益の薄い農業で困窮した農民が田畑を放棄し、都市部へ流れ込んだために農村の荒廃が生じた。
While the culture of townspeople developed in urban areas, farmers who had been reduced to poverty by non-profitable agriculture abandoned their fields and drifted into cities, thus ruining agricultural communities.

後代には大夫や士の中に衰退する者も現れたが、その後、有力農民層が新たに士という階級を形成し、地位を得るようになったといわれる。
Although some Daibu and Kyo declined later, it is said that, after that, the powerful peasantry formed a rank, Shi, and gained status.

第6回押出しも、養性寺を起点として行われ、農民2000名が東京に向かい、うち7名が3月6日に平田東助農商務大臣との面会に成功。
Two thousand peasants started from Yosei-ji Temple for the sixth demonstration and of those peasants, seven persons met the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, Tosuke HIRATA.

これらは、本来、農民による生産を促進・拡大を意図したものだったが、一方では、支配者にとって租税収入を確保するという側面もあった。
These were originally intended to promote and enhance production of farmers, and also ensued tax collection for the rulers.

この時期の政府がこの路線を貫徹させようとすれば、誰が指導者であったとしても結果的に士族反乱や農民一揆は避けられなかったと言える。
As the government at this time stayed this course, any leaders could not avoid Shizoku no hanran (revolt by family or person with samurai ancestors) and peasant uprisings consequently.

だが、11月に入ると、美作国津山藩や豊後国杵築藩、播磨国龍野藩でも軍役などの負担に耐え切れなくなった農民らによる一揆が発生した。
But in November, Tsuyama Domain in Mimasaka Province, Kitsuki Domain in Bungo Province, and Tatsuno Domain in Harima Province saw the uprisings of peasant and others who could not bear heavy burdens such as military service, any more.

だが、荘園公領制が解体する14世紀に入ると、生産力の上昇や農民層の抵抗、更に荘園内部でも上級層の没落と下級層の上昇などが発生する。
However, during the fourteenth century, many factors, such as the improvement of the productivity, the resistance of the class of peasants, and the downfall of the upper-class together with the advancement of the lower-class, contributed to the eventual demise of the shoen-koryo sei.

しかし、1896年の大洪水でさらに鉱毒が拡大し、対策がなされていないことが判明すると、農民側は示談契約書を根拠に再度交渉を行った。
However, by the floods of 1896, damages from the mining pollution spread, and it revealed the fact that no measures had been taken, and the peasants negotiated again with the company using the agreement of composition for the evidence.

このとき、古河側が農民に若干の示談金を与えるかわりに、それ以前、以後の鉱毒被害の請求権を放棄するという内容の永久示談に切り替えた。
In this negotiation, the Furukawa side changed their policy to offer a final composition that they would give some money and in return demand the abandonment of the right in the future to claim against them for damages by the mining pollution.

背景の項で述べている通り、伊勢神宮復興のために御師が外宮の豊受大神に目を付け、農民に伊勢信仰を広めたのがお蔭参りのきっかけである。
As discussed in the 'Background' section, onshi focused his attention on Toyouke no Okami enshrined in the geku in order to rebuild the Ise-jingu Shrine, and spread the Ise faith among peasants, leading to the appearance of okage mairi.

商品や事業を作り出して流通させ、所有者の利益のために経営する、共同で所有された営利企業（通常、農民または消費者によって組織される）
a jointly owned commercial enterprise (usually organized by farmers or consumers) that produces and distributes goods and services and is run for the benefit of its owners

近隣の麻田藩では大坂商人で西本願寺家臣の石田敬起（大根屋小右衛門）による改革で藩札は農民側の管理に委ねられて適切に運用されていた。
In nearby Asada Domain, a reform was conducted by Takaoki ISHIDA (Koemon DAIKONYA), the vassal of Nishi Hongan-ji Temple, and as a result their han bills were managed and circulated properly by peasants.

米の品種改良や農業技術の進歩に伴い農作物（特に、江戸時代の税の柱であった米）の収穫量が増え、農民でも現金収入を得る事が容易になった。
Improvement in rice varieties and development of agricultural technologies had increased crop yields (especially rice which was the mainstay of the tax in the Edo period) and made it easier for peasants to earn cash.

この時、天照大神が祀られている本殿の案内はそこそこにし、農民にとっての信仰の対象である豊受大神が祀られている外宮を重点的に案内した。
In such cases, onshi gave peasants only a quick tour of honden (main shrine building) where Amaterasu Omikami was enshrined, and showed them mainly around geku dedicated to Toyouke no Okami that the peasants worshipped.

「物外さんの雨乞いは、効き目がある」ということになり、それからも日照りがあるたびに、物外は農民たちから雨乞いを頼まれるようになった。
People said, 'Motsugai's praying for rain works well,' so every time when the dry weather lasted, Motsugai came to be asked to pray for rain by farmers.

在地領主（ざいちりょうしゅ）とは、中世日本の荘園公領制の下で在地（現地）において農民・漁民らを実際に支配する権限を持った領主のこと。
A local lord (or 'Zaichi ryoshu' in Japanese) is an appropriator with the authority to control farmers and fishermen in his territory by executing authority under the Shoen koryo sei (System of Public Lands and Private Estates) in Medieval Japan.

また、佐藤政憲は「秩父事件は貧しいから起きたのではなく、段々豊かになるときにつぶされたところに秩父農民の怒りがある」と指摘している。
Masanori SATO also pointed out that 'the Chichibu Incident occurred not because peasants in Chichibu were poor, but because they got angry to have their lives smashed up when they were gradually becoming rich'.

土井家は河内、摂津の農民に借金があり、農民達は上知と同時に借金が踏み倒されるのではと恐れ、土井家に繰り返し上知反対の強訴が発生した。
The DOI family had borrowed money from farmers in the provinces of Kawachi and Settsu, and the farmers, fearing that the family might repudiate its debt at the time of confiscation of territories, repeatedly petitioned the DOI family directly for opposition to the confiscation.

雑徭の賦課は国司の権限であり、なかには私用で雑徭を課す国司もおり、公民の負担となり班田農民の没落・逃散を促したとする見解が通説である。
It was the kokushi's right to impose the zoyo, and among the kokushi there was some who imposed the zoyo for personal use; it is commonly accepted that the zoyo became a burden to the komin (the registered people, especially farmers, under the Ritsuryo system) and thus caused the handen farmers (farmers whom the government had given the handen, or the allotted land for farming) to decline, abandon the land and flee to other domains.

砦を陥落させ城に逃げ込ませて2月、兵糧攻めをしてたまらず和解に応じたところを銃撃し兵で襲撃、残った農民も柵を築いて2万人を焼き殺した。
He took the fort and pushed the enemy back to the castle, and in March when they accepted mediation following a starvation policy, he opened fire and had his soldiers attack them before erecting barricades and burning the remaining 20,000 peasants to death.

士族とはいえ元農民出身であったため、一葉は平民組として扱われ、上流階級の姉弟子たちにから「ものつつみの君」と呼ばれるほど内向的になる。
Although Ichiyo was shizoku, since her family had been farmers, she was treated as a commoner; she became introverted, and senior pupils from the upper social class called her 'monotsutsumi no kimi' (literally, close-natured person).

1945年にナグ・ハマディの町の近くで農民によって発見されたギリシア語からコプト語に翻訳された13冊の古代のパピルス写本のコレクション
a collection of 13 ancient papyrus codices translated from Greek into Coptic that were discovered by farmers near the town of Nag Hammadi in 1945

イスラエルには農民が絶え、かれらは絶え果てたが、デボラよ、ついにあなたは立ちあがり、立ってイスラエルの母となった。 (士師記 5:7)
The rulers ceased in Israel. They ceased until I, Deborah, arose; Until I arose a mother in Israel. (Judges 5:7)

久米郡北方村（現東温市）の農民田中藤作（当時31歳）は、1872年11月28日に松山高石垣（現在の松山市藤原町）の徒刑場で執行された。
The execution of Tosaku TANAKA, a peasant (31 years old at that time) living in Kitagata-mura village, Kume-gun county (present-day Ton City), was carried out at an execution ground located in Takaishigaki, Matsuyma (present-day Hujiwara-cho, Matsuyama city) on November 28, 1872.

やがて、所従・下人をも含めた荘民は新たな農民集団を形成して荘園領主や外部と対峙する様になり、「惣村」と呼ばれる独自の自治組織を形成する。
As a result, the class of shomin, including shoju and genin, started to form groups of peasants which confronted the manor owners and the external parties, which was a process that eventually led to the formation of the self-governing organization called 'soson.'

8世観世鐵之丞によると、もともとは五穀豊穣を祈る農村行事であり、翁は集落の長の象徴、千歳は若者の象徴、三番叟は農民の象徴であるとされる。
According to Tetsu no jo KANZE the eighth, it was originally a farming community event to pray for a bountiful grain harvest, and Okina, Senzai, and Sanbaso respectively personified a village chief, a youth, and a farmer.

その結果、藩札は大坂の両替商の関与を断たれ、桜井谷陣屋の米奉行が発行し、豊嶋郡の領内有力農民が銀穀方として運用する形態が幕末まで続いた。
As a result, the currency exchangers in Osaka stopped supporting the domain's han bills, so their han bills were issued by a kome bugyo (commissioner of rice) of Sakuraidani jinya and were circulated as 'ginkokukata' by influential peasants in the territory of Teshima-gun until the end of the Edo period.

当時、鉄道はあったが、鉱毒被害地から東京までの運賃が、鉱毒で貧困化していた農民らにとっては非常に高かったため、徒歩という方法がとられた。
There was a railway to Tokyo, but peasants went to Tokyo on foot because they were so poor that they could not afford to buy train tickets due to the mining damages.

地租改正で農民の納税が金納化され、それに伴い家禄支給を石代として金禄で支給する府県も出現し、また米価の変動による混乱や不満も生じていた。
After the land-tax reform, farmers had to pay tax by cash, some prefectures started to pay Karoku by cash instead of rice quantity, and fluctuation of rice price caused social chaos and frustration of people.

鳥羽伏見の戦いの報が江戸に伝わった直後の1月15日、関東取締出役渋谷鷲郎が関東一帯の村々から公私領を問わずに農民を徴兵する決定を下した。
On February 8, 1868 (表記の変更), soon after the details of the Battle of Toba-Fushimi were informed to Edo, Washiro SHIBUYA, of the Kanto Torishimari Shutsuyaku (public security authorities of Kanto region under Edo bakufu), decided to conscript peasants from villages all over the Kanto region, no matter whether the village was of a shogunal demesne or a private territory.

近代農学の成立期である明治時代には、官主導による近代農学に対する民間での農事改良の担い手として「老農」とよばれる農民たちが活躍していた。
During the Meiji period, in which modern agriculture was formed, farmers called 'Rono' (elderly farmers) took the leadership of agricultural improvements in private sector, in contrast to modern science of agriculture led by the government.

主に人口の多い東日本から徴兵され、その間も税は免除される事はないため、農民にとっては重い負担であり、兵士の士気は低かったと考えられている。
Because the soldiers, who were mainly drafted from eastern Japan which had a larger population, were not exempt from taxation during their service, they bore a heavy burden as farmers and it is thought that morale was low.

領地は、領主の居館を中心として、その近接地や資産建物、さらに自由農民や農奴の保有地の間を縫うように存在する小片の土地群から構成されていた。
The land, centering on the lord's residence, consisted of the neighboring lands, asset properties and furthermore the group of patches of land which existed threading through the lands owned by free farmers or serfs.

9世紀～10世紀ごろ、田堵と呼ばれる富豪農民が登場し、時を同じくして、国衙（国司の役所）が支配していた公田が、名田という単位に再編された。
A group of rich farmers named the Tato (cultivators) made their appearance around the 9th and 10th centuries, and during the same period, koden (land directly controlled by the kokuga (provincial government office)) was reorganized into units of land known as myoden.

そのため、小規模農民や中小規模の地主を問わず、滞納や逃亡、民田への不正な登録変更などが相次ぎ、国家は安定した収入を得る事が出来なくなった。
Because of that, there were a succession of delinquency, desertation, illicit change of registration to private estate by small scale farmers and small or medium-sized landlords, and the state were unable to ensure the stable income.

元八王寺村（現燕市）農民の無宿者、川崎九郎次らは、1872年（明治5年）3月頃より流域に分水工事反対の決起を呼び掛ける落し文を行っていた。
Kuroji KAWASAKI, a homeless wanderer who had originally been a peasant in Hachioji Village (present-day Tsubame City), and others started distributing Otoshibumi (letters dropped in the road: fliers) in the watershed area from around March 1872 encouraging people to rally against the construction.

しかし、邑楽用水から利根川までの間には警官隊が5重の防衛ラインを張って待っていたため、農民らは船を運んでいる者たちを先導にして先を進んだ。
There were quintuple defense barriers made by riot police between Oura irrigation canal and the Tone-gawa River, so demonstrators avoided that route and followed the route led by boatmen.

毛里田地区の調停成立直後の1974年11月18日、群馬県桐生市で桐生地区鉱毒対策委員会が設立され、農民444人が古河鉱業に対し交渉をもった。
Immediately after the issue of Morita area was settled by arbitration, on November 18, 1974, in Kiryu City of Gunma Prefecture, the Kiryu Area Mining Pollution Committee was established, and 444 peasants participated in the negotiation with Furukawa Mining.

そのため町奉行支配下の町人人口として計上されている寺社門前地の人口には、農地に点在する農民、一部町人の人口が含まれていないとする解釈がある。
For the abovementioned reason, there are those who interpret that the population of temple towns that have been accounted for in the population of townspeople, do not include peasants living in such farm lands and some other townspeople inhabiting the shuinchi.

日本において馬とは、刀剣や鉄砲と同じように兵器として扱われていたので、武士以外の身分（商人や農民）などは通常、乗馬することを禁止されていた。
In the past, horses had been considered to be one of weapons, such as swords and guns, therefore, the people except for the bushi class, such as tradesmen and peasants, had been forbidden to ride horses.

当時の百姓・班田農民や古来の郡司一族、土着国司子弟の中には、出挙や営田活動により富を蓄積する富豪層が現れており、田堵（たと）と呼ばれていた。
Some peasants, handen (allotted farmland) farmers, old gunji (a district officer) families, and local kokushi (a provincial governor) scions of that time started to form a wealthy class called tato, and they gained riches by suiko (rice loans in ancient Japan that had to be repaid after the autumn harvest at a substantial rate of interest) and farming activities.

正保元年（1644年）には全国の大名に郷帳・国絵図（正保国絵図）・城絵図（正保城絵図）を作成させ、農民統制では田畑永代売買禁止令を発布した。
In 1644, the bakufu ordered feudal lords all across the country to draw up maps of their domains and castle, and issued a ban on buying and selling fields to control farmers.

明治20年代なかば頃から深刻さを増し、農民の県庁への直訴騒動が起こっていた煙害問題を解決するため、1894年（明治27年）に新居浜に赴いた。
In 1894, he visited Niihama to solve an air pollution problem caused by smoke, which intensified during the 1890s and led peasants to petition directly to the prefectural government.

これを農民らに負担を強いるようしむけたものだと考える研究者もいるが、差し戻し審を前回と別の裁判所で行うのは当時の慣例だったという主張もある。
Some researchers say the trial was held at a court different from the previous court because that would put a greater burden on peasants, but other researchers say it was customary to hold trials at a different court in those days.

地方豪族や有力農民のなかには自らの勢力を維持・拡大するため、また、農民の反抗を防止して土地・人民を確保するために武装する者が少なくなかった。
Quite a few powerful local clans and influential peasants armed themselves to maintain and enlarge their power, and to secure the land and people by preventing defiance by the peasants.

それだけにどうにでも言い換えの利く言葉でもあり、確信的に農民を貶める目的があろうはずもなく前述のとおり自主規制によってあまり聞かれなくなった。
Thus, the term can be put otherwise in any way and there is certainly no intention to diminish peasants, and the term is less heard due to self-restraints as described above.

