考: 1000 Terms and Phrases
- 思考障害
- dyslogia
- thought disturbance
- ご参考まで
- for your reference
- FYR
- for your information
- FYI
- 考古資料 43件
- Archaeological materials: 43
- 参考記事松浦の太鼓
- References on Matsuura no Taiko
- 実在についての考察
- Consideration about existence
- (参考)酒田本間氏
- (Reference) The Sakatahonma family.
- 平出〔皇考〕(同上)
- The term 'Oko' (an honorific title given to the Emperor's father who passed away) was quoted in this Article as the same Heishutsu word as mentioned above.
- 入寮選考と入寮資格の拡大
- Selection for entering the dormitory and easing of the requirements for entering
- 槍先に付けたと考えられる。
- They were supposedly attached to spear heads.
- 為考課等級(教官の評価法)
- Ikoka Tokyu (how to evaluate instructors)
- 無論これは山鹿の考えである。
- Of course this is a thought of Yamaga.
- 無論これは新渡戸の考えである。
- Of course this thought is attributed to Nitobe.
- 縄文時代後期の作と考えられる。
- This was thought to be manufactured in the late Jomon period.
- 5世紀頃であると考えられている。
- These miyakes were believed to be built around the 5th Century A.D.
- 概ね以上のように考えられている。
- The above is a generally accepted view on the edict.
- それは十分考えられることである。
- It is highly likely that the latter theory is correct.
- 守護領国制と対になる考え方である。
- It was compared with shugo-ryogoku sei (the system where shugo [a provincial military governor] dominates a manor).
- 竜巻の規模を表す藤田スケールを考案。
- He developed the Fujita Scale to differentiate tornado size.
- (この考え方は現代でも行われている)。
- (This still applies today).
- - 茶室を思想的な背景のもとに考察した。
- - Studied chashitsu (tea room), focusing on its ideological background.
- このことも大敗の重要な要因と考えられる。
- This can be also regarded as a crucial factor for their defeat.
- ただし、こうした考え方に対して批判もある。
- However, there is also criticism to such a view.
- そこで、これを利用した便法が考え出される。
- Therefore, making use of such concept, one adopted a convenient practice of Katatagae.
- おそらくこの刀が造られた年紀と考えられる。
- This is probably the year when this blade was made.
- こうした状況を見た伊藤博文は考えを改めた。
- Observing this situation, Hirobumi ITO changed his mind.
- これが、本来の百姓だったと考えられている。
- It is thought that it was the original system of peasants.
- 文面からは、対等の関係での贈与と考えられる。
- According to the sentence, it is considered that both countries were on equal terms.
- 少なくとも栄禄ら戦争消極派はそう考えていた。
- At least, Ronglu and others who had a negative attitude toward war were thinking so.
- 班田収授は唐の均田制を参考にしたものである。
- Following the Equal-field system in the Tang Dynasty, the Japanese government introduced Handen Shuju.
- これが後代の口分田の始源だったと考えられる。
- It is considered that this constituted the origin of kubunden in later eras.
- 後世の工兵の役割を担っていたと考えられている。
- It is considered that kurokuwa played a role corresponding to that of kohei (military engineer) in later periods.
- 江戸時代初期迄、行われていたと考えられている。
- It is considered that yugisho was conducted until the early Edo period.
- 「夲」は「本」の異体字であると考えられている。
- The character '夲' is considered as a variant character of '本' (hon).
- そのためその多くが黄砂であると考えられている。
- Therefore, it is considered that most of the aerosol comes from kosa.
- このため、乾燥化が進んでいると考えられている。
- Therefore, it is considered that dry land has expanded in these areas as well.
- そのため、殆ど効力がなかったと考えられている。
- It was for this reason that the law is considered to have been largely ineffective.
- しかし、これは伝説の域を出ないとする考えもある。
- According to an estimate, this reference was considered as no more than a legend.
- 散位寮は散位を名簿によって管理しその考課を行う。
- Sanniryo controlled and evaluated Sanni (courtiers without a post) with the name lists.
- 日本による近代化の要請も内政干渉であると考えた。
- It regarded the request from Japan for modernization as interference in its domestic affairs.
- 通説では大久保長安事件への連座と考えられている。
- It is commonly believed that the punishment of the ISHIKAWA clan was due to the their involvement in the Nagayo OKUBO incident.
- この三人が合戦の各方面の大将を務めたと考えられる。
- We can consider that these three served as the generals commanding the battles in each direction.
- おそらくもっと多く入っていることと考えられている。
- It is thought that more than the above two existed into Japan.
- どちらも畑の畝(うね)に由来するものと考えられる。
- But both of them seem to have originated from une in a field.
- この事から、立場の違いに起因する異字と考えられる。
- In view of the above, the difference of letters comes from the difference of positions.
- 長元2年(1029年)以前の成立と考えられている。
- However, it is said that it was established before 1029.
- 再度世論が沸騰するのを防ぐためだと考えられている。
- It is said that it was because they wanted to prevent the another rising tide of public opinion.
- こうした商人もまた、土倉のルーツと考えられている。
- Doso are thought to have developed from these merchants.
- この流れの中で口分田も消滅していったと考えられる。
- It is considered that kubunden became extinct in this trend.
- 解由状は、平安前期には有効に機能したと考えられる。
- It is considered that geyujo functioned effectively during the first half of the Heian period.
- これも下請企業と考えればそう不自然なことではない。
- It was not unusual when comparing it with a subcontracting firm.
- 持氏が幕府に対して反抗する事態を考慮したからである。
- The bakufu acted as this in case Mochiuji took action against them.
- これらの遺跡からムラを防御していることが考えられる。
- The layout discovered at these sites suggests that the moat was for defending the village.
- 以下は籾米1石から諸白を作ったと考えての計算である。
- The following calculation is based on the assumption that morohaku is made from one koku of unhulled rice.
- 両者の間には隠逸に対する本質的な考え方の変移がある。
- The existence of these two types of recluses demonstrates an essential change in the views about recluse over times.
- これは当時の日本の状況を考えると妥当な選択であった。
- It was an appropriate decision considering Japan's circumstances at the time.
- 健児は元々、軍団兵士の一区分だったと考えられている。
- Therefore, it's believed that the term 'kondei' originally referred to a status or a position of a cohort soldier.
- 吉田寮の入寮選考は吉田寮自治会によって行われている。
- Selection for entering the dormitory is conducted by the council of Yoshida dormitory.
- 簾や几帳を隔てて人に面会したことが語源と考えられる。
- It is believed that the etymology of 'Gorenju' came from the custom of women meeting people on opposite sides of a sudare (bamboo screen) or kicho (screen).
- マカダミアをチョコレートで包んだ製品を考案し、を創業。
- He came up with the idea for chocolate covered macadamia nut candy and founded a business.
- - 四天王寺など失われた寺院建築の復元的考察を行った。
- - Conducted restoration studies on the architecture of lost temples including Shitenno-ji Temple.
- いわゆる「大化の改新」はその後に行われたと考えられる。
- It is thought that the so called 'Taika Reforms' were carried out after that.
- 682年(天武11)8月、官人の考選に族姓を重んじる。
- August, 682: The hereditary titles were valued to select the government official.
- 一方、銅鐸は出現当初から祭祀に用いられたと考えられる。
- On the other hand, dotaku is believed to be a tool for rituals from the time of emergence.
- 備考であるが、東宮傅・東宮学士とは直接的な関係はない。
- As a remark, they were not directly related to Togu no fu (an official in charge of education of the Crown Prince) and Togugakushi (Teacher of the Classics of the Crown Prince).
- 当初は枕木に関し、鉄製のものを輸入しようと考えていた。
- In the beginning, they considered importing iron crossties.
- このことから貞応元年の誤記ではないかと考えられている。
- Therefore, it is considered that the author mistook 貞応6年 for 貞応元年 (the first year of Teio (1222)).
- それは、頼朝政権の路線確定を表すものと考えられている。
- It is considered to be an indication that the Yoritomo government determined its direction.
- 筆を誤ったのでその場で加筆したというのも少々考えにくい。
- This makes it unlikely that the scribe corrected the mistake on the spot.
- (ここは、鎌田元一や前之園亮一の部民制を主に参考にした。
- (The bemin system studied by Motokazu KAMADA and Ryoichi MAENOSONO were mainly referenced here.)
- 信長は本願寺を倒すためにまず雑賀衆を抑えることを考えた。
- In order to defeat Hongan-ji Temple, Nobunaga first considered taking control of Saikashu.
- これは宗氏主導で計画的に起こされたものと考えられている。
- This is considered to have been systematically carried out under the leadership of the So clan.
- ただし、どこの国の制度を参考にするかは明らかにしなかった。
- However, Ito didn't mention from which country he will have a model of the system.
- - 重要文化財、徳島市矢野遺跡出土、徳島市立考古資料館保管
- Important Cultural Property, excavated in the Yano Ruins in Tokushima City, possessed by the Tokushima Archaeological Museum
- 各地に残存する「位田」地名が位田の遺称地とする考えもある。
- Some think that the location name of 'iden,' which have been remained in various regions, is the ishochi of iden.
- 頼朝は助命を考えたが、祐経の遺児に請われて斬首を申し渡す。
- Although he considered sparing his life, Yoritomo was appealed to by Suketsune's orphaned child and sentenced Goro to decapitation.
- 一方、銅鐸の生産は近畿地方などで行われたと考えられている。
- On the other hand, dotaku was manufactured in the Kinki region.
- 側面しか見えないために刻面は全く考慮していないものが多い。
- Because only the edges were visible, no consideration was given to many of their facets.
- 「近江京」とは、「おうみのみやこ」の意味であると考えられる。
- Omi-kyo' is believed to mean 'Omi no Miyako (capital).'
- (また、これとは別に徳川家の鉄砲も考慮に入れる必要がある。)
- (It is also necessary to take into account the teppo used by the Tokugawa family).
- 日本では1965年の条約締結以降に無効になったと考えている。
- In Japan it has been considered to become invalid after the conclusion of the treaty of 1965.
- 黒田ら全権大使たちの個人的判断で挿入されたと考えられている。
- It was thought that this provision was inserted at the personal decision of the ambassador plenipotentiary, Kuroda, and his team.
- このような状況からみて、狩猟具が武器に変質したと考えられる。
- It is thought from these circumstances that tools for hunting became weapons.
- 政治に対する学問の独立性及び中立性を考えさせるものになった。
- This incident made people think of the academic independence and neutrality for the politics.
- 政府関係者はその検討の際に非即位論が不敬だとは考えなかった。
- Government officials did not consider the non-enthronement theory irreverent during discussion.
- 624年、唐は前代隋の律令を参考として新たに律令を制定した。
- In 624, Tang established a new ritsuryo code based on the ritsuryo code in the previous dynasty of Sui.
- 挙兵以来、鎌倉方では非常に大きな戦力を有していたと考えられる。
- Since they had raised their army, the Kai-Genji seemed to have possessed an extremely large military power.
- 考古学的には、須恵器の出現は古墳時代中期、5世紀中頃とされる。
- In the archaeological point of view, it is believed that people started to produce Sueki in the middle of the Kofun period, which is around mid-fifth century.
- 不況下においては兵役もまた生活の糧を得る手段として考えられた。
- Military service was considered as a measure to earn a living under depression.
- 金本位制には、国際収支を均衡させる効果があると考えられている。
- Gold standard system is considered to have an effect on providing equilibrium to international balance of payment.
- 現存の弘仁格・弘仁式の条文はこの改正後のものと考えられている。
- The existing copies of the Konin-Kyaku and Konin-Shiki are believed to be from after the final revision.
- 壬申年一年に一巻をあてた異例の編集にともなう変則と考えられる。
- It was considered to be an irregular description due to an exceptional edition of allocating an entire volume to the Jinshin year.
- この事を考慮すると、これも歴史的事実に即した英訳とは言えない。
- Considering that the proper English translation is 'farmer,' translating 'hyakusho ikki' as 'peasant uprising' is not grounded in historical fact.
- 逆落しが本当にあったとすれば、この方が多少は現実的と考えられる。
- If Yoshitsune's army had actually executed 'sakaotoshi' maneuver, then these depictions in 'Azuma Kagami' seems slightly more realistic.
- そのため、やはり戦になった場合の事も考えていたとする反論もある。
- Therefore, some historians and experts supported an opposition theory that the Taira clan was still prepared militarily in the case of possibly engaging in battle.
- こうして、建築はもっぱら工学的な学問と考えられる風潮が強まった。
- As a result, there developed a tendency to view architecture solely as an engineering concept.
- 原詔は日本書紀に記載のとおりではなかった可能性が考えられている。
- The possibility is suggested that the original edict was not the same as described in Nihonshoki.
- そのため従来の百済一辺倒の外交を改め各国と協調外交を考えていた。
- Therefore, they considered shifting the policy which was focused on Baekje to another that would build cooperative diplomatic relations with each country.
- 決して近代的な国際関係の中に自国が置かれたとは考えていなかった。
- Korea certainly did not think they were involved in modern international relations.
- 新井は長崎奉行大岡清相からの意見書を参考にし、改革案を起案した。
- Arai developed a reform plan based on a proposal submitted by Kiyosuke OOKA, Nagasaki bugyo (the collective name of magistrates placed in important areas directly controlled by the government in the Edo period.)
- この時期の日本での代表的論考は井上秀雄『任那日本府と倭』である。
- The argument and consideration in Japan at the time were led by 'Mimana Nihon-fu to Wa' (Japanese Mimana Government and Japan) by Hideo INOUE.
- 賜田が支給されていたのは、主に有力貴族層だったと考えられている。
- It is considered that shiden was maily provided to a dominant nobility class.
- 検断権は、もともと荘園・公領領主が保有していたと考えられている。
- It is believed that lords of a manor and public land originally had the right to judge criminal cases.
- 1つは、いずれも領主による所領支配を表していたとする考えである。
- One is that each of them indicated territorial control by a ryoshu.
- ただしその量は、発生地の毎回の天候に左右されると考えられている。
- However, it is considered that the actual amounts depend on the weather of the place where each of the kosa is produced.
- などから、流通目的で富本銭が造られたとは考えにくいと主張している。
- Therefore the theory has it that it is difficult to consider Fuhonsen coin was made to distribute.
- すでに民間では、無文銀銭が通貨として使われていたと考えられること。
- It is assumed that Mumon-ginsen coin (Japan's oldest private silver coin) was already used among the general public.
- 頼徳勢は善戦するが、補給と戦闘の終息を考慮し再び那珂湊へ後退する。
- Yorinori and his force fought well but again retreated to Nakaminato considering the recruital and end of the battle.
- 当時の織田家が鉄砲をどのくらい集めることができたかを考えてみたい。
- Let us consider how many teppo the Oda family could collect at the time.
- 狭い船内での斬り合いでは、日本の武士の方に分があったと考えられる。
- It is considered that Japanese samurai had an advantage in the battles in narrow spaces inside the ships.
- その他に、典、略、考、など歴史書によっていろいろな言い方がされる。
- The name varies according to history books like 'ten,' 'ryaku,' 'ko' and so on.
- 以理解(いりげ)…考解・犯罪解にあたらないその他の理由による解任。
- Irige…Dismissal due to the reasons other than koge and hanzaige.
- 縄文時代に植物栽培が行われていたことは確実であると考えられている。
- It is agreed that the people certainly cultivated plants during the Jomon period.