ただし、この時期の荘園は墾田に対する浮浪・班田農民の寄作を基礎としていて、労働奴隷制的でも、領域と住民を一元的に掌握していたわけでもなかった。
The shoen at the time, however, depended on the contribution of labor from vagrants and handen farmers for the reclaimed fields, and it is neither slave-labor system, nor the system under which the field and residents were controlled in an integrated manner.

勝手造り令により生産が拡大し、より多くの人手を欲している造り酒屋と、少しでも農閑期の現金収入を得たい農民とのあいだで利害が一致したからである。
This was because the katte-zukuri rei increased the sake production amount, and the interest of tsukuri-zakaya who needed more staff coincided with the interest of peasants who wanted to make even a little money during the agricultural off-season.

兵卒の身分は依然として武士と農民の間に位置して低かったが、功を認められれば侍や特異な例ではあるが豊臣秀吉のように大名にまで出世する者もあった。
The low status held by ashigaru was intermediate between that of samurai and peasants but there were those such as Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI whose abilities were recognized and who rose to the rank of daimyo (feudal lord), although it was a peculiar case.

立荘の背景には、東大寺や国衙の支配と収奪を逃れようとする田堵農民層と、自らの所領の拡大・安定を狙った正盛の間に利害の一致があったと考えられる。
The interests of the Tato (wealthy farmer) farmer class, who were controlled and deprived of the control of the Todai-ji Temple and Kokuga, and Masamori, who wished to enlarge and stabilize his property, coincided and led to the creation of the shoen.

名主は領主・地頭から名田の耕作を請け負いながら、屋敷を構え、下人や所従などの下層農民を支配し、屋敷近くに佃（つくだ）と呼ばれる良田を所有した。
Myoshus built their houses, governed low-ranking farmers such as genin (servants who served to their masters as slaves) or shoju (retainers) and so on and owned good rice fields called tsukuda (directly-managed rice fields by a lord or an officer of shoen) near their houses, undertaking the cultivation of myoden from local lords and jitos.

その一方で、地坪制度を導入することによって農民負担の均質化をはかり、課税法を検見法から定免法に改めることによって、安定した年貢収入に成功する。
On the other hand, he homogenized farmer's burden through the introduction of the land area system and succeeded in earning stable revenues from nengu (land taxes) by revising the taxation method from kemi-ho (annual crop inspections) to jomen-ho (a fixed tax rate).

開発領主（かいほつりょうしゅ）とは、平安時代中期以降、墾田開発をさかんにおこなって領地を確保した者の総称であり、元来は有力農民（田堵）である。
Kaihatsu-ryoshu (local nobles who actually developed the land) is a generic name for those who secured a territory by extensive reclaimed land development after the mid Heian period, and who were originally influential peasants (Tato).

秩父事件（ちちぶじけん）は、1884年（明治17年）10月31日から11月9日にかけて、埼玉県秩父郡の農民が政府に対して起こした武装蜂起事件。
The Chichibu Incident was an armed uprising that peasants in Chichibu County, Saitama Prefecture made against the government from October 31 to November 9, 1884.

農民5名が「暴動首魁ノ所為」、雲龍寺住職1名が「暴動教唆ノ所為」、農民17名が「扇動の所為」で、それぞれ重罪、残りの28名は軽罪で起訴された。
Five peasants were charged with collective rioting and Unryu-ji Temple's chief priest was charged with masterminding a riot and seventeen peasants were charged with fomenting a riot, and the rest of twenty-eight peasants were charged with a minor offense.

これに対し個々の農民に対して '百姓' と呼び捨てることは、スティグマをそのまま負の意味で受容させることになり、強い蔑称の意味を含むことになる。
On the contrary, use of the term 'hyakusho' to address an individual peasant would be considered as a strong derogatory term, because that causes the peasant to accept the stigma as a negative meaning.

李氏朝鮮は階級差別と搾取によって農民が春窮と呼ばれる毎年春に飢える状況が常態となっているほど生産性の低い統治を行っており、国土開発を怠っていた。
Productivity of governance by Yi Dynasty Korea was so low that such situations called shunkyu (literally, poverty in springtime) in which farmers starved in the spring time because of class discrimination and exploitation and national land development was neglected.

その中にあって、東部イングランド低地では、スカンジナビア入植者の遺産の一部として、当時としては例外的とも言える農民の広範な自由が確保されていた。
Among them, in the eastern England lower zone, a wide variety of farmers' freedom was secured, which was exceptional in those days, because of a part of Scandinavian settlers' heritage.

」とあるが、三世一身法の施行からまだ20年しか経っておらず、三代を経過して農民の意欲が減退するという事態が本当に生じたかは、疑問が残る所である。
However, it still remains doubtful whether farmers of the third generation were really discouraged after only twenty years from the enforcement of the Sanze Isshin Law.

1894年5月に朝鮮で、東学教団構成員の全琫準を指導者として民生改善と日・欧の侵出阻止を求める農民反乱である甲午農民戦争（東学党の乱）が起きた。
In May 1894, the Tonghak Peasant Revolution led by Jeon Bong Jun --a member of the Tonghak religious community-- occurred in Korea, calling for improvement of the people's livelihood and prevention of invasions from Japan and Western countries.

栃木県は鉱毒仲裁会をつくり、古河側が、1893年頃に農民に示談金を払い、1896年6月末までに対策を行って鉱毒をなくすという内容で示談を行わせた。
Tochigi Prefecture conducted a meeting of arbitration of the mining pollution, and offered a composition that the Furukawa side should pay money to the peasants in around 1893 and carry out some measures to eliminate the pollution by the end of June, 1896.

こうした古代・中世史研究の深まりとともに、農民ではなく貴族に武士のルーツを求める見方が生まれ、両者を繋ぐ概念として提起されたのが、軍事貴族である。
A new understanding that the origin of the samurais was aristocrats instead of farmers grew as ancient and medieval studies progressed, and the concept of a military aristocracy was formed as a link between aristocrats and samurais.

（※）一部の藩（薩摩藩など）においては全江戸期を通じて農民に対する厳しい収奪が行われ、中農、富農が成立する条件は成立しなかったとされることもある。
* In some domains (such as the Satsuma Domain), the harsh exploitation of farmers throughout the entire Edo period meant that the conditions under which middle-class or wealthy farmers could become established never emerged.

1381年の農民一揆を鎮圧したが、彼の治世には不満分子が多く、議会では貴族の抵抗を受け、1399年には退位に追い込まれた（1367年−1400年）
he suppressed the Peasant's Revolt in 1381 but his reign was marked by popular discontent and baronial opposition in British Parliament and he was forced to abdicate in 1399 (1367-1400)

8～9世紀において改賜姓がさかんに行われているのは、八色の姓において、上級の氏姓にもれた下級の身分の者や、これらの農民を主な対象としたものである。
During the period between the eighth century and the ninth century there were many changes made in the hereditary titles; this change was geared to the people with the lower social position who were excluded from the rank of higher hereditary position in the Yakusa no Kabane Reform as well as these peasants.

しかしながら、1960年代に戸田芳実や石井進 (歴史学者)らによる国衙機構に関する研究が進展すると、武士の起源武装農民説はもはや成立し得なくなった。
However, as research about the kokuga system was advanced by Yoshimi TODA and Susumu ISHII (each of them a historian) in the 1960s, it became impossible to consider that samurai originated in armed farmers.

ここで高尾は、王朝国家を田堵農民から生産物地代を収取する貴族たちの連合政権であり、生産物地代を収取する点において封建的な要素を持ち始めているとした。
In this book, Takao asserted that the Dynastic polity was the coalition government of aristocrats who collected products from tato nomin (cultivating farmers) as land rent and in view of collecting products as land rent, the Dynastic polity had an element similar to that of a feudal nation.

将軍家光期に幕府が農民統制のために発布したものであるとされていた慶安御触書は原本が確認されず幕法とするのには疑義がもたれており偽書とする説もあった。
The original of the Keian official notice which is said to have been issued to control farmers in the age of Shogun Iemitsu, was not confirmed, gave rise to doubt for its being the law of shogunate and was asserted by some persons as gisho.

農村から多数農民が逃散して江戸に流入している状況に鑑み、農村復興のため人返し令を発し、弛緩した大御所時代の風を矯正すべく奢侈禁止・風俗粛正を命じた。
In reflection of a massive influx of peasants from farming villages to Edo, Tadakuni issued the 'Hito gaeshi-rei' (a law to return peasants to their villages) to reconstruct faming villages, and also banned luxury goods and reinforced tighter discipline on public morals in order to rehabilitate the city which was loosened up during the Ogosho Period.

楽人の調べは水くむ所に聞える。かれらはそこで主の救を唱え、イスラエルの農民の救を唱えている。その時、主の民は門に下って行った。 (士師記 5:11)
Far from the noise of archers, in the places of drawing water, there they will rehearse the righteous acts of Yahweh, the righteous acts of his rule in Israel. 'Then the people of Yahweh went down to the gates. (Judges 5:11)

稲葉騒動（いなばそうどう）とは、明治2年（1869年）12月に、西尾張地域一帯（稲沢・尾西・一宮・津島の133村）で起こった大規模な農民一揆である。
The Inaba Riot was a large scale uprising of peasants which broke out in the Nishiowari region (133 villages of Inazawa, Bisai, Ichinomiya and Tsushima [today's Aichi Prefecture in Japan]) in January 1870.

これは農民が領主が支配する田畑で労働行為（耕作）を行って年貢を納める代償として領主からの庇護を受けるという関係をその他の領民に拡大したものとも言える。
In a sense, the above was modeled after the relation between lords and farmers under which farmers worked at farmlands (cultivation) that were under the rule of lords and pay nengu while being protected by the lords.

だが、後世に入ると武士や商人・農民など身分それぞれの必要に合わせた知識や慣習を盛り込んだものや習字用の｢字尽し｣など書簡形式をとらないものが著された。
In later years, some oraimono were composed of knowledge and customs necessary for each social status, such as samurai, merchants and farmers, while 'Jizukushi,' which were not in the form of correspondence, were compiled for calligraphy practice.

4月3日夜、早鐘を合図に現在の巻潟東インターチェンジ付近に千数百名の一揆勢が集結し、道々周辺の農民を糾合しながら柏崎県庁（現柏崎市）へ強訴に向かった。
On the night of April 3rd, more than a thousand uprising people concentrated around the present-day Makikata Higashi interchange at the sound of a fire bell, and marched toward Kashiwazaki Prefectural Office (present-day Kashiwazaki City) to file a direct petition, while peasants in the neighborhood joined the march.

この場合、おおよそ古代の奴隷制が生産力の進歩によって覆され、領主が生産者である農民を農奴として支配するようになったと解釈される社会経済制度のことを示す。
In this case, it means the socio-political system considered to have been established after the overturn of ancient slavery with the improvement of productivity, under which feudal lords ruled productive peasants as serfs.

動物埴輪には犬、猪、牛、鶏、馬具を付けた馬などの出土例があり、人物埴輪には甲冑を付けた武人像、巫女、農民などさまざまな階層や立場の人物が表現されている。
In the category of animal-shaped haniwa, there are the haniwa of dogs, white whiskered boars (Japanese wild boar), cows, chickens, horses in harnesses, and others, and in the category of human-shaped haniwa, there are the haniwa of warriors in armor, sorceresses, farmers, and other people of various classes and positions.

江戸時代の幕藩体制のもとではどこの大名家にも確たる家風と家訓が存在したと言われ、更に一部の商人や農民の間でも家風の確立と家訓・家憲の作成が行われていた。
In the Edo period, every daimyo (feudal lord) family under the shogunate system was said to have a firm kafu and kakun, and even among some merchants and peasantry families, kafu was established and kakun and kaken were prepared.

荘園領主は、現地の有力農民（田堵など）を名主に任じ、荘園の現地経営を安定させると同時に、直属の預所を現地へ派遣するなどして、荘園支配の強化維持に努めた。
Shoen owners appointed the local leading farmers (such as tato who managed the rice fields in shoen or kokuga domain) as myoshu (the class entrusted to manage myoden, rice field as a basic unit for tax levying), sent the direct subordinate azukari dokoro (appointed local shoen manager) to the local region as well as stabilized the local management of shoen and they did their best to strengthen and maintain the governance of shoen.

これは、改革掛には渋沢や前島密など郷士や農民などから幕臣を経て明治政府に仕官した者が多く、早くから人権の確立や四民平等の必要性を自覚していた層であった。
It so happened because most of those in charge of revision took service with Meiji Government through being goshi (country samurais) or farmers like SHIBUSAWA and Hisoka MAEJIMA and they were of the stratum who were aware of the necessity of the establishment of human rights and the equality of all people early.

農民にとっては（暴力を振るわれても）農作業よりも楽であり、白米が食べられることから、明治時代には「軍隊に行くとなまけ者になる」という評判があったという。
Peasants thought serving military was easier than farming (even they received violence) and they could eat even white rice in military, so it was said that 'a man who entered the military became lazy' in the Meiji period.

筑波山で挙兵したことから筑波勢、波山勢などと称された天狗党には、藤田小四郎の勧誘に同調した浪士、藩士はもとより、町民、農民や神官なども多く加わっていた。
Tenguto, who were referred to as 'tsukubazei' or '波山勢' because they raised the army on the Mt. Tsukuba, was joined by citizens, peasants and Shinto priests, in addition to roshi and feudal retainers of domain who were solicited by Koshiro FUJITA.

衆議院議員であり、農民運動の先導者であった田中正造は、1900年2月15日、事件に関する質問演説を行っている途中で、当時所属していた憲政本党を離党した。
Shozo TANAKA, a member of the House of Representatives and a leader of the peasant movement, announced his departure from the Kenseihon Party which he was then affiliated when he was questioning the Kawamata Incident at the Diet meeting on February 15, 1900.

律令制においては、農民に口分田が与えられていたが、実際には逃亡などで耕作されない土地や逆に定まった耕作者が元からおらず賃租が行われている土地も存在した。
In the Ritsuryo system, kubunden (rice fields given to each farmer in the Ritsuryo system) was given to each farmer, but in fact, there also existed lands which were not cultivated due to escape of farmers and so on, or on the contrary, on which chinso (land taxes under the Ritsuryo system) was imposed despite there were no specific cultivators from the beginning.

ここでの「百姓」はいわゆる「農民」ではなく「名（みょう）」の耕作を請け負い、農業などの諸産業の大規模経営を展開し富を蓄積していた郡司・田堵負名層であった。
Hyakusho' (peasants) at that time were not actual 'farmers,' but were gunji and Tato fumyo (cultivator/tax manager) who undertook cultivation of 'myo' (rice field lots in charge of a nominal holder) to conduct large-scale management of several industries including agriculture, to accumulate their profits.

三郷および近在の農民に至るまで、その所有する家屋敷、土蔵、諸株、髪結床その他を質物に書き入れ、金銀貸借する時はかならず証文を差配所に提出し、奥印を請けた。
Farmers in Sango and nearby villages, borrowers had to write down their possessions such as houses, storehouses, various shares, barber shop in possesion and so on, and when they borrowed gold and silver, they had to submit a deed with a seal of approval to the Sahaisho.

また幕府が当初、農民に限定した徳政令を発布して事態の収拾に乗り出したのに対し、公家や武家も含む一国平均の徳政令を要求し、支配者層の支持をも得ようとしている。
From the shogunate which set out to settle the situation by spreading Tokuseirei exclusively for the farming population, the uprisers demanded that Tokuseirei be issued throughout the country including the court nobles and samurai in order to obtain support from the ruling classes.

豊臣秀吉の九州征伐の際、家中が抗戦へ傾く中で秀吉を「農民から体一つで身を興したからには只者ではない」と評価して、四兄弟中ただ一人上方との和平を唱えたという。
At the time of the Kyushu Conquest of Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI, when the all the clan members were getting prepared to fight back in the war, he was the only one among his four brothers who insisted on reconciliation, referring to Hideyoshi as 'an extraordinary person who rose to this status born from a farming family'.

それまで武士と農民は分離していなかったが、豊臣秀吉の刀狩りと武士は城下・町人は町屋・農民は村落と住居が固定されるなどにより武士階級と農民が明確に分離された。
The definition of samurai and farmers were not so clear before the sword hunt decree (the disarmament of farmers) of 1588 by Hideyoshi and the residence zoning for samurai in castle towns, for townspeople in cities, and for farmers in rural villages, and those measures separated the samurai class and the farmer class definitely.

1945年、終戦となり、言論・集会への弾圧が行われなくなると、翌1946年、群馬県東部の渡良瀬川流域の農民が集まり、足尾銅山精錬所移転期成同盟会が結成された。
In 1945 World War II ended, and there were no longer controls on speeches and meetings, and in the following year, the peasants of the Watarase-gawa valley of the eastern Gunma Prefecture gathered and formed the Union for Relocation of Ashio copper mine Refinery.

平和な時代となり、再仕官の道は限られており、町人や農民になる者、または海外へ出て傭兵になる者もいた（例山田長政）が、大部分は牢人のまま困窮の中で暮らしていた。
Since a peaceful period started and few vassal positions were available, some 牢人 became merchants, craftsmen or farmers, and some other 牢人 became mercenaries overseas (for example, Nagamasa YAMADA), but most of them remained 牢人, living a life of poverty.

また草莽に対しても出稼ぎの農民とともに勝手に本国より離れたものとして人返しの対象にすることを決定した（五榜の掲示の第5札、実際の取締規定は明治2年以後である）。
Furthermore, together with the peasants, the government decided to treat the ordinary citizens who had supported the Joi movement as people who had left their homeland without permission, punishing them under the law of Hitogaeshi (a law that forced peasants to return to their homelands) (According to the fifth item in the Gobo no keiji (five public notices), the actual regulation was enacted after 1869).

石燕が遊び絵として創作したものとの説や、凶作が続いた時期に年貢を厳しく取り立てられた農民の怨みの念が、古い蓑や草鞋に乗り移って付喪神と化したものだとの説がある。
Some people insist that Sekien created it for fun, while others believe that it was a tsukumo-gami (a type of Japanese spirits that originate in items or artifacts that have reached their 100th birthday and become alive) transmuted from an old straw raincoat and straw sandals which had been possessed by the grudge of farmers upon whom heavy taxes had been imposed at prolonged poor harvest time.

田堵負名層とは決して零細な農民などではなく、隷属民を多数抱え、莫大な富を蓄積して農業など諸産業を大規模に経営し、多数の私兵すら擁していた富豪百姓だったのである。
Far from being poor, the tato fumyo were indeed wealthy peasants who kept many servants, managed large scale businesses such as agriculture, and owned even many private warriors while accumulating immense wealth.

しかも、白河に対抗する勢力として、異母弟・輔仁親王や摂関家を始めとする伝統的貴族が存在し、田堵農民層を神人・寄人に組織して巨大化した寺社勢力の圧力も熾烈だった。
However, the forces against Shirakawa were strong, beginning with the traditional aristocracy such as his half-brother, Imperial Prince Sukehito, and the line of regents and advisers, along with the pressure from the growing religious groups that had organized the Tato farmer class into Jinin (temple followers) and Yoriudo (villains).

家臣への知行割も事実上の給米制とし検地の結果を農民に公開した上で実収に伴った年貢を徴収して負担を少なくするといった善政を布き、意外な地方巧者ぶりを発揮している。
He proved himself as a surprisingly good local governor; he had in place a system of paying the salary rice to his vassals instead of allotting them fiefs (chigyo-wari), and reduced the burden of the peasants by disclosing the result of the land surveys, and collecting nengu (land tax) accordingly.

とくに『切られ与三』では七五調の台詞を黙阿弥に先駆けて使用して幕末期の世話狂言の基本を築き、『佐倉義民伝』では日本最初の農民劇を創作するなどの功績をあげている。
His achievements are noteworthy; especially in 'Kirare Yosa,' he established the bases of the sewa kyogen (a category of plays depicting the people's common life) in the end of Edo Period by introducing seven-and-five syllabic rhythmical dialogues prior to another Kabuki playwright Mokuami, and in the 'Sakura Gimin Den' he created the first peasant play in Japan.

このため、領主の所有地から離れた場所で生活する農民も少なくなく、このような農民は領地（領主の直轄地）で労役義務を果たす代わりに金銭納入を行うようになっていった。
For this reason, few farmers lived far from the land owned by the lords and the farmers who lived far from there came to pay their dues in cash instead of doing labor services on the land directly controlled by the lords.

この名主、庄屋は昔から土地を所有している有力農民や土着した武士の末裔などがなる場合が多く、苗字帯刀あるいは諸役御免の特権を持つ者や郷士に列せられるものも多かった。
The above-mentioned headmen (nanushi or shoya) were often rich farmers who had owned their own land for a long time, or descendants of samurai who had settled there, and many of them were privileged to adopt a surname and wear a sword and excused from various levies and taxes as well as titled as country samurai (goshi).

地方の人形芝居や祭りの囃子など民俗芸能に使われることもあり、かつて地方によっては農民の冬の副業として、また瞽女（ごぜ）によって、門付として演奏されることもあった。
Kokyu is sometimes used in traditional local attractions, such as puppet shows and hayashi (music performed with traditional Japanese instruments for making the atmosphere cheerful) in festivals, and in some areas, Kokyu was played in the past by farmers as one of their side jobs or by Goze (blind female musicians) as Kadotsuke (performance in front of the gate of houses).

忍海部は、飯豊王の名代（こしろ）の部民制（べのたみ）であるが、単なる農民部ではなく東漢氏（あやひと）をかかえた雑工部（物品製造に携わる職工集団）でもあったらしい。
Oshinumibe was bemin sei (the system of Yamato Dynasty) of Iitoyo's representative, but it seems to have been not just a department of peasants, but a department of manufacturers (mechanic company to produce items) including Ayahito clan.

当時は戦功の証として、敵の高級将校は死体の首（漢語では頭のこと）をとって検分したが、一揆（兵農分離前の農民軍）や足軽など身分の低いものは鼻（耳）でその数を証した。
In those days, soldiers brought back the heads of high-ranked enemy officers that they had killed to have them examined as evidence of the achievement, and farmer soldiers or low ranked soldiers brought back noses (ears) to prove how many of the enemy soldiers they had killed.

得度者には課役を免除される特権があり、官の許可なく僧となる農民などが出現し、これらは私度、そうした僧は私度僧と呼ばれ、律令の編目である戸婚律や僧尼令で禁じられた。
As those that were approved had the privilege to be exempted from labor, farmers who became priests without official approvals were appeared, that was called shido, and priests by shido, called shidoso, were prohibited by Kokonritsu (Penal Law on Households and Marriage) and Soniryo (Regulations for Monks and Nuns), which were both part of Ritsuryo code.

すなわち、農民自らが地押丈量を行い、面積・収量を算出し、地方庁は地方官心得書の検査例に基づいて点検し、これを経て地方庁が地券（改正地券）を発行するかたちをとった。
That is, the government adopted the method in which farmers to measure the plots of their land themselves, calculate their yield, and submit the results to local tax officials and the local officials were to examine the reports based on the previous examples described in the instruction book and upon the completion of this inspection, the local office was to issue the new land certificate.

地租改正による農民一揆と並び、神風連の乱や西南戦争（1877年）など明治初期の士族反乱は、秩禄処分により収入が激減した士族階級の不平が原因であった考えられている。
Like peasant uprising caused by the land-tax reform, revolts by former samurai warriors, such as Shimpuren-no-ran War (turmoil of Shimpuren, a dissatisfied warrior group) and the Seinan War (1877), were led by former warriors who suffered from drastic reduction of their income caused by Chitsuroku-shobun.

著名な歌人や宮廷人の作品ばかりではなく、東歌や防人歌など、地方の農民の素朴な感情をあらわした作品も多く収められており、このなかには心に訴える優れた歌が多くみられる。
The Waka are not only by famous poets and court nobles, but also many poems showing unassuming sentiments of local farmers such as azumauta (poems in ancient Japan in the dialect of the eastern region) and sakimori-no-uta (poems by soldiers deployed for boarder defenses) and many of the latter are excellent ones which appeal to human sentiment.

が、元和 (日本)2年10月13日 (旧暦)（1616年）付で出された煙草に関する禁令には既に煙草栽培を行った農民及び同地の代官に過料を課していた（『東武実録』）。
The ban on tobacco issued on November 21, 1616 had already stated that any farmer growing tobacco and a daikan (a local governor) with administration of the territory in which the farmer resided shall be imposed Karyo ('Tobu Jitsuroku').

農民67名が逮捕され、うち51名が兇徒聚集罪などで起訴されたが、1902年12月25日、仙台控訴審で起訴無効という判決が下り、実質的に全員不起訴という形で決着した。
Of those 67 peasants arrested in the Kawamata Incident, 51 persons were charged with mass rioting, but on December 25, 1902 the Sendai Court of Appeal finally decided to drop the case and none of them were charged with any crimes.

しかし現状は、「異常な開墾計画の負担から逃れるため夜逃げする」「全国的に班田農民の浮浪人化問題が浮上する」といった傾向がみられ、結果的に開墾はあまりなされなかった。
However, the situations were that 'many farmers skipped out by night to avoid the burden from the development plan' or 'the problem that the farmers of allotted farmland became a vagrant emerged as a social issue' and as a result the development plan was not really carried out.

川俣事件は、1900年2月13日、群馬県邑楽郡佐貫村川俣（現明和町 (群馬県)）で、足尾鉱毒事件に関して、政府に請願するために出かける途中の農民と警官が衝突した事件。
The Kawamata Incident was a struggle that took place on February 13, 1900 in Kawamata, Sanuki Village, Oura County, Gunma Prefecture (the present Meiwa Town, Gunma Prefecture) between police and peasants who were marching to Tokyo to protest to the Meiji government against the Ashio Copper Mine Mineral Pollution Incident.

この制度導入の背景には土地の良し悪しや年貢率による実収とのバランス、旗本による知行権行使の抑制、小禄知行取の存在、村を分断して農民たちの団結を防ぐなどが言われている。
This system is believed to have been introduced for such reasons as securing a well-balanced real income in proportion to the fertility of land and tax rate, inhibiting hatamoto from exercising their right to chigyo-chi, and preventing villagers from uniting by dividing the village with the presence of several small-stipendiary chigyo-tori (recipients of land revenue).

初期の官物徴収は特に基準がなかったためにそれぞれの国例に従って官物率法が決定されて賦課されたが、国司による恣意的な賦課（官物加徴）やこれに対する農民側の抵抗も強かった。
The initial Kanmotsu collection did not have any standards and Kanmotsu ritsuho was customarily decided and taxed in each province, but arbitrary taxation (Kanbutsu kacho) by Kokushi (officiers of the local government) occurred and resistance by farmers against this was strong.

士族を中心にした西郷軍に、徴兵を主体とした政府軍が勝利したことで、士族出身の兵士も農民出身の兵士も戦闘力に違いはないことが実証され、徴兵制による国民皆兵体制が定着した。
The fact that the government army, mostly composed of conscripted soldiers, won the war against Saigo's army, mainly consisted of persons in the warrior class, verified that the fighting ability of soldiers from the warrior class and that of those from farmers were not different; accordingly, a system of general conscription was established.

このことから、「律令制＝奴隷制」、「律令制＝独裁制に基づく搾取制」という考えが否定されていき、代わって百姓を隷属農民として見る隷農制という概念が提示されるようになった。
Accordingly, the idea of 'the Ritsuryo system equals slavery' or 'the Ritsuryo system equals a system of exploitation based on a dictatorship' was refuted and, instead, the concept of villeinage that views the peasants as serfs, has been suggested.

ただし、古河鉱業側は、銅の被害のみを認め、カドミウムについては認めなかった（農民側も、調停申請にはあえてカドミウム問題は提示せずに早期解決を目指したという理由もある）。
However, Furukawa Mining acknowledged their fault only on the damages by copper but not by cadmium (the peasants did not complicate the issue by mentioning cadmium in order to reach a faster resolution.)

大和国の三輪氏の一族と自称する農民の三輪弥介（後の三好吉房）に嫁ぎ、永禄11年（1568年）に秀次、永禄12年（1569年）に秀勝、天正7年（1579年）に秀保を産む。
Nisshu married Yasuke MIWA, a farmer who called himself a relative of the Miwa Family in Yamato Province and renamed himself Yoshifusa MIWA later, and gave birth to Hidetsugu (1568), Hidekatsu (1569) and Hideyasu (1579).

平安時代中期の10世紀後半から11世紀にかけて、田堵（たと、有力農民層のこと）が国司に認められた免田（租税免除された田地）を中心に田地の開発を進め、私有地化していった。
Between the late tenth century and the eleventh century in the mid Heian Period, Tato (powerful peasants) cultivated menden (reclaimed land exempt from charges) which was allowed by Kokushi (provincial governor), and privatized it.

近代国家体制の確立していなかった朝鮮では、土地の所有制度が不明瞭であり両班の暴力による土地収奪などは日常茶飯事であり、農民の間でも土地の所有をめぐる抗争が絶えなかった。
In Korea where no modern state system was established, the ownership system for land was not clear, and thus yangban (traditional ruling class or nobles of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty) often grabbed land with violence and peasants kept fighting over the land.

元会津藩士の渡辺悌輔および月岡村（現三条市）安正寺の元住職で元桑名藩藩兵の月岡帯刀らは加茂市の農民等と図り、4月4日より三条・加茂一帯に決起を呼び掛ける落し文を行った。
Teisuke WATANABE, a former feudal retainer of Aizu Domain, and Tatewaki TSUKIOKA, a former chief priest of Ansho-ji Temple in Tsukioka village (present-day Sanjo City) and former feudal soldier of Kuwana Domain, conspired with farmers in Kamo City to distribute Otoshibumi all over Sanjo and Kamo areas from April 4th in order to urge people to rise in revolt.

1883年（明治16年）10月14日、同郡小易村農民40余名が、同村字丹沢山に集結して竹槍などを持ち出して、同村大森幾太郎、大津定右衛門、鈴木三右衛門らを襲おうと計画。
On October 14, 1883, more than 40 peasants in Koyasu Village, Osumi County gathered at a place called Tanzawayama in that village and attempted to attack Kitaro OMORI, Sadaemon OTSU, Sanemon SUZUKI and others with bamboo spears.

だが、中世以降次第に百姓の本分を農とすべきとする、実態とは必ずしも符合しない農本主義的理念が浸透・普及し、明治時代以降は、一般的に農民の事を指すと理解されるようになった。
However, a principle of agricultural fundamentalism stating that the sphere of hyakusho should be agriculture, which did not always match the reality, was gradually passed through and spread since the medieval period, and the term was begun to be understood generally as a person engaged in agriculture.

続いて行われた検地・刀狩も、その目的には兵農分離、すなわち体制の一部として天下人に従う武士と、単なる被支配者である農民とに国人・地侍を分離し、解体することが含まれていた。
The following land survey and Sword Hunt included the aims of heinobunri, that is, the separation and dissolution of kokujin and jizamurai into the warrior class who followed tenkabito as a part of the framework and the farmers who were merely ruled.

鎌倉時代後期から、名門武家・公家を始めとする旧来の支配勢力は、生産力向上に伴い力をつけてきた国人・商人・農民などによって、その既得権益を侵食され没落の一途をたどっていた。
Since the late Kamakura period, old-established ruling powers including celebrated samurai families and court nobles suffered gradual deprivation of their vested interest by kokujin, merchants, and farmers, who had been gaining power along with the enhancement of productivity, and were in a consistent process of downfall.