- さらに関津遺跡の幅18mの道路跡も関連する遺跡であると考えられる。
- Besides, remains of a road 18 meters wide in the Sekinotsu site are considered to be related.
- 明日香村には飛鳥京を構成していたものだと考えられる遺跡は多数ある。
- There are many ruins thought to be parts of the Asuka-kyo in Asuka Village.
- 五芒星に五星を対応させる考え方は、後のヨーロッパにも見受けられる。
- The idea of the Gobosei representing five planets was also seen in later Europe.
- が、画の価値については一定の評価を得られていなかったと考えられる。
- However, it can be thought that their paintings failed to receive a certain appreciation.
- 冠位十二階の衣服については、高松塚古墳壁画の人物群像が参考になる。
- The depictions of people in the murals of the Takamatsuzuka tomb are useful for information on clothing for the twelve cap ranks.
- 従前から日本でも利子付き貸借の慣行が存在していたと考えられている。
- The system of loaning is widely believed to have already existed in Japan before the enforcement of the Yoro-ritsuryo-zoryo.
- 教育課程は中央の大学寮・典薬寮とほぼ同じ内容であったと考えられる。
- It is contemplated that their curricula were almost the same as those of daigakuryo (the bureau of education)/tenyakuryo (the bureau of medicine) established by the central government.
- それらの影響は考えられるが、その後日本の銅鐸は日本で独自に発達した。
- Japanese dotaku can probably have been affected by these bells, but they developed individually after being brought to Japan.
- 原文はカタカナ表記ですが、読みやすさを考慮してひらがな表記にします。
- The original is written in Katakana (fragmentary kana), but they are written in Hiragana (the Japanese cursive syllabary) in order to be read easily.
- 近年は考古学における発掘調査の進展や既知の遺跡の再検討がされている。
- In recent years the excavation and research has been progressing in archaeology and these well-known remains have been reexamined.
- 鎌倉期でいう「城郭を構える」と呼ばれる行為に類するものと考えられる。
- It is considered to have been a kind of act called 'building castle walls' in the Kamakura period (which meant preparing for a battle).
- さらに、本居宣長も『国号考』で倭の由来が不詳であることを述べている。
- And Norinaga MOTOORI also said in 'Kokugoko' that the origin of wa is unknown.
- が、参考にした複数の写本の間にも文字の違いや巻構成の違いが見られた。
- Still, among the several manuscripts he used for reference, there were some differences in the characters and the structure of volumes.
- 「南進」はその後の国策の有力な選択肢の一つと考えられるようになった。
- 'Southward advance' was considered as one of the powerful options for Japan's prospective policy.
- これはロシア沿海州やシベリア地方との関連の深い遺物と考えられている。
- These are believed to be the relics deeply connected with Russian maritime provinces and Siberian region.
- 天から御札が降ってくる話はお蔭参りの御札降りに由来すると考えられる。
- Widespread stories that talismans would fall from heaven probably derived from the tale of the falling down talismans that triggered the okagemairi pilgrimage.
- 百済・新羅もそれぞれ独自の「天下」概念を有していたと考えられている。
- It is thought that Baekje and Silla also had their own notion of 'Tenka.'
- 後の納銭方・公方御倉などに発展していく契機となったと考えられている。
- It is considered to have developed into Nosenkata (an institution to collect tax from moneylenders and sake breweries) and Kubo-okura (finance branch).
- また日本は朝鮮を文化の先進国と考え、使節を派遣するよう要請してきた。
- In addition, Japan requested Korea to send an envoy, considering Korea a culturally advanced nation.
- 室町時代・戦国時代 (日本)を中心とした中世後期の日本社会を考える。
- Consider the Japanese society of the later middle ages around the Muromachi and Sengoku periods (the Warring States period).
- 全国的に見られる条里地割の多くは、この墾田開発に伴うものと考えられる。
- Many jori chiwari throughout Japan are thought to be done together with this development of new rice fields.
- これをもっともと考えた将軍綱吉は赤穂浪士へ切腹を命じることを決意した。
- Shogun Tsunayoshi agreed with this opinion and decided to issue an order to Ako Roshi to commit seppuku.
- なお、統帥権独立の考えが生まれた源流としては、以下のことがあげられる。
- The idea of the independence of the supreme command came originally from the following facts.
- 最初期の国衙は、律令制構築段階の7世紀後期に登場したと考えられている。
- It is believed that the earliest type of Kokuga appeared during the development stage of the Ritsuryo system which established in the late seventh century.
- こういった間諜行為が考慮されてか、文永の役以降は使者を斬るようになる。
- After Bunei no Eki, Japan killed envoys, probably being afraid of such spying.
- 特に最後に関しては、織田との合戦を考慮していなかったという意味になる。
- The last reason in particular implies that the Takeda clan did not consider a war with the Oda clan.
- これは穂の部分だけをむしるように切り取っていたためだと考えられている。
- It is considered that because only the part of rice ear was plucked off.
- そして、15代の天皇を軸とする天皇系譜を新たに作成して考察を展開した。
- And he made a new Imperial lineage centering on the emperors of 15 generations and developed his discussion.
- 柳はこうして収集した工芸品を私有せず広く一般に公開したいと考えていた。
- Yanagi did not think to make his collection of handicrafts private, but wanted to show it to the public.
- 北魏(中国)の均田制における露田が口分田の前身であると考えられている。
- It is considered that a bare field in the equal-field system in Northern Wei (in China) was the predecessor of kubunden.
- 中国国内の砂漠化・乾燥化地域のほとんどが黄砂の発生源と考えられている。
- It is considered that kosa can be originated in almost all of the desert and dry land in China.
- 土倉役は土倉が抑えている質物の員数に応じて徴収されたと考えられている。
- It is believed that dosoyaku was charged in accordance with the number of items held by a doso.
- 結局、この技術は百済から伽耶を経て日本列島に伝えられたと考えられている。
- Consequently, this technique is considered to have been conveyed from Baekje to Japan via Kaya.
- 六壬神課で使用する十二天将は、十二月将をベースに作成されたと考えられる。
- Junitensho (Twelve symbolism) used in Rikujinshinka (Six Chinese fortune-telling based on time) are thought to have been made based on Junigessho.
- この令は、律令制の本格施行ではなく先駆的に施行したものと考えられている。
- It is considered that the ryo anticipated enforcement of the Ritsuryo system, and not full-scale enforcement of the Ritsuryo system.
- 紀ノ川河口付近を抑えることから、海運や貿易にも携わっていたと考えられる。
- It is believed that Saikashu were also involved in marine transportation and trade as they controlled the area near the estuary of the Kino-kawa River.
- その場合は、骨角器である回転式離頭銛の先端に付けたものと考えられている。
- Sekizoku is thought to be attached to the top part of a rotary-type separation head harpoon (a bone tool) when it was used as a fishing tool.
- 時代の進行とともに連合していき、一つの勢力が出来ていった、と考えられる。
- It is believed that smaller groups combined to form one power as period went forward.
- 日本の律令法においては、最も古くから存在した規定の1つと考えられている。
- In the Japanese Ritsuryo law system, the Kushiki-ryo law was one of the oldest rules and regulations existed in Japan, as it has been so believed.
- 社会進化論は、あらゆる人類が同じ発展をすると考える単一的発展史観を取る。
- Evolutionism takes a simple view of humankind development that all mankind develop through the same process.
- 現在の巡査階級の警察官に当たるのは三廻などの同心と考えるのが妥当である。
- It is a good guess that Doshin such as Sanmawari corresponded to current policemen with the rank of constable.
- この支配拡大の過程では大小の勢力や種族との衝突があったと考えられている。
- Then, during the process of power expansion there seemed to have been conflicts with tribal elements, and powers, large and small.
- 頼長の性格からしてその当時のもっとも頑丈な倉庫であったと考えられている。
- Judging from Yorinaga's character, his book storerooms are thought to have been the strongest storerooms of the time.
- 直接記録に残ってはいないが、東北地方も例外ではなかったと考えられている。
- It is believed, although there is no written record of this, that the Tohoku region was not spared the effects of the disaster.
- 現在の岡崎公園 (京都市)、京都市動物園周辺がその跡地と考えられている。
- The area around the present Okazaki Park (Kyoto City) and Kyoto Municipal Zoo was considered to be the sight of the temple, i.e., the Shirakawa betsugyo.
- これはあくまで参考であるが、花登の考証であるから、ほぼ間違いないであろう。
- This is just a reference, but as Hanato checked the historical background, things in the play must be correct for the most part.
- 評の設置は、このように、地方社会のあり方を大きく変革したと考えられている。
- In this way, it is believed that the establishment of koori greatly transformed the form of local societies.
- 水稲農耕とともに大陸からもたらされた新しい集落の境界施設と考えられている。
- The use of moat is thought to have been introduced to Japan from the Chinese continent along with wet-rice cultivation, forming a new style of village boundary.
- 唐の永徽律令(えいきりつれい、651年制定)を参考にしたと考えられている。
- It is believed that Eiki Ritsurei (the Ritsuryo code that was established in Tang Dynasty in 651) of Tang was referred to.
- 縄文時代に儀式に使用されたと考えられる石棒を広義の石器に含めることがある。
- Sekibo (stone bars) which are believed to have been used for rituals in the Jomon period may be included in sekki in the broad sense.
- 結論としては、正徳の治と享保の改革には断絶があると考えるのは相当ではない。
- As a conclusion, it is not reasonable to think that there was a discontinuity between Shotoku no chi and Kyoho reforms.
- このような各種の公的証明を端的に行うために考え出されたのが「官印」である。
- Kanin' was created to easily provide official evidence for those cases.
- 実際にこれらの墨書小判を作り直したと考えられる慶長古鋳小判が現存している。
- There actually exists Keicho Koban which is thought to be recast of these Sumigaki Koban.
- これは当時洛水をまたいで造営されていた唐の洛陽城に倣ったものと考えられる。
- This is considered to follow the Luoyng Castle in Tang, which was built across the Luo River.
- 政元は将軍殺しの汚名を嫌い、義材を小豆島あたりに流罪にしようと考えていた。
- Masamoto didn't like the stigma of killing a shogun, so he was thinking about expelling Yoshiki to Shodo-shima Island or somewhere else.
- 第三になにより対外的に「まだ国際社会の同意を得られない」と考えていたこと。
- Thirdly, above all, they thought that 'consent would not yet be obtained from the external international society.'
- ペリーは香港で将軍家慶の死を知り、国政の混乱の隙を突こうと考えたのである。
- In Hong Kong, Perry had heard about the death of Shogun Ieyoshi, and was now trying to exploit the resulting confusion in the Shogunate.
- そこで前軍と合流しようと考えたが、前軍は蝦夷軍に阻まれて渡河できなかった。
- Thereupon, the main forces tried to join with the front troop which, however, was not able to cross the river being blocked by the Emishi forces.
- この名称はこの時期に限られており、後代に贈られた和風諡号とは考えられない。
- This name is limited to this period of time and it is not regarded as the Japanese-style okurina (the posthumous title given after the death of the person in question).
- 国は、天武10年(681年)以前に、律令制の国が成立していたと考えられる。
- It is thought that the ritsuryo system provinces were established prior to the year 681.
- つまり、すべての人に等しく教育を説き、理想の実現と人間平等の考え方である。
- Namely, it's a concept that explains the meaning of education to everyone, and it implies human equality and the realization of an ideal.
- ただし、それらの道路や水路が完全な直線の場合はむしろ近年の地割と考えられる。
- However, if the streets and ditches are perfect straight lines, they are rather considered to be recent allocation.
- しかしながらわずか20年で三代が経過し、収公の期限が近づくとは考えられない。
- However, it is impossible to think that three generations pass only for 20 years and the time limit for confiscation comes close.
- 律令制の確立を以って、古代日本の国家建設がひとまず完了したと考えられている。
- It is considered that the formation of the ancient Japanese state was completed with the establishment of the Ritsuryo system.
- このような唐からの文化移入には特に太宰府の果たした役割が大きいと考えられる。
- Dazai-fu (local government office in Kyushu region) is considered to have played a major role in this transfer of culture from Tang.
- そもそも朝鮮側は、江華島事件に関する謝罪と賠償が交渉のテーマだと考えていた。
- Korea thought from the beginning that the theme of negotiations would be an apology and compensation for the Ganghwa Island incident.
- イギリスは、義和団事変以来満州から撤兵しないロシアを牽制したいと考えていた。
- Britain had wanted to keep Russia in check, which had not withdrawn troops from Manchuria since the Boxer Uprising.
- 考古学的に確認できる確実な殉死の例はなく普遍的に行われていたかは不明である。
- Because there was no concrete example of junshi which can be proved archaeologically, it is unknown whether junshi was generally performed or not.
- 朝幕共存共栄の見地から、皇家の血統に万一があった場合を考えての創設であった。
- Considering the mutual benefit and harmony between the Shogunate and the Imperial Court, the Kaninnomiya family was founded to prepare for an emergency of the genealogy of the Imperial family.
- 他には、興亜論へのアンチ・テーゼとして「脱亜論」が発表されたとの考えもある。
- Some thought that 'Datsu-A Ron' was published against the 'Ko-A Ron' (Stay-with-Asia Theory).
- しかし、石田散薬は黒焼きにしたため薬効が台無しになってしまったと考えられる。
- However, when it was charred for Ishida Sanyaku, such efficacy was considered to become ruined.
- この時期に、難波宮の周辺に京域、すなわち難波京も造営されたと考えられている。
- It is thought that the capital city surrounding Naniwa no miya, that is, Naniwa no kyo, was constructed around the same time.
- 副島種臣と福岡孝弟がアメリカ合衆国憲法および『西洋事情』等を参考に起草した。
- Taneomi SOEJIMA and Takachika FUKUOKA drafted 'The Constitution of 1868' mainly referencing 'The Constitution of the United States of America' and 'Seiyo jijo' (affairs in the Western countries).
- 判決は、大した罰を受けるとは考えていなかった彼らの楽観を裏切る内容であった。
- The contents of the decision were contrary to their optimistic expectation that they would not be severely punished.
- 仮に、最初に京に届いた早馬の言上を事実とすれば、以下の様に考える事も出来る。
- Assuming that the contents of the first message having arrived at Kyoto, carried by post horses, were true, the following considerations are feasible as well:
- 備考:藤原仲麻呂政権下で左右京を一人で統治する京尹(きょういん)が置かれた。
- Remarks: Kyoin which supervised both Sakyo and Ukyo by itself was established under FUJIWARA no Nakamaro's government.
- 殷の時代には世界としての「天下」はいまだ成立していなかったと考えられている。
- It is thought that 'Tenka' was not established as the world in the Yin dynasty era.
- 屯営では行軍隊が三本木方面に抜けているのでは考え、三本木警察に電報を出した。
- The people waiting in the barracks sent a telegraph to Sanbongi police, thinking the troop might be marching toward Sanbongi.
- 当時、悪党と呼ばれた者の中には、こうした名主も含まれていたと考えられている。
- It is believed that those who were called villains during this period may have included some of these disobedient myoshu farmers.
- そのため、その成分は発生する地域と通過する地域により異なると考えられている。
- Therefore, it is considered that the components depend on the place where the kosa is generated and on the areas where it passes.
- 参考として、発生地側の新疆ウイグル自治区での砂塵嵐の日数を調べた統計がある。
- For a reference, on a kosa producing site, there is statistical data about the number of days when a sandstorm was generated in the Sinkiang Uigur Autonomous Region.