また、廃藩置県や地租改正を行えば、数百年に及び封建制及び土地支配のあり方が破壊されてしまうものであり、武士・農民層に反政府行動に向かわせる可能性が高い性格の改革であった。
In addition, since accomplishing Haihan-chiken and land-tax reform meant to destroy hundreds-year-long feudalism and the way the lands should be ruled, there was a high possibility in pursuing those reforms that samurai and peasants might have rebelled against the government.

豊臣政権によって兵農分離が進められると、武士が兵士としての役目を行うことが原則となるとともに兵糧携帯の義務が廃されて、代わりに兵糧の調達・運搬は農民ら領民の義務とされた。
When the Toyotomi Administration forwarded heinobunri (a separation of the warrior class in this domain from the soil), samurai (warriors) did their job as soldiers in principle and their obligation to carry army provisions was abolished, and then, instead of that, it became people of the domain like peasants who undertook obligations to supply and transport army provisions.

そのため、墾田や買収などで付近の田地を集積していた田堵（有力農民）＝開発領主は、自分の経営する田地を有力寺院（または有力神社）へ寄進することで、不輸の権を獲得しようとした。
Therefore, Tato (powerful farmers), or the owners of newly developed arable land, who acquired large tracts arable land through development or buying land, donated their farmland to dominant temples (or dominant shrines) to obtain Fuyu no ken.

一領具足は、平時には田畑を耕し、農民として生活をしているが、領主からの動員がかかると、一領（ひとそろい）の具足（武器、鎧）を携えて、直ちに召集に応じることを期待されていた。
In peacetime, Ichiryo gusoku lived as farmers engaged in working the land, however, once they were mobilized by the feudal lord, they were supposed to respond it at once with ichiryo (one set) of gusoku (weapon, armor).

（被告のうち1名は公判途中で死去）兇徒聚集罪は認められなかったが、当時現場にいなかった、首謀者とされる農民らに重い刑を科すという意味では、検察側の主張に沿った判決となった。
None of the peasants were found guilty of mass rioting (one accused person died during the public court,) but it could be said that the sentence was given in line with the prosecution's claim because the peasants whom the prosecutions regarded as ringleaders were imposed on a heavy penalty, even though they were not at the incident site.

1897年、鉱毒被害地の農民が大挙して東京に陳情（当時の表現では押出し）を行うなど、世論が高まると、同年3月、政府は足尾銅山鉱毒調査委員会を設置し、数度の鉱毒予防令を出した。
In 1897 large numbers of peasants from the affected area went to Tokyo to protest (called 'Oshidashi', protest) and the general verdict on the company and government became negative, then, in March of the same year, the government established the Research Committee of Ashio copper mine Mining Pollution and issued several acts for preventing mining pollution.

特に寛平7年（895年）に能有が五畿内諸国別当に任じられると、山城国問民苦使に任じられて、権門による土地兼併が激しい同国の実情を調査して地方行政の改革と農民救済策をまとめた。
When Yoshiari was appointed to the chief officer of Go-kinai (five provinces close to the capital: Yamashiro Province, Yamato Province, Kawachi Province, Izumi Province, and Settsu Province) in 895, he appointed Suenaga as a monminkushi (a position temporarily established to investigate people's demand and discontent) of Yamashiro Province, and he investigated the circumstances in this province, where lands were frequently annexed by influential and powerful families or clans at that time, to make up plans for a reform of the local government and relief of peasants.

戦国時代初期の頃は通常農閑期に行われる戦は農民兵たちにとって支給される賃金と陣中食はじめ兵糧、即ち現金収入がある出稼ぎと食い扶持減らしの出来る一挙両得の短期雇用の場であった。
At the beginning of the Sengoku Period, battles which were usually conducted in off-season for farmers were an opportunity for peasant soldiers for short-term employment with ikkyoryotoku (killing two birds with one stone) where they could obtain wages to be paid and army provisions including a combat ration, in other words, cash income and a decrease in payment for food.

そのため、官人という立場にありながら、重税に喘ぐ農民や防人に狩られる夫を見守る妻など社会的な弱者を鋭く観察した歌を多数詠んでおり、当時としては異色の社会派歌人として知られる。
Although he was a government official, this awareness allowed him to write many poems by keenly observing the weak among society, such as farmers burdened by heavy taxes, or a wife whose husband was recruited as a sakimori (soldiers deployed for boarder defenses), and therefore was known as a socialist poet that was rare in that period.

1811年（文化 (元号)8年）専売制度に反対して藩内に農民一揆が発生し、その際改革を要求する建言書を藩に2度提出したが受け入れられず、1812年（文化9年）辞表を提出した。
In 1811, when a peasants uprising opposing to the monopolization broke out in the domain, he submitted the proposition to the domain government twice calling for a reform, however, they were not accepted and he tendered his resignation.

戦国時代を終息させた農民出身の豊臣秀吉は、1582年（天正10年）に太閤検地を開始し、1つの土地に数人のもの者が権利をもつ、複雑な土地所有関係を整理し、土地制度を一新させた。
Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI, who was a peasant, ended the Sengoku period and launched the Taiko-kenchi (nationwide land survey) in 1582 and improved upon complicated landholding relationships such as when several persons held rights to the same land, resulting in a renewed property system.

なお、鎮圧にあたって有力庄屋層が、解放令が「五万日の日延べ」となったと号令を出し、当時、法教育を受けていない農民を納得させ、結果的に、解放令の発効を認めなかった地方もあった。
In the meantime, lot of influential shoya (village headman) satisfied farmers who were not given any legal education at that time through issuing a command that Kaiho Rei was made '5 man nichi no hinobe (to take effect after 50,000 days)' in order to repress, and, as a result, the enforcement of Kaiho Rei was not acknowledged in some provinces.

この一揆には田尻但馬、伊集院元巣、桂忠詮、東郷甚右衛門といった島津家臣が参加し、それぞれの手勢に農民や町人が加わった反乱軍の人数は七百人であったとも二千人であったともいわれる。
Other vassals of the Shimazu clan, such as Tashima TAJIRI, Genso IJUIN, Tadanori KATSURA, and Jinuemon TOGO and their followers also joined the uprising, and the number of the rebel group was said to have been 700, while a different source records 2,000, which included peasants and townsmen.

だが、当時の農村社会の経営は不安定であり、農業経営の出来なくなった小農民と労働力不足に悩まされる本百姓層の利害の一致によりこうした人身売買による隷属化が農村部において横行した。
However, enslavement due to human trafficking was widely spread in rural areas since management of agricultural village society was unstable at that time and peasant folk who were not able to manage farms and hon-byakusho (peasants) who were annoyed with lack of labor shared a mutual interest.

寛永5年（1628年）には、農民に対しては布・木綿に制限（ただし、名主及び農民の妻に対しては紬の使用を許された）され、下級武士に対しても紬・絹までとされ贅沢な装飾は禁じられた。
In 1628, fabric that farmers were allowed to use was limited to hemp and cotton (with the exceptions of myoshu [owners of rice fields] and farmers' wives, who were permitted to use tsumugi [silk fabric]), while even lower-ranking samurai were banned from luxurious outfits and were only allowed to wear clothing of tsumugi or silk.

大院君は農民軍鎮圧のための派兵をしないよう大鳥公使に要請したが、日本は部隊(歩兵独立第十九大隊)を11月初めに派兵し、11月下旬からの公州攻防戦で勝利して農民軍を南方へ退けた。
Although Daewongun requested Minister Otori not to send troops to suppress the peasant army, Japan dispatched a military unit (the 19th independent infantry battalion) in early November and the won Gongju battle started late November, ousting the peasant army to the south.

更に、戸田芳実は石母田正や安田元久らの、武士階級は農村から権門など古代階級を打ち破る階級として生まれるとする見解に対して、武士は初めから農民と対立する支配者側であったと主張する。
In addition, Yoshimi TODA argued that bushi was on the ruling side in opposition to the peasants from the start in contrast to the argument by Tadashi ISHIMODA and Motohisa YASUDA stating that the bushi class formed by breaking free from ancient social class of peasants as influential families.

「開発領主」が生まれる過程は、その地の有力者が一族子弟のみならず、近隣の農民や諸国から流入した浮浪人などを組織して荒地の開拓を行い、その従事者を新しい村落に編成することに始まる。
The creation of the 'kaihatsu-ryoshu' started with the cultivation of the wild land not only by children and brothers of the powerful clan, but neighboring peasants and people who escaped and travelled from their registered domiciles of various provinces to organize into a new village as followers.

その為、不平両班や被差別階級、困窮した農民、盗賊による反乱、蜂起、及び朝鮮軍によるその鎮圧、また朝鮮王朝内部の政争による粛正や処刑などが行われ、混乱は戦災を更に悲惨なものとした。
Therefore, revolts and uprising of discontented yangban (traditional ruling class or nobles of dynastic Korea), discriminated classes, impoverished farmers, and thieves occurred and got suppression by the Korean army during their cleanup and executions occurred out of struggles for power in the Korean court were conducted and the such turmoil created further misery in the midst of the war damage.

日本は、明治15年(1882年)の壬午軍乱、明治17年(1884年)の甲申事変を契機に朝鮮を巡り、清と対立し、甲午農民戦争を契機に、明治27年(1894年)に日清戦争が勃発した。
The subsequent Imo Incident in 1882 and the Gapsin Coup in 1884 triggered hostility over Korea between Japan and China and, touched off by the subsequent Donghak Peasant Revolution, began the Sino-Japanese War in 1894.

いっぽう、庶民の社会的地位が高まり、商工業の発展にともなって町衆や農民が文化の担い手として登場したことから、文化の面でも幅広い交流がすすみ、庶民性や地方的特色がいっそう強まった。
Meanwhile, as the social status of the common people rose with the development of commerce and industry, the merchant class and peasants emerged as supporters of culture; the broad cultural interaction was encouraged, and local or plebeian characteristics of culture were enhanced.

江戸時代末に農閑期を利用して大和国へ出稼ぎに行った農民が帰りに奈良県で筆や墨を仕入れ、行商するとともに自ら製造し販売したことが始まりと言われ、広島藩の生産奨励も手伝って発展した。
The origin of the Kumano-fude is said to be that, at the end of the Edo period, farmers who worked as seasonal migrant workers in Yamato Province during the agricultural off-season purchased writing brushes and ink in Nara Prefecture on the way back home and then peddled them, as well as produced them on their own to sell, and later its manufacturing developed with the help of incentives for industry from Hiroshima Domain.

当初は、荒廃田を再開させた開発者には、期限つきで耕作権が認められるに過ぎなかったが、平安時代初期には終身の権利に発展したため、富豪農民（田堵）・郡司級土豪は積極的に開発を行った。
An award given to developers who resumed ruined fields was at first nothing but the right to cultivate the land on a temporary basis, but eventually evolved into permanent rights in the early Heian period, which greatly motivated Tato (wealthy cultivators) and powerful local clans at Gunji (magistrates) level to cultivate fields.

更に光秀はそれまでたびたび氾濫を起こしていた由良川の流れを改善し、度重なる洪水によって疲弊していた農民に対し地子銭を免除するなど善政を敷き、城下町としての基礎を築いたのであった。
Moreover, Mitsuhide formed the foundations for the castle town by carrying out activities such as improving the flow of the Yura-gawa River (which had often caused floods until then), and releasing farmers who were impoverished due to the repeated floods from their obligation towards Jishisen tax, etc.

また、『勝山記』などによれば、信虎の治世は度重なる外征の軍資金確保のために農民や国人衆に重い負担を課し、怨嗟の声は甲斐国内に渦巻いており、信虎の追放は領民からも歓迎されたという。
Also, according to the 'Katsuyamaki,' due to the heavy burdens imposed on farmers and local samurais to secure fighting fund for the repeated wars against other provinces, Nobutora's territory was filled with hatred towards him, and people were pleased when he was banished.

この背景には、南北朝の動乱期に目覚めた支配下の農民層への支配力の強化、室町幕府や守護大名の支配や干渉への対抗、馬借や問丸といった運送業の発達に伴う流通経済・地域経済の伸張がある。
Behind this were the strengthening of the rule against the farmers which arose during the turbulence of the South and North Courts, opposition against ruling and intervention by Muromachi bakufu and shugo daimyo, and the expansion of a distribution economy and the local economy due to development of transport businesses such as bashaku (shipping agents who used horses) and toimaru (specialized wholesale merchants.

地租の軽減は自由民権運動の主力が地主・農民に移った1880年代以後盛んになっており、1887年の三大事件建白書においても「外交の刷新」「言論・集会の自由」と並んで掲げられていた。
Reduction of the land tax was increasingly asserted after 1880 when the principal members of Democratic-Rights Movement shifted to landowners and peasants, and it was aimed along with 'Gaikou no Satsushin' (revamping of foreign diplomacy) and 'Genron and Syukai no Jiyuu' (freedom of speech and assembly) also in Sandai Jiken Kenpakusyo (the petition of three major matters) in 1887.

『延喜式』には木工寮に鍛治戸372戸、左馬寮に飼戸166戸、右馬寮に同127戸、兵庫寮に雑工戸310戸が規定されているが、実際には官司の資養を受けた農民層であったと見られている。
'Engishiki' (an ancient book for codes and procedures on national rites and prayers) provides for 372 Kajitsube under Mokuryo (Bureau of Carpentry), 166 Shiko under Samaryo, 127 Shiko under Umaryo, and 310 Zokuko under Hyogoryo (Bureau of Military Storehouses), which are believed in fact to have been in the peasant class supported by government offices.

が、近世に入ると公儀による土地支配体制が築かれ、武士の所領は全て恩給地となり、農民の耕地は全て検地帳に登録・管理されるようになったために、年紀法が成立する余地が無くなっていった。
However, in the recent times, the land ruling system by the kogi (shogunate) was established, which made all the territory of samurai onkyuchi (land awarded by the lord), and all the agricultural land of peasants were registered in and managed by the cadastral register, so there was no room left for the Nenkiho to enact.

六月の嘉吉の乱で将軍足利義教が殺されると政治的混乱の中「代初めの徳政」を求めて（天下一同の徳政令）京都近江坂本の馬借を中心に農民が蜂起、地侍が指導し、数万人の一揆にふくれあがった。
In the political turmoil after the assassination of Shogun Yoshinori ASHIKAGA in the Kakitsu War, the farming population lead by bashaku (shipping agents who used horses) in Omi Sakamoto in Kyoto rose up in rebellion to demand 'daihajime-no-tokusei (acts of virtuous government requested at shogun replacement)' (Tenkaichido no Tokuseirei (a debt cancellation order for all throughout the country)), which was directed by jizamurai (local samurai) and lead to an uprising by tens of thousands of people.

基本的には「全国画一」の地租への統合を従来通りあるいはそれ以上の水準で農民に賦課しようとする明治政府と生活の維持・改善のために生産余剰の確保を求める農民側との対立ということになる。
Basically, the revolts were collisions between the Meiji Government that hoped to impose a uniform ratio of integrated land-tax on peasants at a level as high as, or even higher than, the conventional one, and peasants that hoped to preserve the surplus products in order to maintain and improve their standards of living.

戦争が開始され、日本軍・明軍・朝鮮軍による現地調達による食料消費と治安悪化のために農民が耕作を放棄することで流民が流民を生み、飢えた民衆は敵味方より略奪することで飢えを凌ごうとした。
After the war began, because of the consumption of food locally procured by troops of Japan, Ming, and Korea and the deteriorated safety, farmers gave up cultivation and roaming people created further roaming people, and starved people tried to keep hunger at bay by robbing both from enemies and by obtaining favors.

その伊勢神宮を建て直すため、神宮で祭司を執り行っていた御師は外宮に祀られている豊受大神に目をつけ、農民に伊勢神宮へ参拝してもらうようにカレンダーを配るなど各地へ布教するようになった。
In order to rebuild the Ise-jingu Shrine, onshi who performed rituals of the shrine focused on Toyouke no Okami (Grand Divine Toyouke) enshrined in the geku (the outer shrine) and performed missionary work in various areas, such as distributing calendars, to encourage peasants to visit the Ise-jingu Shrine.

実際に、貴族や寺院が富み栄える一方、農民層の負担が激増し、平城京内では浮浪者や餓死者が後を絶たず、租庸調の税制も崩壊寸前になる地方も出るなど、律令政治の大きな矛盾点を浮き彫りにした。
In reality, while the nobility and temples became wealthy, an increasing financial burden was placed on the peasantry; in Heijo-kyo (the ancient capital of Japan in current Nara), many became homeless and died from starvation and in some regions the Soyocho tax system almost collapsed, showing the wide inconsistency of the government under the Ritsuryo codes.

一領具足（いちりょうぐそく）は、戦国時代 (日本)の土佐国の戦国大名、長宗我部氏が兵農分離前の武装農民や地侍を対象に編成、運用した半農半兵の兵士および組織 (社会科学)の呼称である。
Ichiryo gusoku (literally means a set of armor) was a designation for a part time soldier and farmer and their organization (in sociology) which was formed and managed by Chosokabe clan, the daimyo (Japanese territorial lord) of Tosa Province in the Sengoku period targeting on armed peasants and jizamurai (local samurai) before heinobunri (a policy to strictly separate soldiers and farmers).

尾張国の戦国大名織田信長が、農民の子から足軽になった羽柴秀吉（豊臣秀吉）を家臣に登用したように、実力次第では出世が可能になるのも、戦国大名の家臣団において見られたひとつの傾向であった。
Within the Kashindan under a Sengoku daimyo, however, there was a trend to give promotions based on abilities; this was seen in the case of Hideyoshi HASHIBA (Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI) who had been born from a peasant family, became an ashigaru (common foot soldier) and was promoted to a vassal by Nobunaga ODA, a Sengoku daimyo in Owari Province.

宮崎県飫肥地方（現日南市）発祥の四半的弓道は、戦国時代に農民が半弓を持って戦闘に参加して勝利に貢献した功により、領主から遊戯用として使用を許されたと伝わるもので、同地で愛好されてきた。
Shihanmato Kyudo, originating from the Obi district, Miyazaki Prefecture (presently Nichinan City) was said to have allowed archery games by a lord because of the farmer's contribution to a victory in battle using the Hankyu, small-sized bow, during the Sengoku Period.

元文4年（1739年）2月、元文一揆が起こった際、寄合組に属していた忠親は、藩主・池田吉泰の命で農民の差し出した覚書の説明を行ったが、一揆に同情的との理由で同年4月、閉門を命じられた。
When the Genbun uprising occurred in March 1739, Tadachika, who belonged to the village meeting, explained the memorandum filed by peasants to the lord of the domain, Yoshiyasu IKEDA, at the command of Ikeda, but he received house confinement order for the reason that he was sympathetic to the uprising in May 1739.

いっぽう、稲作農耕民の間には山の神が春の稲作開始時期になると家や里へ下って田の神となり、田仕事にたずさわる農民の作業を見守り、稲作の順調な推移を助けて豊作をもたらすとする信仰があった。
Rice farmers believed that the Yamanokami descended from the mountain to villages or houses to become Tanokami and watch over farmers working in the fields in spring when rice cultivation starts, and helped rice to grow, bringing about a good harvest.

平野、北垣らは「当役所」の名で沢宣嘉の告諭文を発して、天領一帯に募兵を呼びかけ、かねてより北垣が「農兵論」を唱えていたこともあり、その日正午には2000人もの農民が生野の町に群集した。
Hirano, Kitagaki and others issued an official notice by Nobuyoshi SAWA under the name 'this public office,' calling for recruits all over the shogunate's land and because Kitagaki had already been advocating the 'farmers to arms doctrine,' around two thousand farmers gathered in Ikuno town at noon on that day.

「商工等は、武士・農民の事欠け申さざる程に渡世致し候はば然るべく候」として商工を非生産的な身分であり、都市が繁栄する事そのものが無駄以外の何者でもないと断じて厳しい奢侈禁止令を実施した。
The sumptuary law stated that 'merchants as well as artisans should always remember that they are to work so as not to inconvenience samurai and farmers,' thus labeling the development of the city itself useless and forcing severe restrictions on these classes of people.

銘醸地の聞こえ高い灘五郷も、もともとは農業だけでは生活できない貧しい村々であったが、寛政あたりから灘酒の評判はつとに高まり、彼ら農民は高給を以って酒師として各地へ招聘されるようになった。
Nada Go-go, which was well known as a great sake-brewing district, had been originally a group of poor villages where farming could not produce enough money to live, but Nada sake rapidly became popular in about the Kansei era and peasants in this district began to be invited to various regions as sakashi at high salaries.

直務代官の著名な例としては寛正2年（1461年）に美作国新見荘の請負代官であった細川氏家臣安富智安を現地農民が排除して、領主である東寺に直務代官の派遣を要請して実現させた例が知られている。
As for a well-known example of jikimu daikan, in 1461, farmers of the shoen, Niimi no sho in Mimasaka Province, dismissed the ukeoi daikan Chian YASUTOMI, a vassal of Hosokawa clan, and asked To-ji Temple, which was the feudal lord, to send jikimu daikan; and the request was realized.

これに替わって平安時代中期以後に不輸の権 (日本)などを獲得した寄進地系荘園を経営基盤として現地に預所を派遣するとともに、現地の有力者や農民を荘官・名主に任命して国衙からの支配に対抗した。
Replacing the systems, after the mid Heian period, the government dispatched azukari dokoro (estate custodian) to the local estates based on shoen that consisted of donated lands that had been granted Fuyu no ken (the right of tax exemption) or the like as a business foundation, and also appointed the local magnate or influential farmer to shokan (estate officer) or myoshu (local landowner and cultivator) to oppose the rule of kokuga (provincial government office).

そして戦闘員と一般農民の区別がまだ生じていなかった為に、当時の関東の合戦は、敵の本拠地、「営所」を攻撃するだけでなく、「与力伴類の舎宅、員（かず）の如く焼き払う」という焦土戦術がとられた。
In addition, fighters and normal peasants were not segregated, the battle at Kanto was to not only to attack the 'camp' of the enemy, but was to 'burn down the residence and servants' and used the battle technique to burn everything to ashes.

ここに荘園制度を完全に崩壊し、石高制による近世的土地所有を実現し、農民には耕作権を認めるとともに年貢を納める義務を負わせるとともに、大名には所領をあてがうとともに、改易や国替を可能とした。
With the complete collapse of the manorial system, early-modern land holding based on the Kokudaka system was granted, and peasants assumed obligations to pay nengu in return for the right to cultivate, while the daimyo obtained territories in exchange for Kaieki (to forfeit rank of samurai and properties) and Kunigae (to transfer a daimyo from one fief to another).

一部の急進派は長野県北相木村出身の菊池貫平を筆頭とし、さらに農民を駆り出して十石峠経由で信州方面に進出したが、その一隊も11月9日には佐久郡東馬流(現小海町)で鎮台兵の攻撃を受け壊滅した。
Some radicals led by Kanpei KIKUCHI from Kitaaiki-mura Village in Nagano Prefecture, together with peasants, advanced to Shinshu area via Toishi Pass; however, the troop was also destroyed by the attacks of the Chindai Army in Higashimanagashi in Saku County (now Koumimachi) on November 9.

秩父地方では、自由民権思想に接していた自由党員らが中心となり、増税や借金苦に喘ぐ農民とともに「困民党（秩父困民党）」を組織し、1884年（明治17年）8月には2度の山林集会を開催していた。
In Chichibu region people, mainly members of the Liberal Party organized 'Konminto Party (Poverty Party)' together with peasants suffering from increased taxes and debt burdens and held the second rally called Sanrin Shukai (literally, 'gathering of mountains and forest') in August, 1884.

8世蓮如は北陸地方や畿内において国人・農民を信者として取り込み、本願寺を独立した教団としての地位を確立させたものの、同時にそれは周辺の守護大名・荘園領主や既存の宗派・寺院との摩擦を生んだ。
Although Rennyo, the 8th chief priest of Hongan-ji Temple, won local lords and peasants in Hokuriku Region and Kinai Region (the provinces surrounding Kyoto and Nara) over to his sect as believers and established the position of Hongan-ji Temple as an independent religious community, it caused discord between him and the neighboring shugo daimyo (provincial military governors) and lords of manors and also between him and the existing sects and temples.

国人領主制（こくじんりょうしゅせい）とは、中世後期の日本（南北朝時代 (日本)・室町時代・戦国時代 (日本)）の体制を、直接農民層を支配していた国人領主の動向から把握すべきであるとする考え。
Kokujin-ryoshu sei was a thesis concerning the structure of Japan during the late medieval period (the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (Japan), the Muromachi period, and the Sengoku period - period of warring states) -- accordingly, the structure should be comprehended through research of movement of kokujin-ryoshu (local samurai lords) who directly ruled the farmers.

日本は朝鮮の農地にて、水防工事や水利工事をし、金融組合や水利組合もつくったことで、朝鮮農民は安い金利で融資を受けることができるようになり、多大な利益をもたらすようになったとする研究者もいる。
Some researchers say that Japan worked on flood prevention and water supply, and established financial association and water supply association in Korean agricultural land, which allowed Korean peasants to get a loan with low interest rate, and to make a big profit.

一方、民党に対峙する吏党もこの方針には一概に反対ではなかったが、地租の削減よりも現実的な地租納期の端境期への変更（米価が高い時期に換金して納税すれば、結果的に農民の負担は軽くなる）を求めた。
On the other hand, Rito (pro-government political parties) opposing Minto, did not generally disagreed with this principle and demanded to shift the land tax payday to the pre-harvest months (the burden on peasants would be reduced if rice is exchanged to cash while the rice price was high for paying tax), which was more feasible than reducing land tax.

すなわち、近世以前の稲作適地は、地形で言えば洪積台地や河岸段丘の上、平地の分類で言えば盆地や河岸中流域など傾斜がある土地となり、集団化した農民が灌漑設備をつくって棚田をつくるのが一般的である。
That is, before the modern times the best places for rice cropping were sloping lands, such as ones on diluvial plateaus and stream terraces in terms of landform, or basins and midstream sites in terms of classification of plains, and generally a group of farmers established an irrigation facility and built Tanada there.

1つは周藤吉之・堀敏一らの説で均田制の崩壊で小農民による土地所有原則が崩壊して大土地所有が発生して地主と佃戸が形成され、宋代に入ると地主層が官僚となり佃戸を駆使して荘園を経営するようになった。
One theory by Yoshiyuki SUDO, Toshikazu HORI and so on is that with the demise of the Equal-field system, the land ownership principle by peasant folks collapsed, the large landholding began, the owner and the denko were born and in the Sung dynasty the class of owners became the bureaucrats who came to manage shoens using the denkos.

フェニキア人はユダヤ人のそばに住む人々で、同じ人種で同じ言語を話していたが、そのころはパレスチナの農民で土地を耕し、羊や豚を飼っていたユダヤ人とは違って、偉大な商人で航海者で奴隷盗っ人だった。
The Phoenicians were a people who lived near the Jews, and were of the same race, and spoke much the same language, but, unlike the Jews, who, at that time were farmers in Palestine, tilling the ground, and keeping flocks and herds, the Phoenicians were the greatest of traders and sailors, and stealers of slaves.

西南戦争以後の財政難と地租改正に対する農民の抵抗に悩まされた明治政府は、当時の日本の工業で最も生産額が多く、かつほとんどが国内消費に回されていて関税の問題も薄い日本酒に対する増税を度々行った。
The Meiji Government, suffering from economic difficulties that had lingered since the Seinan War as well as peasants' resistance against the land-tax reform, raised tax on sake repeatedly because the sake brewing industry generated higher production value than any other industries in Japan at that time and sake is almost free from problems concerning customs duty as most of it was consumed within the country.

だが、加徴を巡って国司と現地の農民との対立が激化するようになり、11世紀中期には一定の基準（官物率法）に従って官物・雑物が徴収されるようになり、それ以外の臨時の賦課を臨時雑物と呼ぶようになった。
However, conflicts between Kokushi and the local farmers over Kacho became serious, and in the middle of the eleventh century, Kanmotsu and Zatsumotsu were collected following a certain standard (Kanmotsu rippo) and other temporary taxation was called Rinjizatsumotsu.

平将門の天慶の乱、『今昔物語集』巻第二五第九「源頼信の朝臣、平忠恒を責めたる話」、そしてその後長く関東を疲弊させた平忠常の乱も国司と国人の抗争であり「百姓」がただの農民ではないことが見て取れる。
Incidents such as the War of Tengyo by TAIRA no Masakado, an episode in 'Konjaku Monogatari Shu' (The Tale of Times Now Past) Volume 25 Section 9 'a story of MINAMOTO no Yorinobu no Asomi attacking TAIRA no Tadatsune,' and TAIRA no Tadatsune War, which exhausted the Kanto region for years, all represented conflicts between kokushi and the indigenous people, indicating that 'peasants' were not just mere farmers.

だが、それが同じ東軍であった細川政元（勝元の子）ら幕府首脳達の反感を買ったばかりでなく、「政長討伐」を名目とした義就軍の山城侵攻や、山城の国人・農民達による国人一揆（山城国一揆）を引き起こした。
This not only caused strong feelings by Masamoto HOSOKAWA (a son of Katsumoto) who was on the same East squad, but also caused an invasion of Yamashiro Province by Yoshinari's army under the name of 'punitive expedition of Masanaga' and a revolt by kokujin and peasants of Yamashiro Province (the uprising in Yamashiro Province).

このときの経験から、11月に徴兵令が発布されたときは批判的であった（桐野は新制の軍隊を「農民兵」と侮蔑したという話が伝わっており、こうした見方が西南戦争の際に油断を生んだのではと見る者もいる）。
From his experiences there, when the conscription ordinance promulgated in November, he looked at it critically, (and it is told that Kirino disdained the army under the new system and called it 'peasant soldiers' and some say that such a way of thinking caused carelessness in the Seinan War).

同類身分として「下人」があり、「下人・所従」と総称されることが多いが、下人は「百姓下人」などと上層農民に付属する隷属民を指すのに対し、所従は「地頭所従」などと主に武家の隷属民を指すことが多かった。
There existed 'Genin' (underlings) as a close parallel to Shoju and two of them were often used in pair as 'Genin - Shoju'; generally, Genin meant the slaves of upper class farmers and were called 'Hyakusho Genin' (Genin of farmers), while Shoju meant the slaves of a military family and was called 'Jito Genin' (Genin of jito - manager and lord of manor.)

この概念が登場した背景として、1970年代以降、王朝国家論を巡る議論の中で、在地の農民層から武士が生まれて貴族の荘園支配を打倒していったとするそれまでの解釈への批判が強まったことがあげられている。
One of the commonly understood reasons for the rise of this concept was the increasing criticism in the 1970's and onwards of the conventional understanding that local farmers were the foundation of the samurais who overthrew shoen (manors in medieval Japan) control by aristocrats.

唐や宋の荘園には不輸不入の権限は存在しなかったものの、皇帝からの恩賜地は租税を減免され、官僚所有の荘園には免役特権が存在したため、農民が重い税負担から逃れるために荘園を官僚に寄進する例も見られた。
The shoens during the Tang and Sung dynasty did not have the right of tax exemption and the right to keep the tax agents from entering the property, but the lands from the Emperor were exempt from taxation and the shoens owned by bureaucrats had the right of tax exemptions and so some farmers donated their shoens to the bureaucrats so as to escape from heavy tax burden.

一方、同年5月に朝鮮で甲午農民戦争がはじまると清国の出兵に対抗して派兵、7月23日朝鮮王宮占拠による親日政権の樹立、25日には豊島沖海戦により日清戦争を開始、イギリス、ロシアの中立化にも成功した。
On the other hand, when the Donghak Peasant Revolution began in Korea, he dispatched troops in opposition of the invasion of Qing; on July 23, he established a pro-Japanese regime after the occupation of the royal palace of Korea, and on July 25 began the Sino-Japanese War by the Battle of Toyo-shima Island, and succeeded in neutralization of England and Russia.