- いずれにせよ、この計画を遂行するため、三世一身法が施行されたと考えられている。
- Anyway the Sanze-isshin Law is thought to be enforced to carry out this project.
- 新和同は銅銭しか見つかっていないことから、銀銭廃止後に発行されたと考えられる。
- Shinwado coins are thought to have been issued after the silver coins were discontinued since only the copper Shinwado coins could be found.
- 日本の固有の伝承は元来干支記事などもなく、史実の核は非常に乏しいと考えられる。
- Originally, a tradision native to Japan has no recorded articles about the Oriental zodiac; so, scholars believed in the extreme scarcity of an identifiable foundation for these historical facts.
- 環濠集落は稲作文化と同時に大陸から伝来し、列島東部へ波及したと考えられている。
- The moat settlement is thought to have introduced to Japan from the Chinese continent along with wet-rice cultivation, spreading eastward on the archipelago.
- この条文は、朝鮮が清朝の藩属国であること考慮して特に日本が挿入した一文である。
- This provision was specially inserted by Japan considering the situation of Korea as a client state of the Qing dynasty.
- この柄頭は、三葉環頭と称されるもので、埋葬の直前に付け替えられたと考えられる。
- This tsuka gashira is called Sanyokanto, and it seems to have been replaced right before burial.
- 縄文時代前期の遺物とみられるが、使用痕跡もなく、祭祀のための遺物と考えられる。
- Although it is regarded as a relic in the early Jomon period, it showed no sign of having been used, so it is seen as a relic for religious service.
- 環濠集落は、このような集団同士の争いに備えた防衛集落であったと考えられていた。
- A moat settlement was believed to be a defense against battles between groups.
- 三重県津市に現存する一身田の地名は、賜田としての一身田の痕跡と考えられている。
- The existing name of Isshinden in Tsu City, Mie Prefecture, is considered to be the trace of shiden given as an Isshinden in those days.
- なお、実際の経営は付近の農民による賃租によって耕作されていたと考えられている。
- It is considered that actual farming of Koden was done by tenant farmers in the neighbor.
- よって、中国に使者を派遣したり、中国の使者を迎えることはなかったと考えられる。
- Therefore, historians and experts believed that the sending of an envoy to China and the invitation of a Chinese envoy to Japan did not occur during this time period
- 前述の1万2000という数は、途中で合流した農民を含む数と考える研究者もいる。
- Some researchers say that the number of 12,000 demonstrators includes those who joined the procession later.
- このような酒屋も明治時代以降は、大きく二つの流れに分けて考えなくてはならない。
- In the Meiji period and later, it should be considered that sakaya came to take either of two major different business styles.
- 古代の日本では、釉薬は高度な技術であり、国家の管理下にあったと考えられている。
- Glaze techniques were considered so valuable in ancient Japan that they were put under the control of the government.
- 各国で制度が整ったのはようやく奈良時代末期になってからであると考えられている。
- It is contemplated that this system became full-fledged in all provinces only in the late Nara period.
- これは藤原不比等が、父親である藤原鎌足の功績を高く評価させたためとも考えられる。
- This may be because FUJIWARA no Fuhito let people esteem the achievements of his father, FUJIWARA no Kamatari.
- 諸親王の中でも血筋・経歴・学識にもっとも秀でた者が就任する官職と考えられていた。
- Namely, it was believed that such an Imperial Prince outstanding at lineage, career and scholarship could assume the post of Shikibu-Kyo.
- 彼らは幕府内にあって将軍権力と有力御家人の間の中間勢力をなしていたと考えられる。
- They are considered to have constituted the middle power between the shogun and the senior vassals within the bakufu.
- また、郡域が広域にわたる場合には別院の政治的拠点が存在していたと考えられている。
- It is also believed that there was a betsuin (branch facility, branch temple) for conducting supportive political affairs, in case a gun's (county) area was too large to manage through a central office.
- これにより、公地公民制、租庸調の税制、班田収授法などが確立したと考えられている。
- The edict is thought to have established Kochi Komin sei (a system of complete state ownership of land and citizen), Soyocho taxation system and Handen Shuju ho (the law of periodic reallocations of rice land).
- これらから、政治的・経済的集落であり、拠点的集落という性格を有すると考えられる。
- These findings show that larger moat settlements functioned as a central foothold of politics and economy.
- 考古学的調査により、彼らが最初に水稲を持ち込み、いわゆる弥生時代に繋がっていく。
- Archeological research indicates that they first imported paddy rice, which led to, as it is called, the Yayoi period.
- 忍器(にんき)は、かつて忍者達が使用していたであろうと考えられている道具の総称。
- Ninki is a general term for tools that were supposedly used by the Ninja (a secret agent in feudal Japan highly skilled in stealth and secrecy).
- 弥生時代の開始についてはかつて中国の春秋戦国時代の混乱と関連付ける考えがあった。
- There used to be a theory that related the beginning of the Yayoi period with disturbance of the Spring and Autumn periods and the Warring States period in China.
- 現在の民間での六曜信仰に、赤舌日とともになんらかの形で影響したと考えられている。
- It is thought that Syakkonichi, with Shakuzetsunichi (the day ruled by Syakuzetsujin [the guardian god of the west gate of the capital of Taisaijin]) had some influence on the present folk belief in Rokuyo (literally, 'six days,' the traditional six days in Japanese calendar).
- このため、各地の攘夷派は新政府が成立すれば当然攘夷が断行されるものと考えていた。
- For this, local anti-foreigner factions thought that anti-foreigner policy will be operated if when the new government realized.
- この事はもともと、隼人が朝廷の軍事に従事していた伝統によるものと考えられている。
- This was originally by the tradition that Hayato served for the military of the Imperial Court.
- このいずれかが母体となって3世紀半ばまでにヤマト王権が成立したと考えられている。
- Historians and other experts believed that the Yamato sovereignty's establishment was based upon either one of two parent political organizations during the middle of the third century.
- 材質が木製であることや呪術的な文様などから実戦用ではなく祭具用と考えられている。
- They are believed to have been used as a ceremonial implement not used in an actual battle since they are made of wood and have magical patterns.
- 現在の民間での六曜信仰に、赤口日とともになんらかの形で影響したと考えられている。
- Shakuzetsu-nichi Day together with Shakko-nichi Day is thought to have influenced folk belief of Rokuyo (a recurring six-day series of lucky or unlucky days that is incorporated into the Japanese calendar) one way or another.
- マルコポーロが金の寺や宮殿の説明をしていたので、日本は黄金の国と考えられていた。
- Marco POLO described Japan as having a golden temple and palace, therefore Japan was considered to be a country of gold.
- したがって下記にある若党、中間、小者に分けた解説はあくまで参考程度の内容である。
- Therefore, the following description dividing them into wakato, chugen, and komono should be read only as a guide.
- しかし、『占事略决』が安倍晴明の自撰であることは、信憑性が高いと考えられている。
- However, the fact that 'Senji ryakketsu' was compiled by ABE no Seimei is credible.
- 焙烙火矢(ほうろくひや)は、戦国時代 (日本)の日本で考案、使用されていた兵器。
- Horokuhiya was a weapon invented and used in Japan during the Sengoku period (period of warring states) (Japan).
- 実態としては大目付、目付などを補う将軍直属の監察官に相当する職であると考えられる。
- Their position was actually equivalent to the assistant of Oometsuke (senior inspector) and Ometuke (general inspector) under the direct command of the shogun.
- だが、史料上にも乏しくなり、中国商人の日本居住が困難になっていたと考えられている。
- But the instances of the trade between the two countries became scarce in historical materials, and it is considered that Chinese merchants residing in Japan had been already difficult by then.
- 陶器(とうき)と混乱を避けるため、現代の考古学用語としては須恵器が一般化している。
- In order to avoid confusion with 陶器 which is read 'Toki' meaning earthenware nowadays, the archaeological term 'Sueki' is commonly used.
- このことから、須恵器生産においてヤマト王権が主導的役割を果たしていたと考えられる。
- Thus, it is considered that Yamato sovereignty was playing the major role in Sueki production.
- - 造幣局 (日本)(大阪)での化学・冶金指導など、古墳研究で考古学にも貢献(英)
- - Served as an adviser in chemistry and metallurgy at Japan's Mint (in Osaka); he also contributed to the field of archeology in the study of kofun (ancient burial mound)
- 現存する養老律令には、天皇を規定する条文がない(大宝律令も同様と考えられている)。
- The extant Yoro Ritsuryo Code does not contain any provisions regarding the Emperor (this is considered to have been the same for the Taiho Ritsuryo Code).
- 考解(こうげ)…勤務評定による成績が悪いことを理由として、懲戒処分として行われる。
- Koge…Carried on as disciplinary action due to the unfavorable results in the service evaluation.
- 前述のように、縄文前期には日本列島内に九つの文化圏が成立していたと考えられている。
- As mentioned above, it is assumed that nine cultural regions were established in the Japanese archipelago by the early Jomon period.
- 世界にさきがけて中国東北部からシベリアのバイカル湖付近で発達したと考えられている。
- It is considered to have developed first around the northeastern part of China and the Lake Baikal before the rest of the world.
- 滋賀県から福井県にかけて、北北西方向にのびる柳ヶ瀬断層が活動したと考えられている。
- It is thought that it was caused by the movement of the Yanagase fault expanding toward north-northwest from Shiga Prefecture to Fukui Prefecture.
- これらに代わる整備された社格制度を作ることを考えられたが、成立するに至らなかった。
- It was planned to establish more organized shrine ranking system to replace this system, but it was not realized.
- 『続日本紀』には罪状についての記録はないが、川継の事件に連座したものと考えられる。
- There is no record about Uona's crime in 'Shoku Nihongi,' however, it is thought that he was implicated in Kawatsugu's incident.
- 東の駿河国の今川家との全面対決となった家康は西の織田信秀の子信長への接近を考えた。
- Ieyasu who became all-out confrontation with the Imagawa family of east Suruga Province thought about approach to the child of west Nobuhide ODA, Nobunaga.
- 事実上の支配があって、その支配を法的に保証するのが土地証文、と考えるべきだとする。
- He further discusses that it should be understood that there was a de facto domination and an act and a deed for land to legally guarantee the domination.
- 古代の盟神探湯を継承したと考えられているが、律令法時代にはこうした手法は存在しない。
- Yugisho is considered to be an inheritance of kukatachi (an ancient way of making a judgment by putting one's hands in hot water) from ancient times, but no such technique existed in the period of the Ritsuryo legal codes.
- 元勲世代からの総理大臣擁立は困難と考えた元老によって、新たに推されたのが桂であった。
- Genro (elder statesman) thought it almost impossible to elect a Prime Minister from the generation of Genkun (the statesmen who contributed in Meiji Restoration), so they decided to chose Katsura.
- 渡来は一時期に集中して起こった訳ではなく、幾つかの移入の波があったと考えられている。
- Torai (that people came from abroad) did not happen at a time, but there were supposedly some waves of immigration to Japan.
- 他、町火消が整備され、幕府が行っていた新田開発では、開発可能地の意見も参考にされた。
- Also, fire brigade was organized, and in the rice field development conducted by the bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun), opinions about possible rice fields were taken into consideration.
- 幕末、『万国公法』は日本各地の藩校や郷校で教科書もしくは参考書として取り上げられた。
- At the end of the Edo period, 'Bankoku Koho' was used as school textbook or study guide in hanko (domain school) and goko (educational institution established as a supplement of hanko) education or development of terakoya education) around Japan.
- 一分判の一種とされ、鋳造時期は不明であるが天正年間末期から慶長年間までと考えられる。
- It was thought to be one of Itibuban and cast from the end of Tensho era to Keicho era, though it is not clear.
- 諸国牧・近都牧がいつ設置されたのかは定かではないが、飛鳥時代の頃だと考えられている。
- It is not clear when shokokumaki and kintomaki were established, but it is believed that they were established around the Asuka period.
- 第二に日本国内に目を向けて「国内産業の育成に力を入れるべき時期だ」と考えていたこと。
- Secondly, they believed that 'it was time to make more efforts to nurture the domestic industries,' paying more attention to the Japanese domestic affairs.
- しかし、このときの人数は警察発表の2500人のほうがより確かだと考える研究者は多い。
- Many researchers, however, say the correct figure was 2,500 which the police had announced.
- この制度は、当時の中国で行われていた均田制の影響のもとに施行されたと考えられている。
- It is thought that this system was enforced under the influence of the Equal-field system adopted in China in those days.
- このように、関東における武士の発生は、馬の生産地を背景にしていた考えることができる。
- As could be seen, the origin of bushi in Kanto region had the background of horse breeding grounds.
- 全国に設置した直轄地を表す語でもあり、のちの日本古代の地方官制の先駆けとも考えられる。
- Miyake also means directly controlled lands located across Japan, and is believed to be a predecessor of Japan's local bureaucratic system.
- 恐らくはこうした時代の流れとともに芸亭も荒廃・消滅の運命を辿ったものと考えられている。
- Untei is believed to have been abandoned and devastated likewise with these changes in history.
- 藤原氏ら富豪や大寺院などの圧力により、再度墾田を許可することになったと考えられている。
- It is believed that the government was compelled to allow resumption of land development due to the pressure brought on by the wealthy like the Fujiwara clan and large temples.
- 参考までに21世紀(2001年(平成13年)以降)に入ってからの指定物件を挙げておく。
- As a reference, here follows a list of all those items designated national treasures so far in the twenty-first century (beginning in 2001).
- しかし、考古学的に上記のような変遷過程が明らかとなっており、この説話は否定されている。
- However, that story is denied as the changing process mentioned above was known archaeologically.
- 高杉は泰平の世で堕落した武士よりも志をもった彼らの方が戦力になると考えていたとされる。
- TAKASUGI was believed to have thought that those officers of Kiheitai Army having spirit could be more military power than those samurais fallen in the peaceful world.
- また、5世紀には古墳周辺に馬が葬られている例があり、渡来人習俗の影響も考えられている。
- Because there is an example where horses were buried around the ancient tomb built in the fifth century, it is thought to be influenced by the customs brought by the people who came from across the seas.
- これは印刷・編集といった諸問題から発行日が記載されたものとずれたのだと考えられている。
- It is thought that this was because the actual publishing date delayed from the date printed on the bulletin because of some problems such as printing and editing.
- またその流行により、自分で印を作ろうと考える者も出始め、やがて篆刻へとつながって行く。
- Moreover, as part of that trend, some people started thinking of making seals by themselves, and before long their idea led to tenkoku (seal-engraving).
- ある事件に対する影響を考慮した時、『万国公法』のみの影響と断ずることが困難な時がある。
- When we consider influence to a certain case, it is difficult to determine whether the case was just affected by 'Bankoku Koho' or by other factors.
- このことを利用して東南アジアを自己の勢力を組み込めば危機的状況から脱出できると考えた。
- Taking advantage of this situation, Japan believed that it could get out of the critical situation if she could make Southeast Asia a part of the country
- この時期には日本列島に大きく分けて九つの文化圏が成立していたと考えられている(後述)。
- It is assumed that roughly the nine cultural regions were established in the Japanese archipelago during this period (mentioned below).
- 絶対多数の縄文人と少数の大陸系渡来人との協同のうちに農耕社会へと移行したと考えられる。
- It is believed that history moved to an agrarian society in cooperation between Jomon man of an absolute majority and few continental immigrants to ancient Japan.