その間、1870年（明治3年）頃より地租改正を建議するとともに農民の土地売買の自由を唱えるなど当時としては画期的な提案を行い、1873年（明治6年）の地方官会議では議長を務めてその実現に貢献する。
During that time, he made landmark proposals such as the Land Tax Reforms and liberalization of land sales for peasants from 1870, and he chaired the local administrative assembly and contributed to the achievement of his proposals in 1873.

大和国、摂津国、河内国、山背国に設置された、宮内省が管理する総計100町の水田で、宮内省所管諸司の伴部、使部等が田司（大宝令は屯司）として派遣されて経営にあたり、班田農民の雑徭によって耕作された。
A total of 100 cho (about 9920 ares) of rice paddies established in the provices of Yamato, Settsu, Kawachi and Yamashiro were under the control of the Imperial Household Ministry, and shoshi (officials) of the Imperial Household Ministry such as tomo no miyatsuko (Servant of the Court administering a group) and shibe (low rank bureaucrats) were dispatched as 田司 (屯司 in theTiho Code) to manage the fields, which were cultivated by the peasants of alloted farmland as zoyo (irregular corvee).

例として、1761年に上田藩（現長野県上田市）浦野組（現長野県青木村上田市別所、塩田など）の農民約一万人が上田城へ押し掛けた上田騒動では、清水半平、中沢浅之丞などが一揆を指導し、死罪に処せられた。
For example, during the Ueda riot in 1761 in which about ten thousand peasants belonged to Urano-gumi unit (present-day Aoki mura, Bessho of Ueda City, Shioda and others in Nagano Prefecture) of Ueda domain (present-day Ueda City, Nagano Prefecture) pushed into the Ueda-jo Castle, Hanbei SHIMIZU and Asanojo NAKAZAWA led the uprising and were executed.

中世の土地売買には今日の売却に相当する永代売、元金をもって買い戻す本銭返、そして年期売があったが、売主である本主の権限が最も色濃く残された年期売が農民層を中心として広く行われていたと考えられている。
Medieval methods for selling land included the permanent sale, which corresponds to land sales today, the honsengaeshi, under which those with capital could buy back the sold land, and finally the nenki-uri, but it is thought that the nenki-uri, under which the seller had the most pronounced authority and power, became the most widely used contract, especially among farmers.

関東を意識しての話しとなるが、記録に残る開発領主となった武士らが、戦闘集団である「武士団」を組織したとき、それはかき集めた農民兵ではなく、また「傭兵」でもなく、領主間で私的に結ばれた戦闘集団である。
When the bushi became kaihatsu-ryoshu and formed the 'bushidan' military group in the Kanto region, they were not peasant soldiers, 'mercenaries,' but a privately contracted fighting group of manor lords.

まだ日も昇らず、みんな起きない早朝からミルクを引いている大きな犬を連れて、家々にミルクを売っていたネロは、一見ただの小さな農民の少年に見えましたが、ルーベンスが神様である、夢の天国に住んでいました。
Going on his ways through the old city in the early days before the sun or the people had risen, Nello, who looked only a little peasant boy, with a great dog drawing milk to sell from door to door, was in a heaven of dreams whereof Rubens was the god.

こうして、農奴制とフューダリズムを土台とした西欧封建社会が成熟していった（ただし、実際には各農村ごとにかなり相違があったと考えられている上、多くの農村では農奴だけでなく自由農民も相当数存在していた）。
Thus, the Western European Hoken society based on serfdom and Feudalism matured (but the situation was quite different from village to village and most villages had a large number of free peasants as well as serfs).

これは農民の要求を受け入れたものだが、この措置のおかげで選挙権を失うものが続出、誰も立候補できずに村長が選べない村も出るという弊害も生まれた（当時は一定額の直接税を納めないと選挙権が得られなかった）。
This measure was taken due to the peasants' demands, however it brought bad effects that many residents lost the right to vote, and that some villages could not have the next chiefs since nobody could not run for chief in fact (in those days it was necessary to have paid a certain amount of direct taxes to have the right to vote).

従来、入会地とされてきた土地や森林が、地租改正と並行して行われた官有民地区分事業において「持主不明」であることを理由に官有地や御料林に組み入れられて住民の自由な利用が禁止されたことに対する農民の抵抗。
Peasants' resistance during the process of dividing public and private lands accompanying the land-tax reform, against changing mountains and forests that had been treated as iriaichi (common land) into national land or Imperial property for the reason that iriaichi had no owners; and against bans on free access to iriaichi by neighbor residents

この急速な布教展開は他宗派関係者や鎌倉幕府内権力者の警戒心を招き、1279年（弘安2年）には熱原郷付近の僧俗が徹底的な弾圧を受け、最終的に3名の農民信徒が殉教を遂げるという事件も起きている（熱原法難）。
This rapid movement of propagation caused suspicions among the people of other religious sects or the authorities within Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun), and in 1279 the monks and ordinary people around Atsuhara village were suppressed badly, and finally there was an incident where three believers of farmers became martyrs (Atsuhara Persecution).

1819年、大和国山辺郡永原村（現天理市）の貧農の家に生まれた彼は、幕末各地で起きた農民一揆を機に、米の増収こそ問題解決の根本であると考え、1863年以後イネの比較試作による品種改良を終生の仕事とした。
NAKAMURA was born in 1819, in a poor farming family lived in Nagahara Village, Yamabe District, Yamato Province (present-day Tenri City); he came to conclude that the increase of rice production and the income of farmers would be the basis of solving the problems on farmers, after seeing those riots of farmers throughout Japan at the end of Edo Period; throughout his life from 1863, he engaged in the production of new varieties of rice by comparing and selecting various kinds of rice produced in the regions of Japan.

このコンクールは、絵の才能のある十八歳以下の若者なら、学生であろうと農民であろうと誰でも参加できることになっていて、提出できる作品は、誰の助けも借りず自分で描き上げたクレヨン画か鉛筆画とされていました。
which it was announced in Antwerp would be open to every lad of talent, scholar or peasant, under eighteen, who would attempt to win it with some unaided work of chalk or pencil.

商人や職人に自由に利潤追求を許せば、その経済力によって支配階級が脅かされ、農民が重労働である農業を嫌って商工に転身する事により穀物の生産が減少して飢饉が発生し、ひいては社会秩序が崩壊すると考えたのである。
The thought was that if merchants and artisans were allowed to freely pursuit profits, their wealth would threaten the ruling class and farmers would give up the hard labor of agriculture start new careers as sho or ko, decreasing agricultural output, leading to famine, and resulting in the collapse of the social order.

理論通りに行われれば、検見法のほうが負担がより公平になり採用されるはずであったが、これにもまた、幕府側にとっては経費がかかり、農民側では苦労が多かったし、不正が行われ、調査が確実でないなどの問題があった。
In theory, kemi ho evens the tax burden, but it costs the bakufu a lot of money and peasants had a lot of trouble, also there were frauds such as uncertainty of the inspection.

この年の暮れには「五畿内諸国別当」に任じられ、翌寛平8年(896年)には平季長を山城国問民苦使に任じて、その報告を元にして院宮王臣家による土地の不法拡大を禁じる太政官符などの農民保護政策を打ち出している。
In the end of the year, he was assigned to serve as a Gokinai Shokoku Betto (a director of the five central provinces), then in the following year of 896, he assigned TAIRA no Suenaga as a Momikushi (an inspector of local politics) of Yamashiro Province and according to his report, Yoshiari came up with policies covering farmers such as dajokanpu which banned illegal expansion of territory by Ingu oshin ke (imperial families and aristocrats who had strong connection with the Emperor).

しかし、地方間同士の交通は農民の逃亡を助けることになるとして主要官道を除いてはほとんど整備されず、地方の川には年貢を都へ運ぶ時だけ舟橋をかければ良いと考えられていた（『日本紀略』の延暦20年5月甲戌条）。
However, most roads except major Kando (roads that were improved, managed, and maintained by the Japanese nation) were not improved because the government was afraid that improving the traffic connecting among local regions might help farmers flee from the region, and thus the government believed that it should be enough to prepare a bridge of boats on rivers in the local regions only when nengu (land tax) needed to be transported to the capital (Kinoeinu-jo in May 801 of 'Nihongi Ryaku' (Summary of Japanese Chronologies)).

古代の戸籍制度・班田収授法などによる律令制的な人別支配の維持が困難となっていた当時、国司は公田を名田という単位へ再編するとともに、有力農民層（田堵という）へ名田の経営と名田からの租税徴収を請け負わせていった。
At that time, it became difficult to maintain control over each person like in the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code), based on a family registration system and Handen Shuju ho (the law of periodic reallocations of rice land), and therefore, kokushi (provincial governors) reorganized Koden (fields administered directly by a ruler) into myoden (rice field lots in charge of a nominal holder) and came to entrust the work of managing myoden and collecting taxes from there to powerful farmers (called tato).

彼らは確かに、佃、手作（てづくり）、門田（かどた）などという直接耕作農地も持ってはいたが、大きな特徴は基本的には農業経営から離れ、農民から「加地子（かぢし）」を取る本格的な「領主」へと転化し始めることである。
While they definitely directly held cultivation land such as tsukuda (directly-managed rice fields by a lord or an officer of shoen), tezukuri (handmade), or kadota, their biggest characteristic was leaving the farm management to a genuine 'manor lord' that collected 'kajishi' (land rent) from peasants.

一代限りの身分ではあるが、実際には引退に際し子弟や縁者を後継者とすることで世襲は可能であり、また薄給ながら生活を維持できるため、後にその権利が「株」として売買され、富裕な農民・商人の次・三男の就職口ともなった。
The status of ashigaru was restricted to a single generation but in actuality could be inherited by a child or relative upon retirement and, this right later went on to be bought and sold as 'kabu' and also became a position of employment for the second and third sons of wealthy farmers and merchants, because they could make their living by being an ashigaru although their salaries were low.

隻眼の行者、満海上人の生まれ変わりであるという逸話は、政宗の存命中から広く知れ渡っており、東北地方の昔話の中には「仙台様（政宗のこと）の霊力で母親の病気を治してもらうために旅に出る農民の話」などが伝わっている。
The rumor of believing Masamune as the reincarnation of one-eyed high priest Mankai was widely spread from the days of Masamune; among those folklores in Tohoku regions, some stories related with this belief have been transmitted, such as 'the story of a peasant who set out on a journey for asking Sendai-sama (Lord Masamune) to cure the illness of his mother by the spiritual energy of Masamune.'

12世紀に入り、荘園公領制が確立されていくとともに荘園においても荘園領主である公家や寺社が朝廷に対して一国平均役などの自己荘園の賦課免除の申請と荘園と公領に両属していた農民層を自己の荘民として取り込んでいった。
In the 12th century, as shoen koryo sei (The System of Public Lands and Private Estates) was coming to be established, court nobles, temples and shrines, that were also lord of the manor, began to apply for the exemption of imposition to their manor such as Ikkoku heikinyaku (taxes and labor uniformly imposed on shoen (manor) and kokugaryoi (provincial land) in a province) with the Imperial Court, and began to take in the peasantry that had belonged to both manor and koryo as their own shomin (people of the manor).

桐野は禄5石という貧窮の家で育ったが故に農民同様の生活を送り、系統的な学問をせず、剣術も小示現流の伊集院鴨居門下あるいは薬丸自顕流の薬丸兼義（江夏仲左衛門とも）門下というが、多くは独力で修得し、達人の域に至った。
Because he was brought up in a poor samurai family with a stipend of only five koku and lived the same as a farmer, he could not study systematically, and although he was said to learn swordplay from Kamoi IJUIN of the Kojigenryu school or Kaneyoshi YAKUMARU (or Chuzaemon ENATSU) of the Yakumaru-jigenryu school, he learned it almost by himself and reached the level of master.

御師の宿屋では盛装した御師によって豪華な食器に載った伊勢や松阪市の山海の珍味などの豪勢な料理や歌舞でもてなし、農民が住んでいるところでは使った事がない絹の布団に寝かせる、など、参拝者を飽きさせないもてなしを行った。
In an onshi's inn, dressed up onshi would entertain visitors to keep them from being bored, by serving all sorts of delicacies in Ise and Matsuzaka City and other lavish meals on fine dishes, offering kabuki performance, and letting the peasants sleep on a silk futon which they had never used at home.

高地では農民の自由が保たれるようになっていた（特に畜産は労働の集約化が弱まったため、農奴の奉仕を必要としなくなっていった）が、他方、ヨーロッパの幾つかの地域では、最も圧政的な荘園支配と呼ばれるような状況も見られた。
In highlands the freedom of farmers was preserved (especially in livestock raising, the labor intensity was weakened and so the service of serfs was not needed), but on the other hand, the most oppressive governance of shoens was also seen in several areas in Europe.

西日本から関東地方に波及した二毛作の技術や牛馬耕、水車などを利用した灌漑施設の整備や肥料の発達などは生産力を向上させ、さらに農業技術の進歩で集約的・多角的な農業を行い、自立農民の成長を促して郷村制の成立をもたらす。
New agricultural techniques were gradually introduced to the Kanto from western Japan, including irrigation techniques that utilized the planting of two crops a year, oxen and horses to plow, and water wheels, as well as increased production and use of manure fertilizer, leading to improved crop production; moreover, more concentrated and diverse agricultural efforts were launched thanks to advances in agricultural technology, which led to the development of a system of villages that spurred the growth of self-reliance among farmers.

当時、農民層を直接支配していたのは、地頭・荘官などの階層から在地の領主として成長していった国人領主層であり、彼らが守護大名の被官となることでその軍事力を支え、室町幕府や守護大名の動向を規定していったとするものである。
It asserted that it was the kokujin-ryoshu, who had been raised from the classes of jito (manager and lord of manor) or shokan (an officer governing manor) to the local lord, that directly ruled the farmers class in those days, and that it was the kokujin-ryoshu, who, by becoming low-level bureaucrat of the shugo daimyo (Japanese feudal lords), supported their military power and came to define the movement of the Muromachi bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) and the shugo daimyo.

概して土地が乏しく夏場の耕作だけでは貧しかった地方の農民が、農閑期である冬に年間副収入を得るべく、配下に村の若者などを従えて、良い水が取れ酒造りを行なっている地域、いわゆる酒どころへ集団出稼ぎに行ったのが始まりである。
Its origin is that peasants in a region where farming during only a summer period could not produce enough money due to poor lands formed a group involving young people in their villages, and they went to another region called sake-dokoro (a place famous for sake brewing) where people brewed sake using the local good water, in order to make some additional incomes during a winter period, which was an agricultural off-season.

室町時代は、3代征夷大将軍足利義満の時代の全盛を除いて戦乱と無秩序の時代であったが、鎌倉時代以前には見られない、出自不明の農民・商人層の社会進出を可能とし、日本史上、初めて人間の顔が見える人物を登場させた時代でもある。
Aside from the golden age of prosperity reached under the third seii taishogun (literally, 'great general who subdues the barbarians') Yoshimitsu ASHIKAGA, the Muromachi period was fraught with wars and disorder, but on the other hand, not since before the Kamakura period had there been such opportunity for common people of obscure origins, farmers and tradesmen, to advance socially, and among all the eras of Japanese history, the Muromachi period was the first to produce notable people whose faces and lives appear in clear focus to later eyes.

三世一身法から20年後（743年）に施行された墾田永年私財法に「三世一身法があるが、期限が到来すれば収公してしまうので、農民は怠けて墾田を行わない」とあるので、三世一身法の効果は20年未満しか継続しなかったようである。
In the Konden Einen Shizai Law (the law permitting permanent ownership of newly cultivated land) which was enforced 20 years after the Sanze-isshin Law (in 743), it says, 'Although there is the Sanze-isshin Law, farmers do not cultivate land because of idleness as the land is confiscated when the time limit comes,' so it seems that the effect of the Sanze-isshin Law lasted merely less than 20 years.

地租改正反対一揆（ちそかいせいはんたいいっき）とは、1873年より明治政府によって推進されてきた地租改正に反対する農民一揆である（ただし、近年の研究では合法的闘争による例も多かったとされていることに注意が必要である）。
Peasant revolts against the land-tax reform refer to the uprisings by peasants to oppose to the land-tax reform that had been promoted by the Meiji Government since 1873 (we should note that many of the revolts were legal conflicts, as recent studies show).

1776年（安永 (元号)5年）、水戸藩那珂郡山方町農民の、後に名字帯刀を許された中島藤右衛門（なかじまとうえもん）（1745年-1825年）が乾燥した球茎が腐らないことにヒントを得て粉状にする事を思いついたとされる。
It is believed that in 1776, Toemon NAKAJIMA (1745-1825), a farmer in Yamagata Town, Naka County, Mito Domain, conceived a bright idea of grinding dried konnyaku corms which he had found don't go bad, and then Myojitaito (the right to bear a surname and wear a sword) was awarded for his invention.

近年、歴史学者の網野善彦が中世社会、近世社会における百姓身分に属する者たちが農民、山民、漁民、職人、商人などの広範な生業の従事者であったことを明らかにし、 '百姓＝農民' と一概にまとめた従来の歴史観に対し批判を行った。
In recent years, historian Yoshihiko AMINO revealed that people who belonged to the hyakusho rank in the medieval and modern societies engaged in a wide range of vocations including peasants, mountain people, fishing people, craftsmen, and merchants, and criticized the conventional historical view of 'hyakusho = peasants' to collectively refer to them.

江戸時代の地下官人制度は局務・官務・出納からなり地下官人を統率する催官人と一般の地下官人である並官人、その下で雑用を担当し株の売買によって町人や農民でも身分を獲得することが可能であった下官人の3層構造体制で構成されていた。
The lower ranking officials during the Edo period were divided into three offices 'Kyokumu,' 'Kanmu,' and 'Suino' with a hierarchy of the class controlling over the lower ranking officials; the class consisting of the general lower ranking officials; and the class in charge of chore which could be attained by townsmen and farmers through purchasing stock.

これは結果的には大多数の農民の負担を高めることにつながり、また土地の所有者がおらず納税が困難な入会地が事実上、政府に没収されたことなどから伊勢暴動、真壁暴動など一揆（地租改正反対一揆）が頻発し、自由民権運動へ影響を与えた。
In terms of the consequence, this high tax rate resulted in increasing the burden of majority of the farmers; therefore, peasant revolts against the land-tax reform erupted including the Ise Revolt, Makabe Revolt; the part of the reason these revolts occurred lied in that the government virtually confiscated common land (iriaichi) from which the government could not expect to receive taxes; these revolts gave influence to the Jiyu MInken Undo (Movement for Liberty and People's Right).

また、寒造りが主流となったことによって、酒造りは冬に限られた仕事となったので、農民が出稼ぎとして冬場だけ杜氏を請け負うようになり、やがて各地にそれぞれ地域的な特徴を持った杜氏の職人集団が生成されていったという側面もうまれた。
As kanzukuri became the main method, sake brewing became restricted to winter and farmers became sake brewers as an extra job only during the winter, and toji worker groups began to form in each district.

杜氏の発生の前提として、まず日本酒の産業革命ともいうべき、鴻池善右衛門による大量仕込み樽の技法が慶長5年（1600年）に開発されたこと、さらに、幕藩体制が敷かれ、各地方において農民と領主の関係が固定したことの二つが挙げられる。
There were two facts which triggered toji; firstly Zen-emon KONOIKE developed a technique of large-sized preparation barrels in 1600, which can be said to be the industrial revolution of Japanese sake, and secondly the shogunate and domain system was established and it settled a relation between peasants and their lord in each region.

会津藩には武士身分で構成される正規治安部隊、京都見廻組（組長＝佐々木只三郎）があり、農民・商人身分で構成される新撰組（組長＝近藤勇）は、会津藩の京都における非正規治安部隊（後年は近藤らは幕臣になり正式な治安部隊になる）である。
In the Aizu Clan, the formal security force was the Kyoto Mimawarigumi (Commander = Tadazaburo SASAKI), and Shinsen-gumi (Commander = Isami KONDO), composed of men with the social position of farmers/merchants, was the non-formal security force of the Aizu Clan for the Kyoto area (in later years, KONDO and others became vassals of the shogunate, and thus Shinsen-gumi became a formal security force).

また、これまでの輸入品であった綿布、生糸、砂糖、鹿皮、絹織物などの海外品はむしろ国産化を推進すべきである、農民は米穀のみをつくり商品作物の栽培は禁ずるという伝統的な封建制度の政策はその限りにおいて緩和されるべきであると考えた。
In addition, Arai considered to promote domestic production of traditionally imported goods like cloth, raw silk thread, sugar, buckskin, silk cloth, etc and loosen the policy created under the traditional feudal system, which banned peasants from producing commercial crops except for cultivating rice.

しかも、「旧来の歳入を減じない」という方針によって3％という高額な税率が算定されたのである（なお、地租改正の推進派であった木戸孝允はこの高税率を聞くと、農民を幕藩体制よりも酷い状況に追い込むものだとして最後まで反対している）。
Furthermore, by the policy of 'the tax revenue will be not be below that of the tax revenue that the Edo Shogunate received,' the high tax rate of 3% was calculated; upon hearing this high tax rate, Takayoshi KIDO opposed the rate up to the last minute saying that the rate will drive the farmers into the more dire situation than they faced under the Edo Shogunate government; yet he belonged to people who promoted land-tax reform actively.

それに対して、川本利恵、中村充一「正座の源流」（東京家政大学紀要第39号　1999年）では、この座り方そのものは「日本諸事要録」（1583年）の記載から、16世紀後半にはすでに下級武士や農民にまで浸透していたことを指摘している。
On the other hand, 'Origin of Seiza' by Rie KAWAMOTO and Michikazu NAKAMURA (Tokyo Kasei University Journal, No. 39, 1999) points out that, judging from descriptions contained in 'Sumario de las cosas de Japon' (1583), this style of sitting was common among lower-ranking samurai and peasants in the late 16th century.

享和三年（1803年）正月の中瀬村 (三重県)（現伊賀市）の記録によると、村の農民側から無足身分である忍者に対して、農民と同様の棒役を務めるよう要請があったが、忍者側が士族の身分であることを盾にそれを拒否したところ村八分にされた。
According to the record on Nakaze-mura Village (present Iga City) (Mie Prefecture) in the New Year's Holidays in 1803, the peasants' side demanded Ninja in social status of musoku to be charged boyaku as well as peasants, but Ninja's side refused it on the pretext of their being in warrior class, which led to their social ostracism.

しかし戦争が終わると地元の農民が自力でその滑走路のコンクリートを剥がし農地に復興させたため、今ではその姿を見ることは出来ないが周辺には物資格納倉庫に加え、敵機を撃墜させるための高射砲も存在し、米軍の機銃掃射の攻撃対象にもなっていた。
However, when the war was over, since local farmers removed concrete from the runway by themselves, and restored it as agricultural land, the runway no longer exists; however, an antiaircraft gun and storage locker still exists around it, and were the target of machine gun attacks by the U.S. military.

宇多天皇の政治（寛平の治と呼ばれる）は、権門（有力貴族・寺社）を抑制し、小農民を保護するという律令制への回帰を強く志向していたが、時平もこの方針を受け継ぎ、例えば時平執政期の902年（延喜2年）には班田を励行する法令が発布されている。
The politics by Emperor Uda (called Kanpyo no chi - Glorious rule in Kanpyo era) strongly aspired to return to the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based upon the ritsuryo code) which controlled influential families (dominant nobilities, temples and shrines) and protected peasant folks, and Tokihira also followed this policy, for example, by promulgating a law to enforce handen (the allotted farmland) in 902 during his administration.

寛平の治は、王臣家が諸国富豪と直接結びつくことを規制することで権門（有力貴族・寺社）を抑制し、小農民を保護するという律令制への回帰を強く志向したものであり、併せて蔵人所の充実や検非違使庁の権限拡充等天皇直属機関の強化を行うものであった。
Kanpyo no chi was intended as a return to the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code) that protected tenant farmers and suppressed influential families (noble families, temples and shrines with power) by restricting direct bondage between oshinke (nobles in the capital) and the rich classes in the provinces, while at the same time, it was also intended to reinforce organizations ruled by the emperor, including enhancing the kurododokoro (the Chamberlain's Office) and an increase of authority by the Kebiishicho (Office of Police and Judicial Chief).

高知城下を離れて町医者から弘瀬姓を買い取った後の足取りには不明な点が多いが、慶応年間より叔母を頼って赤岡町（現・香南市）に定住し「町絵師・金蔵」を名乗り、地元の農民や漁民に頼まれるがままに芝居絵や台提灯絵、絵馬、凧絵などを数多く描いた。
There remains many unknown points about his life after leaving the castle town of Kochi-jo Castle and changing his name to Hirose by purchasing a name from a town doctor; yet it is known that he resorted his aunt and settled down in Akaoka town (present-day Konan City) from the Keio era, called himself by the name of 'Kinzo the painter for townspeople,' and left many paintings in the form of shibai-e (pictures of kabuki plays) or pictures for standing lanterns, ema (a votive horse tablet) or kites, whenever he was asked by local peasants or fishermen.

だが、江戸時代後期彦根藩などの保護を受けた他の琵琶湖湖畔の諸港の台頭、船主・漁民と農民・商人との利害対立による内紛（堀田氏の佐野移封と前後として農民と漁民の対立が大規模暴動に発展している）などがあり、徐々にその影響力を低下させていった。
However, Katata gradually lost its power, owing to the rise of other domains surrounding Lake Biwa that were protected by some authorities such as the Hikone Domain in the late Edo period and internal conflicts between shipowners and fishermen and farmers and merchants (around the transfer of Hotta clan to Sano, the conflict between farmers and fishermen developed into a large-scale riot).

1924年には干ばつがあり、これは、水源地の足尾の山林が荒廃して保水能力を失ったためだと考えた両組合は、それぞれ別個に活動を行い、1925年には群馬県側の農民ら数千人の署名が集められ、貴族院、衆議院、内務大臣、農務大臣宛てに請願書が提出される。
In 1924, those areas was hit by a drought, and both unions considered it was because the damaged forests had no longer absorbed nor contained water; although the unions took action separately, in 1925 the petition including thousands of signatures of the farmers and peasants and others in Gunma Prefecture was submitted to the House of Peers, the House of Representatives, the Minister of Home Affairs and the Minister of Agricultural Affairs.

なお、検注に際して国衙側の公文が持つ土地台帳と荘園側の公文が持つ台帳を勘合する際の事務経費を公文勘料（くもんかんりょう）と呼び、検注時に農民に対して臨時に賦課されて、実際の経費及び実務に当たった荘園側の公文に対する得分（報酬）として宛がわれた。
In addition, kumon kanryo, the clerical expense at kenchu (land survey) for checking the cadaster owned by kumon of kokuga against that of kumon of shoen, was imposed on peasants as extra tax at the time of kenchu, in order to cover the actual expense and the reward to kumon of shoen who actually handled the practice.

806年には桓武天皇の前で藤原緒嗣といわゆる「徳政論争」を行い、農民の負担軽減のために軍事・造作を停止すべきとの緒嗣の主張に強く反対するが、天皇は緒嗣の主張を採択し、計画中であった蝦夷征伐と平安宮造宮の中止、造宮職の廃止と木工寮への統合が決まった。
In 806, he had so-called 'Tokusei ronso (argument over virtuous government)' with FUJIWARA no Otsugu in front of Emperor Kanmu, and although he strongly opposed Otsugu's insistence to cease the military affairs and construction in order to reduce farmers' burdens, the Emperor adopted Otsugu's insistence and canceled the punitive expedition to Ezo and construction of Heian-kyo Palace

以後も他人和与の禁止と徳政令によって恩給地の流出の阻止を図ろうとする武家政権側と徳政令からの公的保護や対抗文言を備えようとする商人・寺院などの第三者側、更に中世後期には徳政一揆によって流出した土地の回復を図ろうとする農民らを巻き込んだ対立は続いた。
Thereafter, conflict continued between the military government which tried to prevent the outflow of onkyuchi by banning wayo to others and introducing the tokuseirei and third parties such as merchants and temples that sought to put themselves under public protection from the tokuseirei and to prepare the wording to counter it, further involving peasants who tried to regain lost land by tokusei ikki (an uprising demanding debt cancellations) in late mediaeval times.

国司苛政と言うと国司側の一方的収奪で、弱い農民が苦しめられたとのイメージが抱かれやすいが、ときには上訴のどころか、治安3年（1023年）12月には丹波国守藤原資業（すけなり）の京都中御門の屋敷を丹波国人騎兵十数人が焼討ち（小右記）にしたことまである。
The word 'kokushi kasei' might present an image of one-sided deprivation by kokushi tormenting weak farmers, but in fact, not only farmers sometimes appealed to the court, but also there was even a case where more than a dozen mounted horsemen of the Tanba indigenous people attacked and burned the residence of Governor of Tanba Province FUJIWARA no Sukenari at Nakagomon, Kyoto in December 1023 (Shoyuki (The Diary of FUJIWARA no Sanesuke)).

このなかで、府県庁は地租改正事務局があらかじめ見当をつけた平均反収を絶対的な査定条件とし、申告額がこれに達しない場合は、農民が自らの労力と費用をかけて算定した地価を否定し強圧的に変更させたことから、伊勢暴動をはじめとした大規模な暴動が各地で頻発した。
In this aggressive approach, each prefectural government made the average yield per tan that the Land Tax Reform Bureau figured out beforehand be the absolute condition of assessment and in case the reported amount was under the average tan that the Land Tax Reform Bureau figured out, each prefecture denied the reported value of the land, of which farmers assessed with their own labor and expenses and made the value of the land change forcibly; for this reason, including the Ise Revolt large scale riots erupted frequently in various places.

秀吉の父・弥右衛門は百姓であったとされるが、百姓＝農民とするのは後代の用例であり、弥右衛門の主たる生業は織田家の足軽だったとする説もある（一説には百姓では思いつかないような発想などから秀吉は武家へ仕官以前は針の行商人で商人出身であったという説がある）。
Hideyoshi's father, Yaemon was said to be a 'Hyakusyo', but it is a later way to see 'Hyakusyo' as a farmer and there is an opinion that his main business was 'Ashigaru' (conscripted foot-soldiers) of ODA clan (there is an another opinion that Hideyoshi was a peddler of needles before serving warlords and had a origin of merchant class, judging from his different ideas which a farmer could not hit).

しかし8世紀末以降、律令による編戸制、班田収授法による公民支配が次第に弛緩していくのと並行して郡司層による民の支配と編成の機構は崩壊し、新たに富豪と呼ばれる土着国司子弟、郡司、有力農民らが出挙によって多くの公民を私的隷属関係の下に置く関係が成立していく。
However, after the late eighth century, as henko-sei (the organization of the people) by the Ritsuryo and domination over the citizens by Handen Shuju ho (the law of periodic reallocations of rice land) gradually loosened, the mechanism of domination and organization of people by the gunji class collapsed, and there were established relations in which children of native kokushi who were newly called the rich and powerful class, gunji, influential farmers and other people turned many citizens into their private slaves by suiko (government loans made to peasants).

第二次世界大戦後はマルクス主義的な歴史認識により、武士を支配階級、農民を被支配階級と定義し、農民生活の悲惨さとそれに由来する階級闘争の存在が強調され、商人は財産（資本）を蓄積したブルジョワ階級であり、近代への幕を開く歴史的存在として捉えられるようになった。
After World War II, Marxian history began to define samurai as the ruling class and the peasants as the ruled class, emphasizing the misery of the peasants' life and the existence of a class struggle derived from this misery, with merchants as the bourgeoisies who accumulated property (capital) which ushered in the modern age.