- 頼信は常陸介在任中に忠常を臣従させており、事態の穏便な解決のためには最適と考えられた。
- Tadatsune served Yorinobu when he was appointed as Hitachi no suke and Yorinobu thought that he was best suited to settling the situation peacefully.
- 後に頭以下の官職に武士が任官されるのもこうした警察的な要素があったからとも考えられる。
- It is considered that the reason why samurai was appointed to a government post below Kami (Director) later was that it had an element of police.
- 袖を振るのは呪術的であり、新嘗祭の前日に行われる鎮魂祭とも同じ意味があると考えられる。
- Waving sleeves was akin to an occult art and shared the same meaning as the Chinkon-sai (a ceremony for the repose of a spirit), held on the preceding day of the Niiname-sai festival.
- 幕府への遠慮や毛利家内部の支藩統制上の思惑もあり先走って破却が行われたと考えられている。
- It is believed that, coupled with humbleness to the bakufu and calculation on the branch domain's regulation within the clan, the castle was destroyed inadvertently.
- また首謀者である奈良麻呂の名が続日本紀に残されていないが、同じく拷問死したと考えられる。
- Furthermore, even though Naramaro's name did not appear in 'Shoku Nihongi' (Chronicle of Japan Continued), he was considered to be dead in jail like other members.
- 七曜星は五行思想の陰陽と、木・火・土・金・水を表し、天地の象徴を示していると考えられる。
- Shichiyosho is considered to refer to yin yang (positive and negative, light and shade) of Five Phases theory and Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, Water as symbols of the world.
- この「撤退すべき」という意見は、圧倒的兵力差と落とせない長篠城を考えれば、当然といえる。
- Considering the fact that the Takeda force was vastly outnumbered by the enemy force and that Nagashino Castle was indestructible, their advice 'to withdraw' was more than reasonable.
- 建造物・絵画・彫刻・工芸品・書跡・典籍・古文書・考古資料・歴史資料などが指定されている。
- Items that have been designated national treasures include buildings, paintings, sculptures, handicrafts, calligraphy work, books, ancient documents, archaeological materials, and historical materials.
- 優れた射手を養成すると共に鉄砲を有効的に用いた戦術を考案して優れた軍事集団へと成長する。
- Saikashu grew as an eminent military force by producing skilled shooters and designing tactics which made use of guns most efficiently.
- 一方、北部九州の後・晩期遺跡の遺物で焼畑農業が行われていた可能性が高いと考えられている。
- On the other hand, it is thought that there was a strong likelihood that the burn agriculture was employed at the remains in the end and the last periods in the northern Kyushu region.
- (ただし平城京の大極殿と歩廊を恭仁京に移築しており、難波との二都の計画とも考えられる)。
- (However, Daigokuden and the corridors in Heijo-kyo were dismantled and reconstructed in Kuni-kyo, so it could be considered that the initial plan was two-capital system of Kuni-kyo and Naniwa.)
- が、大隈らはインドの鉄道のように植民地化の布石になりかねないと考え、これを拒絶している。
- However, OKUMA and others thought that it could become the preliminaries for Britain to colonize Japan as did the railway in India, so they rejected this.
- ヤマト王権は、ヤマト地方を本拠として本州中部から九州北部までを支配したと考えられている。
- Historians and other experts believe that the Yamato sovereignty was based within the Yamato region, this would have been where Yamato was headquarter, and rule extending from the southern part of Honshu to the northern part of Kyushu.
- 多くの研究者は、農民の証言がより正確だと考えているが、それでも説明のつかない部分が多い。
- Many researchers think the testimony given by peasants are more exact than those given by the police, but many of peasants' testimony had no proof.
- 大気中を進むうちに、日光に含まれる紫外線によって、細菌の一部は死滅すると考えられている。
- It is considered that some of the bacteria in kosa are killed by ultraviolet rays included in sunlight.
- 青の変色はおもにミー散乱によるものと考えられており、同様の原理で火星の夕焼けは青くなる。
- It is considered that the change to blue color is caused mainly by Mie scattering, and due to a similar principle, Mars looks blue in the evening glow.
- 古くは、日本では少なくとも7万年前以降の最終氷期には黄砂が飛来していたと考えられている。
- It is considered that kosa fell in Japan in the last glacial period at least 70 thousand years ago.
- この部隊単位で考えれば、織田軍の鉄砲が1000丁であったとしても、相対的に相当な数である。
- Even if the Oda family had only 1,000 teppo, this figure can be regarded as significant in relation to the size of each army.
- 箱式石棺墓との関連性も考えられる(箱式石棺墓の蓋石以外を省略すると石蓋土壙墓となるため)。
- Connection between a hakoshiki-sekkanbo (box-shaped stone coffin grave) is also considered (Hakoshiki-sekkanbo becomes a hole-shaped grave with stone lid if all other parts except the lid is omitted.)
- 日本史上、最初の体系的な律令法と考えられているが、現存しておらず、詳細は不明な部分が多い。
- Although it is thought to be the first systematic ritsuryo code in Japanese history, the volumes do not exist and many of the details are unknown.
- しかし、日本のある地域では、これらの国と交易関係があった可能性を考慮することも必要である。
- However, we need to consider the possibility that Japan might have been involved in a trade relationship with Northern China and other countries, from unspecified parts of Japan.
- また、学科の呼称に「○○道」という方式を用いたのは、貞観式制定前後であると考えられている。
- Also, it is considered that Daigaku-ryo came to use 'XX do' for the name of departments before or after the introduction of the Jogan-shiki Code.
- 神田の起源は明らかとされていないが、大化(646年ごろ)以前から存在したと考えられている。
- The origins of Shinden are not clearly known, but Shinden are believed to have already existed before 646.
- 地球温暖化や砂漠化の進行を考える上で、黄砂の発生頻度の変化は重要な視点の1つとされている。
- It is said that the occurrence frequency of kosa offers an important viewpoint for considering the advance of global warming and desertification.
- もちろん、それが後に鎌倉幕府、いわゆる「武士の時代」の原動力にとなったと考えたからである。
- Of course, it was believed to be the driving force of the Kamakura bakufu or the 'period of samurai.'
- そのため、それを一刻も早く君主が把握する事は、国政の運営上重要な事であると考えられていた。
- Based on that idea, it was considered that the monarch should be informed of such movements as soon as possible because it was vital to the management of the national administration.
- これらの扱いは、女性は家の管理者には適さず、男戸主を原則としたいという考えによるものである。
- Those examples are based on thoughts that a male head of a family is more appropriate than a female head of a family and a head of a family should be a male in principle.
- 『魏志倭人伝』に見られる「一大率」は別としても、以下のような記述がその証拠と考えられている。
- Apart from 'Ichitaishotsu' (local official dispatched by the central government to manage foreign affairs) described in 'Gishiwajinden' (literally, an 'Account of the Wa' in 'The History of the Wei Dynasty'), the following descriptions are considered to be evidence of this.
- 宝暦六年(1756年)以降被差別階級の穢多村の統計が残っており、参考までに両者の合計を示す。
- As statistical figures on the discriminated class living in such communities since 1756 are available, and the aggregated figures of the two categories are shown below for reference.
- また、天皇権力が強くなる理由のひとつとして、壬申の乱の存在を考慮すべきとの考え方も存在する。
- In addition, there is a point of view that the presence of the Jinshin War should be considered as one of the reasons for strengthening of Emperor's power.
- 大宝令と養老令の編目の順序は異なっていたと考えられているが、大宝令の編目順序は明らかでない。
- It is considered that, the order of the chapter headings differed between the Taiho-ryo and the Yoro-ryo, but the order of the chapter headings of the Taiho-ryo is unclear.
- これにより篆書への興味が高まり、清代における考証学での古代文字研究に先鞭を付けることになる。
- As a result, the interest in the seal script increased and it blazed a trail for the research of ancient characters in the area of the old document study during the Qing Dynasty.
- 平形銅剣をのぞくほとんどの武器形青銅器はこれらの遺跡群で集中的に生産されたと考えられている。
- Most weapon type bronze ware were intensively manufactured in these sites, except for the flat bronze sword.
- 時代が下るにつれ、大型集落が小型集落を従え、集落内で首長層が力を持ってきたと考えられている。
- It is thought that later in the period, large settlements subdued smaller settlements and the chief and upper ranks started to seize power in the settlement.
- 内容はあまり変わらないにもかかわらず区別されたのは、獄舎を穢れた場所と考えられたためらしい。
- The reason why there was such discrimination though these jobs weren't so different was that prison houses seemed to be the unclean place.
- ただし、この呼称は定義に未確定な部分があるので、考古学上は単に古代山城と呼ばれることが多い。
- However, since the origin in the form of this particular reference definition is uncertain, scholars in the study of archaeology usually settle on the term Kodai Sanjo for the mountain castles.
- 「園地」は令の一編である田令に記載された土地の一形態で野菜・果物をつくっていたと考えられる。
- 'Enchi' was one form of the land described in Denryo (the law about providing rice fields), which was one of ryo (administrative code), and Enchishi is considered to have produced vegetables and fruits.
- 「筥」は竹でつくられた円い箱であると考えられ、雑戸である筥戸が木器・竹器類の生産にあたった。
- 'Hako' is considered as a round box made with bamboo and hakohe, who was Zakko (special technicians), produced wooden product and bamboo product.
- 夷俘は降伏したが朝廷による苛政をくつがえし、力を示したことで一定の成功を収めたと考えられる。
- It is believed that although they had surrendered, the Ifu accomplished their mission to some degree by ending the misrule by the Imperial Court and demonstrating their power.
- 記録上でも平安時代末期の12世紀初期を最後に姿を消し、このころに廃絶されたと考えられている。
- As the last record concerning Kokugaku was written in the end of the Heian period (early 12th century), it is believed that Kokugaku were abolished around that time.
- また「国家仏教」という表現そのものが古代仏教の実態を反映しておらず不適当とする考え方もある。
- Moreover, some say that the usage of 'National Buddhism' does not reflect the realities of ancient Buddhism; therefore, it is inadequate.
- ただし、一部の条里遺構には条里呼称法確立以前にまでその起源をさかのぼると考えられるものもある。
- However, origin of some jori remains are thought to date back before establishment of jori naming system.
- なお、秩父事件の指導部は蜂起時点ではこの自由党解党の情報を認知していなかったと考えられている。
- It is assumed that the leaders of Chichibu Incident had not got information on the dissolution of the Liberal Party at the time of the uprising.
- 彼らは「江戸大坂といえども皆田舎である、すむに都に如くはなし(及ぶものはない)」と考えている。
- They believed that 'people of other areas--be it Edo or Osaka--are rural people and there is nowhere else to live but in the capital city.'
- アンチモンの割合などが初期の和同開珎とほぼ同じことから、和同開珎のモデルになったと考えられる。
- Because the rate of antimony was almost the same as Wado-kaichin, it is assumed that it became the model of Wado-kaichin.
- 打製石器は人類の最も古い道具の一つと考えられ、アウストラロピテクスが使っていたとする説もある。
- Dasei-sekki is considered to be the earliest tools used by human beings like Australopithecus according to one theory.
- 古代の頻繁な遷都や宮殿の移転・新築は、政治的な思惑の他にも建築物の耐用年数の影響が考えられる。
- It is thought that the frequent transfer of the capital and new construction of a palace were due to the influence of their short architectural lives in addition to political motives.
- 両親とも天武天皇の系統の川継こそが正統の皇位継承者であると考える者も少なくなかったと思われる。
- Many believed that Kawatsugu, whose parents were both from the Imperial line of Emperor Tenmu, should be the legitimate succession to the Imperial Throne.
- 年に二度、春と秋に入寮選考期間が設けられ、自治会組織である「入寮選考委員会」が選考を担当する。
- The period of selection is set twice a year in spring and in autumn and a 'dormitory-entering selection committee,' an organization of the council of the dormitory, is in charge of selection.
- これは、キリスト教の宣教師たちに「坂東の大学」といわれ、当時の日本の中心的な学校と考えられた。
- This was called 'the college of Bando' by Christian missionaries, and in those day it was thought as a central school in Japan.
- 実は「父系家族制度」と「母系家族制度」が混在していたのが平安時代と考えておいた方が良いと思う。
- It is better to think of Heian period as a time when 'paternal family structure' and 'maternal family structure' were intermingled.
- このような落人の子孫を主張する村は全国で132箇所もありその殆どが信憑性に欠けると考えられる。
- Though 132 villages throughout the nation insist that their residents are the descendants of Ochudo, almost all of their arguments are considered to be incredible.
- また、佐藤は、寛刑特令発布について、義仲による平氏残党掃討を牽制する意図があったと考えている。
- Furthermore, SATO considers that a lenient punishment order was promulgated because there was an intention to discourage Yoshinaka from mopping up of remnants of the Taira clan.
- これは後方の小荷駄を何で(前者は弓組、後者は騎馬隊)護衛するかによって異なるものと考えられる。
- It is considered that the difference depended on how the konida in the rear was guarded (the former by the yumi gumi and the latter by the cavalry).
- それぞれの項目に簡単な説明を付け、六国史以降、慶応期までの文献から参考になる箇所を引用している。
- Each section has a brief explanation, and includes citations from references from days of the Rikkokushi (six ancient literatures, up to the 9th century) to the Keio period (just before the Meiji period, almost the middle of the 19th century).
- 朝鮮では露館播遷で断髪令を廃止しており、このような断髪は一般市民からは考えられないものであった。
- In Korea, the order of bobbed hair had been abolished at the time of Rokanhasen, so such brobbed hair was unthinkable for general public.
- およそ考えられるかぎりのあらゆる制約条項を,いったい生身の兵隊が守れるとでも思ったのであろうか。
- Did they think on earth that natural soldiers could follow every clause of restriction imaginable?
- 本武器には防御性は殆どないので、最初の一撃をかわされ、踏み込まれた場合対処が難しいと考えられる。
- Since the kusakarigama offers little in the way of defensive capabilitiies, if the opponent dodges the first blow and comes in close, the wielder is likely to have great difficulty dealing with his opponent.
- 福澤諭吉が書いたとされる論説「脱亜論」は、基本的にこの考え方にそっていると指摘されることがある。
- Datsuaron' (a editorial for urging to leave Asia) is thought to be written by Yukichi FUKUZAWA, and it is said that FUKUZAWA wrote this editorial based on the thought of 'Leave Asia, enter Europe.'
- 飛鳥各地に存在する猿石・道祖神石、橘寺の二面石などと呼ばれる石造物、宗教の遺物と考えられている。
- Throughout the Asuka area, there can be found many stone objects such as the Saruishi (Monkey Stones), Doso-jin (travelers' guardian deity) carved form stone and Tachibana-dera Temple's Nimen-ishi (Double-faced Stone), all of which are considered religious relics.
- ただし、仏教用語を用いたことで中華的冊封体制からの離脱を表明する表現であったとも考えられている。
- At the same time, it is also thought that they used the Buddhist terms to announce their secession from the Chinese tributary system.
- これを見た日蓮とその信者は立正安国論をこの事態の到来を予知した予言書であると考えるようになった。
- These developments led Nichiren and his followers to believe that his Rissho Ankoku-ron was a book of prophecy that predicted the future.
- 現在官印は、中国と同じように書道・古美術・考古学などのさまざまな観点から鑑賞の対象とされている。
- These days, like in China, kanin are treated as a subject of artistic appreciation through various views such as calligraphy, antiquities, archaeology.
- 九州南部は縄文早期末に喜界カルデラの大噴火があった為、ほぼ全滅と考えられる壊滅的な被害を受けた。
- The Kikai caldera erupted violently in the southern Kyushu region at the end of the earlier Jomon period; the eruption caused the catastrophic damage to the area which was thought to be virtually annihilated.
- しかし、国民各層にはその考え方が次第に浸透して行き、自由民権運動の気運が高まるきっかけとなった。
- However, the idea slowly seeped into every class of people and triggered the rise in the momentum toward Jiyu Minken Undo (Movement for Liberty and People's Right).
- 九州王朝説九州年号表(鶴峰戊申が、熊襲の年号として考証した年号)を私年号の一種とする解釈もある。
- There is an interpretation that the Kyushu nengo table of Kyushu dynasty theory (which was nengo historically investigated by Shigenobu TSURUMINE as the nengo of Kumaso [a tribe living in the ancient Kyushu district]) is a kind of Shinengo.
- 令制以前にはこのような機関は無く、唐の律令制における宗正寺(そうせいじ)を模倣したと考えられる。
- Before the Ritsuryo system, there was no such institution and it is considered to have imitated the Court of the Imperial Clan (Zongzheng Si) in the Ritsuryo system during the Tang Dynasty.
- 頼朝死後における時政の謀略の大半は、この牧の方という女性が全て考え出したものとまで言われている。
- It is said this lady called Maki no kata schemed most of Tokimasa's conspiracies after the death of Yoritomo.
- これは、度重なる朝鮮半島への出兵の軍事的・経済的負担が重くのしかかって反乱となったと考えられる。
- This incident demonstrated that the repeated troop deployment to the Korean peninsula caused severe militaristic and economic burdens upon the local ruling families in Japan; this would lead to the rebellion attempted by Iwai, and was considered to be a byproduct of these warring excursions.
- この「京銭」が慶長通宝に当たるのではと考えられている(これについても、鐚銭の事とする説もある)。
- This 'Kinsen' is considered as the Keicho Tsuho coin (some people say it was 'Bitasen,' low quality coins whose surfaces were worn away.)
- このことは日本における「天下」概念をますます固有の地理概念である日本列島に近づけたと考えられる。
- This made the notion of 'Tenka' in Japan more closer to the geographical notion, namely the Japanese archipelago.
- 中国・韓国・日本などの工業地帯を通過した黄砂は硫黄酸化物や窒素酸化物を吸着すると考えられている。
- It is considered that sulfur oxide and nitrogen oxide adhere to the kosa passing over industrial zones in China, Korea or Japan.
- しかし、ここでも近世における「家」からの先入観は一旦捨て去った上で、「血縁」を考える必要がある。
- However, 'blood relation' should be interpreted without the modern preconception of the 'house.'
- この事件以後おもに北条氏と有力御家人との間の政争が続くため、この事件をその発端と考える見方である。
- After this incident, a series of political strife between the Hojo and the senior vassals occurred, so this incident is deemed as the beginning of them.
- しかし、韓国以外のアジア・アフリカ地域でもこの種の条約を「無効・違法」と考える動きが出てきている。
- However, in Asia other than Korea and African areas, a movement to see this kind of treaty as 'invalid and/or illegal' is rising.
- 強制調印については、当時から、国家に対する威圧と国家を代表する個人への強制に分けて考えられていた。
- Since those days, the compulsory signing had been thought separately divided into a threat against a state and compulsion against an individual who represents the state.
- この時期に編纂されたとされる近江令は、国制改革を進めていく個別法令群の総称だったと考えられている。
- It is believed that the Omi Code, which is said to have been compiled in this period, was a general name for the group of laws enforced for promoting the constitutional reforms.
- しかし、兵の疲労を考慮し、19日は休養日として、20日早朝に二方面から総攻撃を決行する、と決めた。
- By taking consideration of soldiers' fatigue, they agreed in taking a day off on 19th and starting the all-out attack on the two sides in the early morning of 20th.
- これらのことから、この時期に倭・倭人を代表する倭国と呼ばれる政治勢力が形成されたと考えられている。
- In view of these records, it is considered that a political group called Wakoku representing Wa or Wajin were formed at that time.
- 雑賀衆は鈴木重秀や土橋守重を始め、石山御坊などに籠城しているところから、浄土真宗門徒と考えられる。
- Saikashu can be considered to be a group of believers of the Jodo Shinshu sect (the True Pure Land Sect of Buddhism) as its members, including Shigehide SUZUKI and Morishige TSUCHIBASHI, were besieged in Ishiyama Gobo (Ishiyama Hongan-ji Temple).
- ペリー艦隊には蒸気船が含まれており、しばしば黒船は蒸気船のことだと考えられるが、帆船も黒船である。
- Because Perry's squadron included a steamship, many associate the term 'black ships' with steamships, but it also refers to the sail ships.
- 現在ではおおよそ、水稲農耕技術を安定的に受容した段階以降を弥生時代とするという考えが定着している。
- Presently the Yayoi period is roughly classified as a stage after the stable adaptation of rice-paddy cultivation techniques.
- 二つの乱はたまたま同時期に起こり、東国で将門が叛乱を起こし、純友は西国で蜂起に至ったと考えられる。
- The rebellions just happened to occur at around the same time; while Masakado led one uprising in Togoku, Sumitomo led the other in Saigoku.
- また、凄まじい勢いで勢力を拡大する隣国の織田信長と同盟を結んでいたほうが得策との考えもあったのか。
- In addition, Ieyasu might have thought that it was a wide policy to form an alliance with Nobunaga ODA of the neighboring province that has been expanding power with the tremendous momentum.
- が、考古学の成果は奈良盆地勢力が吉備政権などと連合してヤマト王権へ成長したことを強く示唆している。
- However, the results of archeological studies strongly indicate that the political power in the Nara Basin was joined to the political powers of the Kibi; later, these conjoined powers would form the basis of the Yamato sovereignty.
- そこで『書紀』の編纂者は即位の事実を知りながら記さなかったというのが、大友皇子即位説の考えである。
- The Prince Otomo enthronement theory says that the compiler did not wrote about the enthronement in Chronicles, although he knew that the prince was enthroned.
- つまり武装を必要としない江戸時代の安定を見るまでは、あらゆる階層が武装していたと考えるほうがよい。
- That is, it is better to think that all the classes had been armed until the society was stabilized in Edo period.
- 江戸時代、国学の振興とともに和方医学が興隆すると、同書は和方家の聖典として考えられるようになった。
- During the Edo period, when Waho Igaku (ancient Japanese medicine) became an active area of study along with the promotion of the study of Japanese classical literature, the Daidoruijuho was treated as a sacred textbook for Wahoka (doctors in ancient Japanese medicine).
- ただし、和気氏そのものが広世の没後に振るわなかった事もあり、程なく衰微していったと考えられている。
- Partly because the Wake clan was not so prosperous after Hiroyo died, it was considered that the Kobunin was shortly ruined.
- 唐律令における官人永業田の制度が日本の国情に合わせて改変され、日本律令へ採用されたものと考えられる。
- Kanjin-eigyo-den (hereditary field of officials) system in Tang Ritsuryo Code was modified to be suitable for the situation in Japan and was applied to the Japanese ritsuryo system.
- 財政及び食糧不足の解消のための緊急措置として耕地の維持・拡大政策を採った結果であると考えられている。
- It is considered that it was the result of policies that were formulated to preserve and expand cultivated land for emergency measures in solving financial and food shortage.
- つまり、大田は全体の正確な鉄砲数を把握していなかったといえ、1500丁は考えうる最低数の数といえる。
- This suggests that Ota did not capture the exact number of teppo, and 1,500 therefore is likely to be a minimum figure.
- 水稲農耕に必要な首長権力や、共同体の結束強化、内部と外部での階級差を反映しているとも考えられている。
- The different size of moats were probably representing how strong a chieftaincy's controlling power was over wet-rice cultivation in the area, how tight the community was united, or the difference in villager classes who lived inside and outside the moat.
- 憲法を考えるグループも生まれ、植木枝盛、交詢社(慶應義塾関係者のクラブ)らによる憲法私案が作られた。
- Among other groups that prepared drafts for the constitution, Emori UEKI and the Kojunsha (a club founded by alumni of Keio university) developed the drafts.
- 特に陰陽では相反する要素と考える男女の関係性などを含む様々な側面でも利用されたことは想像に難くない。
- Especially in the philosophy of Onmyo, it is not hard to imagine that term was applied to various aspects of things including the relationship between men and women, which are considered to be of opposite elements.
- 『徳川禁令考』前集一に諏訪氏所蔵として引用されており、武家政道と天下太平について定めたものとされる。
- It was quoted in part one of the first volume of 'Tokugawa kinrei ko' (Tokugawa Interdictory) that it was in the possession of the Suwa clan, and the articles were considered to have specified a samurai government and peace for the whole nation.
- これに対して、藩主の参勤交代と共に、在所に帰還する者は、江戸詰めと呼ばれ、定府とは分けて考えられた。
- On the other hand, someone who returned to his hometown when the lord of domain performed Sankinkotai was called Edo-zume (working in Edo) and distinguished from jofu.
- 政元にとってはこうした守旧派の守護達よりも新しく台頭した一揆勢力の方が信頼が置ける存在と考えていた。
- Masamoto thought that he could believe rather the newly emerging Ikko followers than the old-guard provincial military governors.
- 生業や文化内容から見た時代区分としても再考の余地があるものの、慣用化した時期区分として定着している。
- Periodization needs to be reconsidered taking into account the people's regular vocation or the content of the cultural development; however, it is commonly used and well-established.
- このため、事件となった第4回押出しも、農民側が先に警官に暴力をふるった例はないと考える研究者が多い。
- Thus, many researchers think that it was unlikely that peasants first did violence to the police on the fourth demonstration which developed into an incident.
- この「天下」概念は律令国家の崩壊、王朝国家・中世国家の進展によって徐々に希薄化したと考えられている。
- It is thought that this notion of 'Tenka' gradually diminished due to the collapse of Ritsuryo kokka and the development of the dynastic state or medieval national polity.
- そして、この段階で防ぐことができれば少ない労力で食い止めることが可能だと考えられ、重要視されている。
- Therefore, it is considered important to prevent desertification at this stage, because desertification can be prevented more efficiently at this stage.
- さらに、従来、公地と考えられてきた口分田は、律令施行の当時、実際のところ、私田・私地と認識されていた。
- Furthermore, kubunden that had been conventionally considered as publicly-owned lands were, in fact, regarded as privately-owned lands or rice fields at the time when the laws of the Ritsuryo system were enacted.
- この時期に、西日本から東海、関東にかけて政治的状況が大きく変わったことを示すものとして考えられている。
- This is believed to be some sign signifying a radical change in the political situation that was happening around this time, not only in western Japan but also in Tokai and Kanto regions.
- しかしこれらの動きは豪族や民衆に新たな負担を与えることとなり、少なくない不満を生んだと考えられている。
- However, it is thought that this movement became a burden for the local ruling families and citizens and produced a sense of dissatisfaction.
- これにより、日本では唐とは異なり、位階を主として官職を従とする官位制が導入されたのだと考えられている。
- It seemed to be the reasons that the official rank system was introduced with Ikai to be main and government post to be the following, which were different from Tang.
- これを嫌った岩倉具視は、国会開設前に国有財産の相当部分を皇室財産に移し、国会から遮断することを考えた。
- Tomomi IWAKURA, who disagreed with this, aimed to transfer a considerable portion of state property to Imperial property and block it from the Diet.
- 乳棒状磨製石斧や定角式磨製石斧など伐採具に適した道具が他にあることからも土掘りの道具と考えられている。
- These chipped stone axes were believed to be digging tools because there were other tools more suitable for felling such as mortar shaped ground stone ax or regularly curved ground stone ax.
- 大仏造立計画のはじめは紫香楽宮からであるが、その背景にあったものとしては、いくつかのことが考えられる。
- The Great Buddha construction plan originally started in the Shigaraki no Miya Palace, but there were several possible backgrounds.
- ここからは築地塀の跡や平城京と共通の760年前後の瓦が出土しており関連した施設の跡であると考えられる。
- Since the traces of tsukijibei (a mud wall with a roof) and tiles around 760, the era of Heijo-kyo were excavated there, they are considered to be the remains of related facility.
- ただ興福寺・大仏殿までも焼き払うような大規模な延焼は、重衡たちの予想を上回るものであったと考えられる。
- However, it is considered that such an extended fire even spread to Kofuku-ji Temple and the Great Buddha Hall would have exceeded expectation of Shigehira forces.
- よってこの機関は国家の統治機関としての役割よりも天皇家の家政機関としての役割が大きかったと考えられる。
- Therefore, it is thought that this organization was the Imperial family's household institution rather than the nation's governing institution.
- 急激な気候の変化による植生や動物相、海岸線の移動などの環境の変化に対応した道具が次々に考案されていった
- The new tools were invented quickly in succession to accommodate environmental changes such as vegetation and animal fauna due to the rapid change in climate and shoreline migration.
- なお、こうした風潮は商人間のみに留まらず、朝廷や幕府から庶民に至るまで広がっていったと考えられている。
- This trend is considered to have spread not only among merchants but also among the Imperial Court, bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) and common people.
- 黄砂は少なくとも数万年前から発生しており、自然現象であって完全に防ぐことはできないという考え方もある。
- There is also the view of considering that kosa is a natural phenomenon having occurred at least last several tens of thousand years and it is impossible to prevent damage due to it completely.
- そして、やがてヤマト王権の管理のもとで、同じ規格の製品を生産するよう統御されるようになったと考えられる。
- Suemura ruins of kilns are believed to have been controlled to produce the same standard of earthenware under Yamato sovereignty.
- 発掘調査によって、土塁の上にはピット (考古学)(柱穴)が検出されることがあり、柵列があったと思われる。
- Pits were excavated on top of the earthen wall which suggests the existence of a fence above the wall.
- 上記は制度改革について論じたものの例であるが、一方で国民の考え方、気風を変えるべきとの姿勢も顕著である。
- The above was an example which was discussed about reforms of system, on the other hand, it had a clear stance that they should change people's way of thinking and spirit.
- 現在も官印は書道と古美術、考古学の観点から蒐集・鑑賞の対象とされ、美術品として現物が取り引きされている。
- Even nowadays, kanin are treated as a subject of collection and appreciations from the view point of calligraphy, antiquities, and archaeology, and kanin are dealt as art objects.
- 何を参考にして作成されたのか明確な資料は現存していないが、構造は当時のイギリスの絞首刑台に良く似ている。
- Today there remain no materials that tell what was referenced to prepare the Scheme, but the structure of the devices shown in the Scheme resembles that of gallows which were used in England in those days.
- 域内の人民に対して租税の代わりとして専売を行う方法と域外の市場に対して独占的に販売する専売が考えられる。
- There can be a monopolization for the people within the region instead of tax and a monopolization for exclusive sales on the market outside the region.
- 諸外国公使からの抗議が行われている現状を考慮するよう外交担当の小松帯刀が主張し「信徒の流罪」が決定した。
- Tatewaki KOMATSU, who was responsible for diplomacy, called for the consideration of protests by foreign ministers that the government was currently facing, and the conference adopted 'deportation of Christians.'
- 山口は1907年3月、封建的家族制度を痛烈に批判する論考「父母を蹴れ」を平民新聞(第59号)に寄稿した。
- YAMAGUCHI had contributed an article of argument and consideration titled 'Kick the parents' to Heimin Shinbun (Commoner's Newspaper) (No.59) in March 1907, severely criticizing the feudal family system.