住民らが激怒し、7月10日、毛里田村期成同盟会（のちの毛里田地区期成同盟会）が結成され、これを受け、さらに8月2日、群馬県桐生市、太田市、館林市、新田郡、山田郡 (群馬県)、邑楽郡の農民が中心となって群馬県東毛三市三郡渡良瀬川鉱毒根絶期成同盟会が再度結成される。
So the residents were outraged and on July 10, formed the Morita Village Association (later changed its name to the Morita Area Association), and to agree with them, on August 2, the Watarase-gawa River Mining Pollution Eradication Committee of Gunma Tomo Three Cities and Three Counties was formed again mainly by the peasants of three cities and three counties of Gunma Prefecture including Kiryu City, Ota City, Tatebayashi City, Nitta County, Yamada County and Oura County.

即ち、地租改正によって結果的に幕藩体制時代よりも税率が引き上げられた東日本の地主・農民は税率の引き下げを求め、元の税率が高めであった西日本では地租の算定基準となった地価が収穫量が安定して多いという理由で、高い評価が与えられたために、税率よりも地価の引き下げを求めた。
In other words, while the landowners and peasants in eastern Japan demanded a reduction of taxation rate previously raised more than the shogunate and domain system after the land-tax reform, those of western Japan, whose previous taxation rate was relatively high and evaluated highly due to high yield demanded a reduction in the land price rather than the taxation rate (the land price used to calculate the land tax).

9世紀～10世紀に律令制が崩壊した後も、神田には不輸の権（租税免除の権利）が認められていたため、墾田や買収などで付近の田地を集積していた田堵（有力農民）＝開発領主は、自分の経営する田地を有力な神社（または有力寺院）へ寄進することで、不輸の権 (日本)を獲得しようとした。
Since Fuyu no ken (the right to tax exemption) was granted to Shinden even after the collapse of the Ritsuryo System from the eighth to ninth century, Tato (dominant farmers or lords cultivating new rice fields) who were then collecting rice fields around them tried to obtain Fuyu no ken Right by donating their rice fields to shrines or temples.

従来、留守政府の改革については、「大臣・参議・大輔盟約書」第6条に違反して岩倉使節団の面々を無視する形で留守政府が功に逸って無秩序勝手に行い、その結果様々な矛盾を引き起こして政府内では明治6年の政変を、政府外では士族反乱や農民一揆を引き起こす原因となったとする見方があった。
Rusu-seifu had been said to carry out reforms in an arbitrary, disorderly and self-serving manner against Article 6 of the 'Treaty of ministers, sangi and taifu,' ignoring members of Iwakura Mission, and as a result to cause various contradictions, the political change in 1873 within the government, and Shizoku no hanran (revolt by family or person with samurai ancestors) and peasant uprisings outside the government.

だが、荘園公領制が解体する14世紀に入ると、生産力の上昇や農民層の抵抗、更に荘園内部でも上級層の没落と下級層の上昇などが発生し、更にその中で上位の者は領主や地侍としての地位を獲得して荘園領主の支配から脱却したり、荘園内外にて独自の経営地及び独自の小作関係の形成を行うようになる。
However, during the fourteenth century, many factors, such as the improvement of productivity, the resistance of the class of peasants, and the downfall of the upper-class together with the advancement of the lower-class, contributed to the demise of the shoen-koryo sei. Further, there were those of the upper-class who attained the position as a landlord or a jizamurai (local samurai) which enabled them to break away from the rule of the manor owners and to establish their own business managing and renting their lands to local peasants.

そこで平安時代に入ると、朝廷も公廨稲の利息より正税の不足分を補わせる「正税率分」の導入や格式に必要最低限の正税出挙に対する国司の支出義務（農民への強制的な貸付強制と徴収（返済）の義務化）を定めた「正税式数」を規定するなど、中央への上供体制維持を目的とした正税回復政策を取り始めた。
Thus, in Heian period, Imperial Court began to launch political measures to recover the shozei for the purpose of maintaining the tribute-to-central system, such as introduction of 'shozei ritsubun (the tax system where two-tenth of the tax delivered from the provinces to the Ministry of Finance at Heian-kyo [the ancient capital of Japan in current Kyoto] were supplied to the tax storage called 'ritsubun-do')' that made up the shortage of shozei with the interest on kugaito and establishment of 'shozei shikisu' in which kokushi's minimum liability for shozei suiko (compulsory loaning to and collecting repayments from peasants) was prescribed in kyakushiki (a kind of law in the ritsuryo system).

森長英三郎によれば、1893年の時限付き示談の内容は、古河市兵衛が農民8414人の被害地4360町96畝06歩に対し76602円96銭9厘を支払うというもので、1896年の永久示談は農民5127人の被害地2207町43畝14歩に対し30119円23銭2厘を払うというものであった。
According to Eizaburo MORINAGA, in 1893, for the composition with a term of validity, Ichibei FURUKAWA (Furukawa Mining) paid 76,602 yen 96 sen 9 ri ('sen' and 'ri' were monetary units used at that time) to 8,414 peasants for the damaged areas of 4,360 cho 96 ho 6 bu (about 4,360 hectares), and in 1896, for the final composition, Furukawa paid 30,119 yen 23 sen 2 rin to 5,127 peasants for the damaged areas of 2,207 cho 43 ho 14 bu (about 2,207 hectares).

家紋としてよく見られる五三桐やそれにまるで囲ったものは、太閤記や伝承などで農民出身とされている豊臣秀吉が用いたことから「家紋のないほどの一般庶民がなんらかの事情で家紋を必要とする場合（紋付袴の着用等）に用いる家紋」としても使用され、上流階級とは逆の理由で庶民の間で一般的に流布した。
The popular Kamon, Gosan no kiri and circled Gosan no kiri, was 'the Kamon used when a common person with no Kamon required one (e.g., wearing hakama (a divided skirt) with Kamon)),' an example of this is Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI, who was regarded to have peasant roots in Taiko-ki and according to tradition, and this spread generally by reverse reasoning to that of the higher class.

従来の藩が租税として集めた米をまとめて江戸や大坂の蔵屋敷を経由して同地の米問屋に売却するというこれまでの米の流通システムが崩壊して、個々の農民が地元の米商人などに直接米を換金してその代金を納め、地元の米商人が全国市場に米を売却するようになるなど、商業や流通に対する影響も大きかった。
The land-tax reform also had a large effect on Japanese commerce and distribution system; that is, prior to the reform rice collected as tax from various clans were sold and distributed by wholesale dealers in Edo or Osaka through storehouses of various clans in Edo or Osaka; the reform allowed farmers to change their rice to cash directly at local rice merchants, who sold rice to the market across the country; thus the previous distribution system collapsed.

だが、行基の指導による墾田開発や社会事業の進展や地方豪族や民衆らを中心とした教団の拡大を抑えきれなかったこと、行基の活動が政府が恐れていた「反政府」的な意図を有したものではないことから、731年（天平3年）禁圧を緩め、翌年河内の狭山下池の築造に行基の技術力や農民動員の力量を利用した。
However, the government could not stop Gyoki leading the development of new rice field and other social activities, or the religious community mainly consisted of local clans and ordinary people; the goverment also recognized that Gyoki's activities did not have any 'anti-government' intentions, which the goverment feard; so, the government weakened the suppression in 731, and made full use of Gyoki's powers in technology and gathering peasants for the construction of Sayamashimo-ike Pond in Kawachi in 732.

これは小作制度というよりも中世荘園制度のインドへの導入に近く、従来は古代には収穫物の6分の1、デリー・スルタン朝時代以後でも収穫物の3分の1の徴収であったものが定額かつ高額な地税を現金による納付となり、なおかつ徴収実務は領主・地主に任されていたために、農民は農奴に近い状況に置かれた。
This was the introduction of India to medieval manorialism rather than the tenancy system and traditionally one-sixth of harvests in ancient times and one-third of them after the Dehli Sultanate period were levied, but the taxes on land were paid with fixed and expensive amounts of cash money and the lords and landowners undertook tax collection work and thus the farmers were put in a situation which was similar to that of serfs.

これに限らず、抱席身分も実際には、隠居や死去したときは子などの相続人に相当する近親者が、新規取り立ての名目で身分と俸禄を継承していたため、江戸時代後期になると、富裕な町人や農民が困窮した御家人の名目上の養子の身分を金銭で買い取って、御家人身分を獲得することが広く行われるようになった。
Not only this, but in reality the status and stipends of Kakaeseki gokenin retainers were inherited by successors upon retirement or death, so in the latter part of the Edo period it became common for wealthy merchants and farmers to buy their way into gokenin ranks by paying to become the adopted son of an impoverished gokenin.

16世紀に入ると、戦国の動乱の中で、本願寺教団は零細な農民から地侍、土豪などの武士階層に至るその組織力を武器に日本各地で活動を活発化させるが、山科本願寺は天文法華の乱により1532年に戦災にあい、第10代証如は摂津国西成郡（現在の大阪市）に蓮如が開いた石山御坊へと移り、石山本願寺とする。
Following the dawn of the sixteenth century, amid the turmoil of Sengoku, the Honganji Buddhist sect engaged its activities in various regions in Japan using its power of organization, which was constituted by petty peasants up to samurai hierarchy such as the local samurai, the local ruling families and so on; however, in 1532 Yamashina Honganji Temple suffered damage due to the Tenbun-hokke-no-ran War, and therefore the tenth generation (Shonyo) moved to Ishiyama Gobo, which was opened in Nishinari-gun, Settsu-no-kuni (currently Osaka City) by Rennyo, which became Ishiyama Honganji Temple.

当初は諸国巡見使が公儀御料（天領）の巡見も行っていたが、寛文11年（1671年）に関東地方の代官及び農民支配を目的として関八州巡見使が独自に派遣され、正徳 (日本)2年（1712年）に関八州から全国規模に拡大され、老中支配の勘定・支配勘定と若年寄支配の徒目付による御料巡見使が派遣された。
Although shokoku-junkenshi was initially in charge of inspecting kogi-goryo as well, the dispatch of Kanhasshu junkenshi for the 8 provinces of Kanto region in 1671 to examine the state of rule by the local governors and peasant control in the region led to wider application of such inspection on the nationwide scale in 1712, leading to the creation of the goryo-junkenshi envoys representing the kanjo (accounting) office under the roju (shogunate elders) and kachimetsuke (security patrol and intelligence) office under the wakadoshiyori.

寄生地主制（きせいじぬしせい）は、田畑など農地の所有者である寄生地主（単に地主と略すこともある）が、小作人（こさくにん）と呼ばれる農民（小作農や単に小作と呼ばれることもある）に土地を貸し出して耕作させ、成果物である米やムギなどの農作物の一部を小作料（こさくりょう）と言う名の地代として徴収する制度。
The parasitic landlord system was the system that allowed a parasitic landlord, who owned farmlands such as rice fields, vegetable fields, etc., to lend a farmland to a farmer called kosakunin (a tenant farmer) (also known as kosakuno or kosaku), to have him cultivate the land, and to take away some farm products, such as rice, barley, etc., as the land rent called kosakuryo (farm rent).

そもそも、これらの歴史的事件を評価するときに念頭に置いておかなければならないのは、受領層に対して闘争を行った百姓層とは決して受領の収奪にあえぐ零細な農民などではなく、隷属民や私兵を多数擁して地域支配や産業において莫大な利権を持ち、国衙と負名契約を結んでいた、農業など諸産業の大規模経営者であったということである。
In evaluating these historical events, we should keep in mind that the farmer class refers not to poor farmers suffering from heavy taxes Zuryo collected but to large-scale managers of agriculture and other industries who had vested rights in the local community and industries with many subordinate people and private solders and had a contract with kokuga over fumyo.

これに対して南インドでは伝統的な村落共同体の影響が強いために、農民の従来通りの土地所有を前提としてより緩やかなライーヤトワーリー制が導入されたものの、5-6割の地租の前に未納を理由とした官の没収もしくは納税のための借金のかたに領主・地主層からなる金融業者の差押を経て北インドと同様の土地支配体制が広がっていった。
In contrast to this, the influence of the village community was strong in the south of India and though the more loose Raiyatowari system was introduced there on the premise of traditional farmers' landownership, the lands were confiscated by government officials because of non-payment of 50 to 60 percent of land tax, or the lands were seized by money brokers who consisted of the lords and landowners because of tax payments for debts and through these, the land government system spread as in the north of India.

金完燮の『親日派のための弁明』（2002）では、一進会の運動を、李氏朝鮮政府の圧政をはねのけようとする農民階級（東学党→進歩会）と、支配階級出身で朝鮮の近代化をめざす改革派知識人グループ（維新会）、そして朝鮮近代化を支援することで「攻撃的な防御」を確保しようとする日本、の3つの改革勢力が結集されたものとして高く評価している。
In 'Explanation for the sake of pro-Japan' by Kim Wansop (2002), the author highly evaluated the Isshinkai's movement, comparing their movment with a concentration of three revolutionary powers consisted of peasants who tried to reject the oppression of Joseon Dynasty Government (Togaku-to => Shinpo-kai), the group consisted of revolutionary intellectuals from governing class aimed at modernization of Korea (Ishin-kai) and Japan which tried to secure the 'aggressive protection' by supporting the modernization of Korea.

下官人は一種の「株」の形で身分を売買することが行われ（表面上は買主が売主の養子縁組に入る場合が多い）、また必要な人員確保を理由とした官司による取立も行われたため、京都や周辺の商人や農民が社会的身分の上昇や生活の糧（仕事）の獲得などを目的に地下官人の身分を得る例もあった（催官人は官司からの地下人補任の申請があれば、ほとんどの場合そのまま受理していた）。
The rank of Shimokanjin was traded in the form of 'stock' ostensibly through adoption of 'the buyer' by 'the seller' in most cases, and sometimes 'collected' by the government office on the pretext of staff acquisition, which led some cases of merchants and farmers in Kyoto and its surroundings acquiring the rank of Jige official for the purpose of raising their social status or earning their living, i.e., securing their jobs (In most cases, Saikanjin accepted the application for appointment of Jigenin by the government office without question).

彼ら急進派の政府転覆計画は結局は具現化をみるには至らなかったが、その後発生した1884年（明治17年）6月の群馬事件は、群馬県の下部自由党 (明治)員が、妙義山麓に困窮に苦しむ農民を結集し、圧制打倒の兵をあげようとしたものであり、さらに同年9月に発生した加波山事件は、茨城県の加波山に爆裂弾で武装した16人の急進的な民権運動家が挙兵し、警官隊と衝突するというものであった。
After all the plot of overthrowing the government of the radicals was not realized, but in subsequent Gunma Incident occurred in June 1884, local members of the Liberal Party (Meiji period) in Gunma Prefecture, gathering peasants in poverty at the foot of Mt. Myogi, tried to raise an army against suppression and furthermore in Kabasan Incident occurred in September of the same year sixteen democratic radicals armed with bombs raised an army and encountered the police force.

極端の場合として領内の凶作にも関わらず、貸付の停止を恐れた藩が農民から強制的に徴収して蔵屋敷に送って、同一年の年貢米を担保に複数の商人から融資を受ける例や、返済実績の確保を行ったために蔵屋敷に大量に米が送られているにも関わらず領内は飢饉で餓死者が出るという「飢饉移出」が発生して餓死者の発生に伴って耕作者のいない田畑が発生して更なる財政収入の悪化をもたらして更なる大名貸を依頼するという悪循環が発生した例もあった。
There were some extreme cases such as an example that domains who were in fear of termination of loaning collected rice from farmers forcibly and sent the rice to their kurayasiki to arrange finance loans from several merchants by putting the rice as security, or another example that domains who were giving priority on repaying sent a large amount of rice to their kurayashiki even though people were dying from starvation in their territories, which created a bad circulation of more need of arranging daimyogashi because of worsened financial inflow caused by less farmers on farmland after starvation.