- ある考証によると、12の位階の冠の色は次のようなものであった可能性が高いと推定されるが、断定はできない。
- From the study of historical evidence, it is presumed, though it can not be affirmed, that the colors for the twelve ranks were as stated below.
- 勧学田の喪失と大学別曹の興隆によって教育の公平さが失われていく現状に対する警告であったと考えられている。
- Therefore, it is considered that he issued a warning against the situation where the equality of education was vanishing due to the loss of kangakuden and the rise of Daigaku-besso.
- 『太平記』には、自害した人々は283人の北条一族と家臣の870人とあるが、文学的誇張もあると考慮される。
- According to Taiheiki, the number of samurai that committed suicide by disembowelment was 283 in the Hojo clan, and their vassals numbered 870, but this could be an exaggeration to highlight their tragedy.
- 『占事略决』には、安倍家における家伝を背景に、目録的な意味合いで作成されたと考えられる記述が散見される。
- In 'Senji ryakketsu,' descriptions are seen here and there that seem to have been written with the intention of making a list, or something like it, of the oral tradition inherited in the Abe family.
- それは、根本私領だけでなく、郡司としての自分の支配、取り分を固定化しようとする行為と考えると解しやすい。
- This is easy to understand if considered as an action to stabilize not only their original private land but also their domination and share as gunji.
- また、欧化主義によって日本の文化を旧態依然の古い物とする考え方も登場し、伝統文化が危機に陥った事もあった。
- The idea of Japanese culture being old-fashioned was born due to the theory of Europeanization, jeopardizing Japanese traditional culture.
- 両者の人口を合わせた大坂都市圏の人口は、安土桃山時代より大坂の役まで京都の人口を上回っていたと考えられる。
- The population of the greater Osaka area combining the populations of the two cities is believed to have exceeded Kyoto's population during the Azuchi-Momoyama period until Osaka no eki occurred.
- 内外の武官の人事考課、選叙(叙位及び任官)諸国の衛士の管理、武器の管理など、軍事防衛関連事項の一切を司る。
- It presided over all the affairs related to military defense, such as personnel evaluation of military officers, conferment of a court rank, appointment to an office, supervision of eji (guards) in all provinces and administration of armaments.
- 一方で遊女と内裏の舞踊・音楽の教習所である「内教坊」の「伎女」になんらかの関連があると考える研究者もいる。
- On the one hand, there are some scholars who think that yujo had something to do with 'gijo' (music-playing women) in 'Naikyobo,' a training center of Imperial dancing and music.
- その横行は伊勢貞丈の安斎随筆(1784年)、小宮山昌秀(楓軒)の『偽書考』・『楓軒偶記』に記載されている。
- Several works, namely the 'Ansai essay' by Teijo ISE (1784), the 'Gisho ko' (a book about gisho) and the 'Fuken guki' by Masahide KOMIYAMA (Fuken), claim that gisho were quite widespread.
- 矢柄(やがら)への取り付けは、管状の植物の凹み部分などを利用し、ヒモなどで縛ったものであろうと考えられる。
- It is thought that Sekizoku was attached to the shaft by tying it to tubulous plants in its hollow areas using string.
- 将門の手許には1000人足らずしか残っていなかったが、時を移しては不利になると考えて、2月1日に出陣する。
- Masakado, realizing that his position would become weaker over time, departed for battle on February 1 with less than 1,000 soldiers.
- これは、酒を飲む人からみれば、頭で考えた理屈であって、現実社会から遊離した政治論文にすぎないと一見される。
- To those who drink sake this seems mere a theory in his head or a political thesis out of touch with the real society.
- これは、その時期までに、倭国内で「中国世界とは異なる独自の天下」概念が発生していた徴証だと考えられている。
- The above is thought as the evidence that the notion of 'own Tenka which is different from that of China' had already been born by that time.
- この説をとる研究者の多くは、1903年秋以降、鉱毒被害地が豊作になったことで運動が弱体化したと考えている。
- Many of those researchers who supported this idea consider that the movement weakened when the peasants in the copper poisoned area had a rich harvest from autumn in 1903 onward.
- 当初は帝室博物館(現在の東京国立博物館)に収集品を寄贈しようと考えていたが、寄贈は博物館側から拒否された。
- At first, he was thinking about donating his collections to the Imperial Museum, but the museum refused the donation.
- 当時、田中は与党議員だったため、自身が農商務大臣に直接かけあうことで収拾がつけられると考えていたとされる。
- Tanaka, who then was a member of the ruling party, thought he would be able to settle down this problem through discussion with the Minster of Agriculture and Commerce.
- こうした積み重ねにより、11世紀後期の後三条天皇の頃に一国平均役が制度として確立したものと考えられている。
- After these events, it is believed that the ikkoku heikinyaku system was officially established in the late 11th century, around the time of Emperor Gosanjo.
- そのうえで自らが所属する共同体への倫理と天からあたえられた倫理が衝突した場合に武士は天倫を選択すると考えた。
- He thought then that if there was a conflict between the ethics of a community to which oneself belonged and the ethics from Heaven, samurai would chose the latter.
- 農民が怠けたというのは単なる言い訳であり、大寺院や豪族が私有地を拡大するための利益誘導であるとも考えられる。
- It is also possible to think that it was a mere excuse that farmers were idle and it was influence peddling for large temples and local ruling families to enlarge their private properties.
- 1797年(寛政9年)、藩主治保は幽谷の考えに沿って大日本史の編纂を進めることを決定し、立原は彰考館を退職。
- In 1797, the lord of the Domain Harumori decided to continue the compilation of Dainihonshi following Yukoku's idea, and Tachihara left the Shoko-kan.
- また、当然信長としても鶴翼包囲を予見し、限られた数の鉄砲を両翼に集中的に配置していたと考えるのが自然である。
- Naturally, Nobunaga would have anticipated the two-flanking wings formation to concentrate gunners whose availability was limited on both wings.
- やはり日本の戦国時代における騎馬隊は全員騎乗で戦う遊牧民族や近代兵科の騎兵とは異なるものと考える必要がある。
- It is therefore necessary to distinguish the Japanese cavalry in the Sengoku period from the nomadic or the modern military cavalry in which all fight on horseback.
- 上述の3策のうち、高麗ルートを選ばせたのもモンゴル兵力が高麗から離れてしまうことを恐れたためとも考えられる。
- In addition, the reason for recommending the route via Goryeo among the three plans described above might have been to prevent the Mongol army from leaving Goryeo.
- これらの埴輪は、古墳の各段や墳頂、造出しなどに列状に並べられ、畏怖的・視覚的な効果を狙ったものと考えられる。
- These Haniwa were displayed in a line on each step of tumulus, on the mound top and the funeral ritual site of the tumulus, giving visual effect and awe.
- また戦争の発生がロシアや清朝の介入を許すきっかけになるかもしれず、その点からも極力戦争は避ける考えであった。
- Also the outbreak of war could have triggered the intervention of Russia and the Qing Dynasty, and because of this, Japan thought it best to avoid war as much as possible.
- 天武10年に皇子表記が使用されていることは、それ以前に天皇表記が用いられていることの証左だと考えられている。
- The fact that the notation of oji is used in 681 is thought of as proof that the notation of tenno was used from before this time.
- 2000年以降の追加指定地は、大部分が1970年代の調査が不十分で調査洩れになっていた地域と考えられている。
- It is considered that the most of the areas designated after 2000 were the land which had been ignored in the cursory investigation in the 1970s.
- しかし、当時は少数で院内交渉会派としては成立せず、もっぱら考え方の近い茶話会と行動をともにする事が多かった。
- However, at that time the group could not come into effect as a faction within the Diet due to the small number of members, and it was usually with the Sawa-kai (one of factions within the Diet) that had the similar points of view.
- また、居城を新たに新築して若松城から遷すことを考え、若松城から北西3kmのあたりに築城を開始した(神指城)。
- Furthermore, he thought of building a new residential castle to move from the Wakamatsu-jo Castle and then started the construction of the new castle (Kozashi-jo Castle), 3 km northwest from the Wakamatsu-jo Castle.
- 実際には代々耕作してきた田地の一部を永業田、残りを口分田と称して建前を保ったのではないかとも考えられている。
- It is considered that, to maintain the public position, part of the field that had been used for generations might have been called eigyoden and the remaining one as kubunden actually.
- 両治世を聖代視する考えは、早くも10世紀後半には現れており、11世紀前葉~中葉ごろの貴族社会に広く浸透した。
- This elevated view became apparent as early as the late 10th century and it became prevalent in all parts of noble society in around the first half to the middle of the 11th century.
- そして、教経は山の手(夢野口)の将と考えられることから、一般に義定が山の手を攻めた大将と推定されることが多い。
- Generally, is is now presumed Yoshisada as the general who attacked the hilly section fortress of the Taira clan because tsune was in command of the hilly section of the city (Yumeno fortress entrance).
- 区画溝などの遺構は11世紀後半から12世紀前半にかけて埋没し、条坊制による街区はこのころに廃れたと考えられる。
- It is thought that the remains including border ditches were buried during the period from the late 11th century to the early 12th century, and that blocks based on jobosei died out around this time.
- (なお、この場に桂川甫周がいたとする説もあるが、『蘭学事始』の記述からは、いなかったと考えるのが自然である)。
- (There is a theory that they were joined by Hoshu KATSURAGAWA, but it should be more natural to understand he did not attend there, judging from descriptions of 'Rangaku Kotohajime' [The Beginning of Dutch Studies] written by Genpaku SUGITA at a later stage).
- 孝利には嗣子が無く、一時は断絶されかけたが、且元の功績を考慮して弟の片桐為元が家督を継ぐことで存続を許された。
- Takatoshi did not have heirs, leading to temporary closure of the family heritage, but the family domain was restored with inheritance by Katsumoto's younger brother Tamemoto KATAGIRI, in honor of the great accomplishments of the late Katsumoto.
- これは、融解温度を下げ鋳造を易しくするとともに、完成品の強度を上げるために意図的に使用されたものと考えられる。
- It was used intentionally to decrease the dissolution temperature for easier casting and to increase the strength of the product.
- 彼らは赤松氏がこれほどの一大事を引き起こした以上は必ず同心する大名がいるに違いないと考え、形勢を見極めていた。
- They thought that the Akamatsu clan set off such a big thing because some daimyos must had helped them and carefully observed subsequent developments.
- この事件は、豊臣家攻撃の口実とするため、家康が崇伝らと画策して問題化させたものであるとの考え方が一般的である。
- This incident has been generally regarded as an incident that Ieyasu, Suden and others plotted and made an issue to find an excuse for attacking the Toyotomi family.
- 敵から逃げる際、引き戸にひっかけて動かなくし、逃げる時間を稼ごうと考えられたという戸閉(とじめ)などの「開器」
- '開器' such as Tojime that were used when escaping from an enemy, hitching to a sliding door to lock and gain time for an escape.
- 『月堂見聞集』では鋳造量を35万貫余(約1,310トン)としているが、慶長銀の海外流出高から考えて疑問である。
- 'Getsudo-kenbunroku'(record of society from 1679 to 1734) says that minting amount was a little more than 350,000 kan (about 1,310 ton), but it is doubtful considering the amount of keicho-gin that was distributed to foreign countries.
- 後世の両替商はこうした業者が後述の三貨制度の確立によって両替の分野にも関わるようになったものと考えられている。
- These money dealers, precursors to the later money changers, came to enter the exchange business after the sanka seido or tri-metallic monetary standard was established, as mentioned below.
- なお、養老令職員令における各官司ごとの官職の排列は、まず四等官を掲げた後に品官を記載していると考えられている。
- It is considered that official posts were put in order in the Shokuinrei of Yoro Ritsuryo starting with Shitokan followed by Honkan (professional officials).
- 前方後円墳はヤマト王権が倭の統一政権として確立してゆくなかで、各地の豪族に許可した形式であると考えられている。
- Historians and other experts considered that this 'Yamato sovereignty' provided to the powerful families or clans of Japan the permission to build the keyhole-shaped mounds; it was through this mound permission process that a unified authority was established.
- したがって敗戦後の連合軍の報復を考慮したとき、公使館に立てこもる人々を虐殺することに躊躇を覚えていたのである。
- As a result, they were reluctant to massacre people held within the legation area when considering the retribution of allied forces after losing the war.
- このことは室町時代のころには徐々に将軍こそが天下の主宰者であるという意識が生まれてきていたとも考えられている。
- From the above fact, it is thought that the awareness that shogun was the president of Tenka was born in the Muromachi period.
- このころの「天下」は黎朝の皇帝の下に成立しているトンキン・コーチシナを中心とした世界であったと考えられている。
- 'Tenka' at the time is thought to have been the world which consisted of Tonkin and Cochinchine under the emperor of the Lê dynasty.
- なお玄白は『カスパリュス・アナトミア』もこのとき入手したらしく、『解体新書』に玄白所蔵の参考図書として出てくる。
- Furthermore, it appears that Genpaku also obtained a copy of 'Casper's Anatomy' at around this time, and in 'Kaitai Shinsho' the book is mentioned as a reference possessed by Genpaku.
- このうち大阪府の陶邑窯跡群は日本列島最大であり、天皇陵を含むと考えられている百舌鳥古墳群と地理的に近接している。
- Among these ruins of kilns, Suemura ruins of kilns in Osaka Prefecture is the largest in Japan and is located close to Mozu burial mounds which is considered to have the Imperial mausoleum.
- 1998年12月、「古都奈良の文化財」として東大寺などと共に世界文化遺産に登録された(考古遺跡としては日本初)。
- In December, 1998, Heijo-kyu Palace was registered as one of the World Heritage under the name of 'Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara' together with Todai-ji Temple (the first registered ancient remains in Japan).
- とすれば、表面的に北条氏の活躍が目立つものの、実際は東国有力御家人の諒解のもとにこの事件は進行したと考えられる。
- If so, although the action by the Hojo clan is seemingly notable, the incident can be considered to have developed with the agreement of the senior vassals in the togoku.
- さらに、律令制に於ける人民統治の実態は単なる人民圧迫に基づいた搾取構造でしかなかった、という考えも存在している。
- There is an opinion that the government of the people under the Ritsuryo system was simply nothing but a structure of exploitation based on oppression on the people.
- 日本では、後期旧石器時代ごろから造られたと考えられており、北海道から九州にかけて18カ所の遺跡で確認されている。
- In Japan, it is believed that such dwellings started to be built in the latter Paleolithic era, with 18 such sites found across Japan from Hokkaido to Kyushu.
- ところが、かぶき者が流行り、追い腹を忠臣の証と考える風習ができ、世間から讃えられると一層まねをするものが増えた。
- However, when Kabukimono (dandy, or people who behave in unique manner believing it is fashionable) became popular, the custom of believing oibara as the proof of loyalty was established, and the public praised the custom, people who committed suicide were increased all the more.
- この蝦夷軍を追って巣伏村に至り、そこで前軍と合流しようと考えたが、前軍は対岸の蝦夷軍に阻まれて渡河できなかった。
- Chasing the Emishi/Ezo army, the Imperial army entered Subuse village, where they had intended to meet the front force of the Imperial army stationed on the west side of the river, which, however, had been blocked by the Emishi/Ezo army and had failed to cross the river.
- 「日本は文明国だから、中国、朝鮮を支配していい、なんて考えておらず、当然のことながらそんなことは書いていない。」
- He did not think it was OK for Japan to rule China and Korea because Japan was a civilized country and of course he did not write to tell us that.'
- そして、南関東の定住集落の形成には、植物採集活動だけでなく、漁労活動も重要な役割を果たしていたと考えられている。
- It is assumed that not only plant gathering activities but also the fish catching activities played important roles in establishing sedentary settlements in the southern Kanto region.
- 前述の通り、1635年、江戸幕府は史上最大の安宅船である安宅丸を建造し、鉄甲船と同様の考えから銅板を貼っている。
- As mentioned above, the Edo bakufu built the Atake Maru, the largest Atake-bune in history which was covered with copper plates based on the same idea as a tekkosen.
- 口分田の祖型は、7世紀中葉の大化の改新頃に始まり、7世紀終盤の律令形成期に口分田制度が確立したと考えられている。
- It is considered that the original kubunden system began to be formed around the Taika Reforms, or in the middle era of the seventh century, and was established towards the end of seventh century when the ritsuryo system was formed.
- こうした兵器は、おそらくは中国の神火飛鴉などの同様のロケット型の兵器(火箭)を糸口にして作成されたと考えられる。
- These weapons were likely created by clues from rocket-shaped weapons from China (Kasen), such as Shinkahia (a missile disguised as a bird).
- このことから、各地の条里は墾田永年私財法に伴って開発された墾田を中心として施行されたのではないかと考えられている。
- As a result, it is considered that Jori in various places was enforced around cultivated land which was developed by the Konden Einen Shizai Law.
- 一般に三世一身法は、後の墾田永年私財法と併せて、律令体制の根幹である公地公民制の崩壊の第一歩だ、と考えられている。
- Generally the Sanze-isshin law is considered to be the first step for collapse of the Kochi-komin Sei (a system of complete state ownership of land and citizens) which is a basis of the Ritsuryo system, along with the later Konden Einen Shizai Law.
- 7世紀後期、新羅は朝鮮半島の統一と唐の影響を抑制することに成功し、唐律令を参考としながらも独自の律令制を構築した。
- In the late seventh century, Silla succeeded in unifying the Korean Peninsula and restraining the interference of the Tang Dynasty, and although making reference to the Luli of Tang Dynasty, it constructed its own Luli System.
- また、据付石皿や固定式石皿と呼ばれる住居に備え付けられた石皿もあり、まな板として調理に用いていたと考えられている。
- Some stone plates were installed or fixed in living place, and they were considered to be used as a chopping board for cooking.
- 蒙古国書への返書を巡り朝廷の動向が重要視されるようになると鎌倉は京都を警戒するようになっていたとも考えられている。
- It is thought when the reaction of the Imperial Court to the Mongol letter was regarded as important, Kamakura became more wary of Kyoto.
- 考証を経た上で即位論を唱えた最初の著作は、江戸時代の寛永4年(1624年)に那波活所が書いた『帝王暦数図』である。
- The first literary work that advocated the enthronement theory based on historical investigations was 'Teio Rekisu Zu' written by Kassho NABA in 1624 in the Edo period.
- 中座、書生、一分はそれに次ぐ地位にあり、他国舎人・国雑色・国掌・国承仕・御子らは実務官僚であったと考えられている。
- Chuza, shosei, and ichibun were second to jokan and takokushajin, kunizoshiki, kunisho, kunishoji, and miko are regarded as practical bureaucrats.
- 現在、黄砂の砂塵の大部分は、発生地である乾燥地帯を襲う砂嵐(砂塵嵐)により大気中に巻き上げられると考えられている。
- Today, it is considered that most of kosa dust is flung up into the air by sandstorms (dust storms) striking the dry areas where kosa can originate.
- 現在のサラブレッドなど(体高約170センチ)に比べれば、甲斐の在来馬をはじめ当時の馬は小型であったと考えられている。
- The horse of the time, including the one indigenous to Kai Province, was presumably smaller than the modern thoroughbred (which is about 170 centimetres tall).
- ムラの内部と外部を区別する環濠を形成する目的として、外敵や獣などから集落を守る防御機能を備えることが考えられている。
- It is believed that the purpose of creating a moat to divide the inner and outer space of a village was to protect itself from being attacked by any external enemy or wild life.
- 全国どこでも一律に律令通りの施政がなされることが律令制の理想ではあったが、それが貫徹されていたとは考えられていない。
- The ideal was for the Ritsuryo system to be uniformly enforced across the country, but this was not necessarily realized.
- これらは天武の子大津皇子を指すと解釈されており、同時出土の他の木簡から天武10年(681年)のものと考えられている。
- These are thought to refer to Tenmu's child, Prince Otsu, and from other excavated mokkan, it is thought that these were from 681.
- 七支刀(しちしとう)の名は、鉾に似た主身の左右から三本ずつの枝刃を出して計て七本の刃を持つ形に由来すると考えられる。
- It is considered that the name of seven-pronged sword was derived from the shape of sword which looks like a halberd and has seven blades in total; From the right and left sides of the main body, three branch blades stick out respectively.
- 『中国偽書綜考』鄧瑞全・王冠英 他編(黄山書社 1998年 ISBN 7805355568)により偽書とされるもの。
- History books which are said to be gisho based on 'Chinese gisho synthetic consideration' edited by To Tanzen, O Kanei and others (ou zan publishing company, 1998, ISDN 7805355568)
- 「当色」は、位階相当の色として、五行思想に基づいた五常の徳目(仁・礼・信・義・智)の青・赤・黄・白・黒が考えられる。
- The 'colors' mentioned in the 'Nihon Shoki' are believed to have been blue, red, yellow, white, and black corresponding to the five Confucian virtues (charity, courtesy, sincerity, justice, knowledge), which was based on the Wu Xing (Five Phases).
- これは革命前のフランスでは絞首刑で稀に蘇生した死刑囚がいたが、この場合国王が赦免した事例があったことが参考とされた。
- This was referred to a case in France before the revolution in which there was a condemned who resuscitated after hanging and the king pardoned the condemned.
- 他に、後日、補筆・清書作業を行うことを考慮し、そのための参考内容を調達の容易な紙背を利用して執筆した文書などがある。
- Besides these, there are monjo composed of casual references written on the back side of used paper (which was relatively easy to procure), to be turned later into a fuller version with new parts or from which a fair copy could be made.
- 公卿補任の作者は未詳であり成立年代も不明であるが、「歴運記」を基に弘仁以後の分を書き足されていったものと考えられる。
- The authorship and the time when Kugyo-bunin came into existence has not yet been ascertained, but it is believed to be based on 'Rekiunki' and names had been added from the time of Konin.
- 銅鏡は各時代に製作されたが、歴史・考古学用語としては中国、朝鮮、日本の遺跡から発掘される青銅製の鏡を指すことが多い。
- Although it was made in various periods, as a historical and archaeological term, it often refers to the bronze mirror excavated from the remains in China, Korea and Japan.
- (ただし、後世においても例外的に実子が無かった場合に猶子を相続人にする例も存在したが、これは特例として考えられる。)
- (Though in later years there were some cases that a parent had no real child and Yushi became heir, they were regarded as exceptions.)
- これに対し、第5回、第6回押出しが行われており、鉱毒反対運動の弱体化は、事件や裁判とは関係ないと考える研究者もいる。
- However, some researchers say the Kawamata Incident or the trials of the Kawamata Incident had nothing to do with weakening of the opposition movement because two demonstrations, the fifth and the sixth, were staged after that.
- 事件によって有力な活動家が拘束され、また、活動を行うと逮捕されるかもしれないという不安からったと考える研究者がいる。
- Some researchers say it was because leading activists were arrested at the Incident and because peasants were afraid that they might also be arrested.
- したがって、こうした悪習などを改めるための法律であったと考えれば、厳罰を以って処すことの是非を軽々しく評価はできない。
- Therefore, if the aim of the law was to improve these bad customs and practices, it is not possible to make a hasty judgment whether the severe punishment was right or wrong.
- しかし、遺跡ごとに用途・保管方法や埋納の事情は異なっていたと考えられるため、すべての銅鐸を一律に論じる事は危険である。
- However, it is dangerous to discuss all dotaku in a single uniform way because the purpose, the storage method and conditions of burial probably varied depending on the sites.
- 安土桃山時代に入り大坂が発達し、京都も長らく分離していた上京と下京の宅地が繋がって30万人規模に成長したと考えられる。
- It is considered that in the Azuchi-Momoyama Period, Osaka began to develop, while Kyoto, where the two separated dwelling areas, Kamigyo and Shimogyo, were unified through the gradual development of the contiguous area in between, had grown into a city of some 300,000 people.
- せめて朝鮮における覇権だけは保ちたいと考える清は、威信に懸けても朝鮮をめぐる争いで譲るわけにはいかなくなってしまった。
- Qing, which would like to keep the hegemony in Korea, could not give in the battle over Korea at any cost.
- つまり、自宅より出先の方が軽くて済むのであれば、本来の自宅以外の場所を「自宅」ということにすれば良いという考えである。
- In other words, the idea was that if the practice of Katatagae for travelling to one place to another except one's home should be more lightly treated than that of involving one's home, it was convenient to assume that a place which, in fact, was not one's home, would be 'one's home'.
- ただし、この時期の鉄器は鉄素材を半島から輸入して製作されており、列島で製鉄が見られるのは古墳時代後期以降と考えられる。
- However ironware during this period were made from iron imported from the peninsula and iron making in Japan Archipelago is said have started after the end of the Kofun period.
- 邪馬台国畿内説では、北部九州勢力が大和へと移動したことを示す物的証拠は考古学的にはほとんど認められないのが実情である。
- For Yamatai-Koku kingdom in Kinai theory, there is no archeological material evidence to show that northern Kyushu powers migrated to Yamato.
- また、いつまでも藩を存続させておくことは日本の政治的な統一を妨げる原因の1つになると考えて一刻も早い廃止を望んでいた。
- Also keeping up han will be one of the causes to hinder Japanese political integration so Hirobumi ITO wanted to abolish the system as soon as possible.
- これ以降は国政を幕府ではなく合議制で決定しようという「公議政体論」の考えだけが広がり、幕府の権威を下げるものであった。
- ABE's efforts, however, resulted only in the spreading popularity of a 'parliamentary regime' that utilized a council system, inevitably weakening the Shogunate.
- 超然主義を取って議会との対立を続けるよりも自らが目指す近代国家の方向性を実現させるための政党結成に乗り出す事を考えた。
- He started to think of forming a new political party that would lead a modern nation that he wished to create instead of supporting transcendentalism and continuing to have a conflict with the Diet.
- 収録される太政官符・宣旨のなかに、『類聚符宣抄』には収録されないものもあるため、独自に編集されたものと考えられている。
- But, it is believed to be edited originally since some Daijokanpu and imperial decrees are not included in 'Ruiju fusensho'.
- これが出挙の前身ではないかと考えられており、少なくとも7世紀中期までに利子の慣行が発生していたことの傍証とされている。
- This is believed to be the predecessor of Suiko, regarded as a corroboration of the opinion that a system charging and paying interest had already existed by the middle of the seventh century at the latest.
- 日本では、飛鳥時代に令(または律令)を制定する際、唐の制度を参考としたため、唐と同様に口分田が導入されたと考えられる。
- It is considered that, in Japan, kubunden was introduced as it was in Tang, because the system in Tang was used as a reference in establishing the ryo (or ritsuryo) code in the Asuka period.
- 武井宏之の漫画『シャーマンキング』 には、『超・占事略決』という占事略决から派生したと考えられる名前の書物が登場した。
- In the 'Shaman King 'series, a manga (cartoon) written by Hiroyuki TAKEI, a book titled 'Cho-Senji ryakketsu,' which seems to derive from 'Senji ryakketsu,' appeared.
- 定免法は、豊凶を考慮しないため農民を、剰余を持たせて逸楽に耽らせ、また困窮させ、逃散(ちょうさん)させる傾向があった。
- Since jomen ho didn't consider the crop situation, it had a tendency to make peasants have surplus and laze, or feel distressed and escape.
- しかし、これらは次第に考慮されなくなってきており、平成の大合併期には、強引な名称決定に論争が起きた事例も少なくなかった。
- However, these conditions have not come to be considered gradually, and at the time of big consolidation in Heisei period, controversies occurred in many cases in which municipality names were forcibly decided.
- そのため、現在ではその方法は実際には用いられなかったのではないかと考えられている(分解できた可能性はあるが現存しない)。
- Therefore, it is now believed that the method was not used actually (such scabbards might be disassembable but do not exist currently).
- また、4世紀後期ごろから倭国(ヤマト王権)が朝鮮半島南部へ進出したことを示す文献史料・考古史料は少なからず残されている。
- Additionally, the events of the Wakoku (Japan, also known as Yamato sovereignty [ancient Japan sovereignty]) from the late fourth century saw a steady progression in Japanese militaristic advancement into the southern regions of the Korean Peninsula; reports of this fact were revealed in several documents of historical materials, and archaeological artifacts.
- この太刀の出土した場所などから、額田部臣は出雲臣と同族であり、その地域の部民(べみん)の管理者であったと考えられている。
- Considering the place where this long sword was excavated, Nukatabe no Omi and Izumo no Omi belonged to the same family, and he seems to have been a supervisor of bemin in the area.
- 竪穴(縦穴)建物の屋根の軒先は地面付近まで下がることが多かったと推測され、外からは屋根しか見えなかったものと考えられる。
- The eaves of the pit-type dwelling roof are believed to have commonly reached close to the ground, with the roof the only part of the dwelling visible from the outside.
- 詳細な位置は発掘調査がなされておらず確定していないが、福井県敦賀市南部の山間部の北陸道沿いなどにあったと考えられている。
- Precise location is undetermined because excavation and research have not been undertaken, but it is considered to have been along the Hokuriku-do Road in a mountainous area in southern Tsuruga City, Fukui Prefecture.
- 清朝が国際法を学び遵守するのであれば、再度大規模な砲艦外交に頼らずに交渉のスムーズ化と安定化を図れると考えたためである。
- This was because they thought that if the Qing dynasty would learn and abide by international law, it would be possible to make negotiation smooth and stabilized without using large-scale gunboat diplomacy again.
- この状況に大隈は落胆し、30日に現職在任のままで兼務していた会計官副知事(由利の後任)を辞任することも考えるようになる。
- OKUMA was disappointed with this situation, and on the 30th, he began to think about resigning his post as a finance office vice prefectural governor (successor to Yuri), which he held along with his present post.
- 船上に設置された箱の中には行者が乗り込むことになるが、この箱は船室とは異なり、乗組員が出入りすることは考えられていない。
- Practitioners get in the box on the boat, which is not designed for the crew members to move in and out.
- 日本の民間知識人による近代化の提言も、侵略的意図によるものと考えられるか朝鮮王朝内部における政争の具にしかならなかった。
- Japanese intellectual persons' proposal for modernization was regarded as having an invasive purpose, or used as a tool for political strife inside the Korean Dynasty.
- そうした中で、中流貴族も上層へある程度昇進していた延喜・天暦期を理想の治世とする考えが中下流貴族の間に広まったのである。
- In these situation, the idea that viewed the Engi and Tenryaku eras as ideal reigns when even the middle class of noblemen could be promoted to higher level to some extent became popular among the middle lower class noblemen.
- 更に堆積物の分析結果から、最も古い時代では白亜紀後期にあたる約7,000万年前から、黄砂が発生していたと考えられている。
- An analysis of sediments showed that kosa originated as early as in the latter half of the Cretaceous period, or from approx. 70 million years ago.
- 下は庶民から上は大名クラスの領主達に至るまで、ほとんど全ての階層が、自ら同等な階層の者と考える者同士で一揆契約を結んだ。
- In that society, people of nearly every level, from the commoners to the feudal lords in the daimyo (territorial lord) class signed contracts of ikki with others whom they considered to be of the same level.
- この使船は実際は宗氏が運用していたものであり、こうした事などから三浦の乱は宗氏主導で計画的に起こされたと考えられている。
- This envoy ship was operated by the So clan in fact, and considering these facts, it is thought that the Sanpo War was intentionally provoked by the So clan.
- また、銅鐸の製造集団の負う文化的背景に由来すると思われる地域的な銅鐸の特徴差について考慮を全く欠いているという批判がある。
- Also, another critic says that this theory completely lacks a consideration regarding regional differences in the characteristics of dotaku, which probably deprived from differences of the cultural background each local producing group had.
- 天武天皇の頃に使用されたと考えられており(天智天皇のときに使用されたとする説もある)、白鳳文化もこの時期に最盛期を迎えた。
- The era name of Hakuo is thought to have been used around the time of the Emperor Tenmu (another theory is around the time of the Emperor Tenchi), when the Hakuho culture was also at its best.
- 御所となった正光寺は、放生津城に隣接する石丸(高岡市石丸)にあった光正寺(現在は射水市本町へ移転)を指すと考えられている。
- Shoko-ji Temple, which became the Imperial Palace, is considered to mean Kosho-ji Temple which was at Ishimaru (Ishimaru, Takaoka City) next to Hojozu-jo Castle and has now moved to Hon-machi, Imizu City.
- しかし、これらは広い範囲には流通しなかったと考えられ、また、通貨として流通したかということ自体に疑問も投げかけられている。
- However, it is thought that Fuhonsen coins were not circulated widely; furthermore, there is doubt if the coins were actually circulated as currency.
- 文永の役の理由については南宋への牽制であり、少なくともクビライは最初から日本侵略を望んでいたわけではないと考えられている。
- The reason for Bunei no Eki is considered to have been to warn against the Southern Sung Dynasty, and at least, in the beginning, Kublai did not desire to invade Japan.
- これらは、冠位十二階に組み込まれなかった大臣 (日本)(おおおみ)などを冠位制の序列に組み込もうとした試みだと考えられる。
- These revisions are considered to be attempts to fit hereditary titles, such as O-omi, that had been left out of the twelve cap ranks into the hierarchy of the system.
- 欧米の諸制度・思想を紹介して、それを文明国標準とする一方で、旧来既存の日本の考え方や制度に批判を加えようとする姿勢である。
- It was a stance to criticize the conventional way of thinking and system in Japan while it introduced the systems and thoughts of Europe and America and considered them as the standard of civilized country.
- 天智天皇の頃に近江宮を東国から防衛するために設けられたとされ、郡衙や軍団 (古代日本)と同等以上の規模だったと考えられる。
- It is considered to have founded to protect Omi no miya from Togoku (the eastern part of Japan, particularly Kanto region) in the period of Emperor Tenchi, its scale could have been either equaling or surpassing gunga (county government offices) and gundan (military service).
- 当時の交通事情を勘案すると第七版がアジアにもたらされたのは刊行年より非常に遅く、実際には参照が難しかったと考えられている。
- Taking transportation condition at that time in consideration, however, arrival of the seventh version in Asia was very late compared to the year of publication, it is understood that the reference to the seventh version was difficult.
- 1905年、チャウは日本に渡って武器援助を仰ごうとしたが、武装蜂起の考え方を批判され、代わって人材育成の重要性を説かれた。
- In 1905, Chau went to Japan, where he sought military aid from Japanese and Chinese revolutionaries for Vietnamese cause, however, they criticized him for his idea of resorting to armed uprising and urged on him the importance of human resource development.
- 津軽海峡に面した台地上に立地するこの遺跡では、漁労活動が盛んに行われ、長期にわたる定住生活を営むことが出来たと考えられる。
- The Nakano B remains were located on the plateau facing the Tsugaru Channel; therefore, it is assumed that sustaining a sedentary life over a long period of time was possible since the fishing was the activity pursued.
- このため、先行した将門の動きが尚範の親族であった純友に何らかの心理的影響を与えた可能性までは否定できないという考えもある。
- Some people believe that the incident caused by Masakado, as previously described, may have had some psychological effect on Sumitomo, as the relative of Hisanori.
- 『符宣抄 別巻』と題されたこともあったせいか、『類聚符宣抄』との関連、例えば、『類聚符宣抄』の別本とも考えられなくもない。
- Since it was titled as 'Fusensho Separate volume', it can also be considered to be related to 'Ruiju fusensho', for example, a separate book of 'Ruiju fusensho'.
- 班田収授法の発足は、初めて戸籍が作成された670年、若しくは飛鳥浄御原令が制定された689年以降であろうと考えられている。
- It is believed that Handen Shuju-no-ho came into effect either in 670 when the family register was first made, or after the enactment of Asuka Kiyomihara-ryo (the legal code of the Japanese ancient state) in 689.
- 元々困っている旅行者を施設を造って助けようという「救恤」の発想自体が仏教の考え方であり、自然と運営主体は寺院が多くなった。
- The very idea of helping travelers in trouble was based on a concept of Buddhist thought called 'kyujutsu' (helping a person in trouble), so temples naturally made up the majority of the operations.
- 『占事略决』は、撰者である安倍晴明の没年が『尊卑分脈』によれば1005年とされているので、それ以前に成立したと考えられる。
- 'Senji ryakketsu' is believed to have been compiled before 1005 because, according to 'Sonpi Bunmyaku' (a text compiled in the fourteenth century that records the lineages of the aristocracy), the author ABE no Seimei' s year of death was 1005.
- ただ同時に見逃せないのは、この事件の背景に専制を強める将軍およびその近臣勢力と東国有力御家人との対立が考えられることである。
- One thing that should not be ignored at the same time is that, behind this incident, there could be a conflict between the shogun trying to strengthen a tyrannical control and his trusted vassals and the senior vassals in the togoku (the eastern part of Japan, particularly Kanto region) existed.
- 直弼の嫡男である井伊直憲は有栖川宮家から夫人を迎えており、井伊家は旧譜代大名のなかでは、むしろ厚遇されたと考えるべきである。
- Naonori II, Naosuke's legitimate son, married a daughter of the Arisugawanomiya family, and it should be noted that the Ii Family were rather treated very well among other old fudai daimyo.
- しかし、査読を経た学術論文で九州王朝説を扱ったものは皆無であり、九州王朝説に賛同を表明した歴史学者及び考古学者は存在しない。
- However, there is no peer-reviewed paper on the subject of the Kyushu dynasty, neither was there a historian, nor an archaeologist who accepts this theory.
- 先駆者としては、肥前国長崎生まれの西川如見がおり、長崎で見聞した海外事情を通商関係の観点から記述した『華夷通商考』を著した。
- Among the pioneers, Joken NISHIKAWA from Nagasaki, Hizen Province wrote 'Kaitsushoko' (Considerations on commerce with foreign countries) which described overseas circumstances he learned in Nagasaki from the viewpoint of trade relations.
- しかし、弥生時代の墳丘墓や古墳時代には墳丘周辺で副葬品のみられない埋葬施設があり、殉葬が行われていた可能性が考えられている。
- However, burial facilities without funerary goods were found in areas around funkyubo (mounded burials) of the Yayoi period and funkyu (burial mounds) of the Kofun period.it; therefore it is thought that Junso was possibly conducted.
- 「女論」の詳細は『将門記』に欠落があって不明だが、前常陸国大掾源護の娘、もしくは良兼の娘を巡る争いであったと考えられている。
- The details of the dispute are not clear due to a missing part in the 'Shomonki' (The Chronicle of Masakado), but the subject of the dispute is believed to be either the daughter of MINAMOTO no Mamoru, the former Daijo (an official of the Third Rank) of Hitachi Province or the daughter of Yoshikane.
- 大隈や伊藤は当初、贋金貨100両に対する実際の価値を20両前後と見て、それに多少上乗せをして25両で引き換えることを考えた。
- In the beginning, OKUMA and ITO evaluated that 100 counterfeit ryo had around 20 ryo worth actually, so added a little more to this to exchange it for 25 ryo.
- これに対して同書は板垣監修の書であり、仮に板垣自身が関与したとしてもその事実を記載をするとは考えにくいとする史料批判がある。
- Others, however, have criticized ITAGAKI's account on the basis that he himself edited the book and so is an unreliable source.
- この地方という考えは儀式としての相撲における土俵(古来四角であった)に現れていたが、現在ではその特性を失われ円になっている。
- The concept of Chiho (rectangular ground) was represented in the dohyo (ring) (which was rectangular in old times) of sumo as a ritual, but it shapes round today as it has lost the original meaning.
- 鉄板では海水によって腐食するため長期の運用は不可能であり、そのため銅板に換えたと考えられ、鉄甲船からの順当な発展型と言える。
- Iron plates would become eroded so easily by sea water that they were unfit for a long-term use, therefore, they were substituted by copper plates, which can be said to have made a reasonable development from a tekkosen.
- その後、824年にこの規定が復活したが、『延喜式』にはこの規定について触れられておらずそれ以前に廃止されたと考えられている。
- Later, this imperial decree was resurrected in 824, but there is no description about this decree in 'Engishiki' (an ancient book for codes and procedures on national rites and prayers), so it is considered that the decree was abolished before then.
- こちらが後の永業田の資源と考えられ、人間だけでなく牛も30畝の田地支給を受けていた(ただし4頭まで4年までという説もある)。
- It is considered that this was the origin of hereditary fields, and in addition to human beings, each head of cattle was also supplied a field of approx. 1.2 hectares (however, it is also said that these fields might have been supplied up to four heads of cattle for four years).
- 江戸末期にも延喜・天暦の治を理想視する思想が明治維新の原動力の一つとなり、そうした考えは明治以降の皇国史観にも引き継がれた。
- Also toward the end of the Edo period, the idealization of the Engi and Tenryaku eras became one of the drivers for the Meiji Restoration and this thought carried over into Kokoku Shikan (emperor-centered historiography which is based on state Shinto) after the Meiji period.
- 寺子屋の「子屋」が「こや(小屋)」に通じる点や、「屋」が屋号に通じる事が教育の場の名称に適切ではないと考えられたからである。
- This was because 'Koya' in Terakoya sounded like 'shed' and 'Ya' sounded like a shop name and was considered unsuitable as a name for a place of education.
- 「五月丙午(へいご、ひのえうま)」とは、盛夏を意味し、刀剣や鏡などの金属器を造る時、太陽から火を採る最適の日と考えられている。
- Hinoeuma in May' means the midsummer, which is considered the best day to make fire from the sun when metal utensils such as swords and mirrors are made.
- 石篦(いしべら)は剥片石器の一種で、木や骨の切削や獣皮の皮なめし、一部には土掘りの道具として使われたと考えられるヘラ状の石器。
- A stone spatula is a kind of flake stone tool in a spatula-like shape, and it is considered to be used for cutting trees or bones, tanning animal skins, or maybe digging ground.
- 大仏鋳造や寺院などの大型品の鋳造では、坩堝は用いず溶解炉から直接鋳型に流し込み技法であったことが考古学的にも立証されている。)
- For the casting of big objects, such as Great Buddha and temples, it is archaeologically proved that molding technique without crucibles, which pours the melted metal into a mold from a melting furnace directly, was used.
- 世界各地の農業社会では、その初期の頃から、播種期に種子を貸与し、収穫期に利子を付けて返済させる慣行が生まれたと考えられている。
- In the agrarian society worldwide, it is thought that a system, in which seeds were loaned to peasants in the planting season to make them pay back the loaned seeds and the born interest in the harvesting season, was launched in the early days.
- 刈田行為は、検断沙汰に含まれる以前は当時の社会で広く受容されていた自力救済慣行の一つとして認識されていたものと考えられている。
- Before the karita act became subject to kendan-sata, it looks to have been recognized as one of self-defense remedial practices which were widely accepted in society at that time.
- 大隈重信は政府内にあって、大隈財政(西南戦争後の財政赤字を外債によって克服しようと考えていた)を巡って松方正義らと対立していた。
- Among the government, Shigenobu OKUMA was opposed to Masayoshi MATSUKATA, regarding his financial policy (After the Seinan War, OKUMA aimed to overcome financial deficit by foreign debt).
- 蜂起中に困民党メンバーやその同調者が使用したとされる「自由自治元年」という'年号'は、日本史上、最終期の私年号と考えられている。
- The name of the era, 'First year of Free Autonomy' used by the Konminto Party members and their sympathizers, was regarded as a shinengo (private name of a era) in the end term in Japanese history.
- 盟神探湯の復活と言う形で室町時代前期頃から行われたとみられているが詳細は不明であるが、当初は民間で行われていたと考えられている。
- Although the details are unknown, it is said that yugisho started being used around the early Muromachi period as a revival of the ancient kukatachi and was used among private citizens at first.
- また、北部九州や近畿地方などの西日本では、水稲農耕の定着した時期の弥生時代前期末段階で、ムラづくりが共通していたとも考えられる。
- Village constructions were probably common by the end of Early Yayoi period in regions such as northern Kyushu and Kinki, where wet-rice cultivation had been established by that time.
- しかしながら、友軍の川尻突入を見て、機逸すべからずと考え、兵を分けて、自ら撰抜隊を率いて熊本城目指して突入し、遂に城下に達した。
- At the sight of the troops on his side charging into Kawajiri, YAMAKAWA made a snap decision that he must not miss the opportunity, divided his soldiers and led the pick of the troops by himself and rushed towards Kumamoto Castle, and entered the castle town.
- 府知事・県令は地方税事項については府県会の議決に従うものとされたが、認可すべきでないと考えた場合には内務卿に報告し指揮を請うた。
- Prefectural governors were to follow the decisions made by Fuken-kai regarding issues on local taxes, but if they thought they should not approve the decisions, they reported it to the minister of interior and asked for supervision.
- 墾田永年私財法の施行により、富豪や大寺院などが私有耕地を拡大していったため、政府として一旦、墾田を禁止したものと考えられている。
- It is believed that in its capacity as a government, cultivation of new land was once prohibited, for the wealthy and large temples increased their own cultivated lands by the enforcement of the Konden Einen Shizai Law.
- ただこのように軍事的高圧な姿勢を表面上見せながら、当時の日本は軍費の負担という点からいって、戦争が好ましいとは考えていなかった。
- However, while Japan showed an oppressive military attitude on the surface, Japan at that time thought that the war would not be preferable from the point of military expenditure.
- ただし、原石をそのまま道具として用いることから、単体で出土しても、それが遺物(考古資料)であるかどうかは判別できない場合も多い。
- However, since ore is used as tools as it is, it is often difficult to determine whether it was a relic (archaeological materials) or not.
- 凹石とは異なり、板状の石材が選ばれることが多く、凹みは主に回転摩擦痕跡によるものであることから、火きり臼であると考えられている。
- Unlike kubomi-ishi, board-like stones are selected as materials in many cases; because hollows mainly resulted from rotary frictions, beehive stones are seen as making fire mortars.
- 2008年1~2月、米国・海洋考古学研究所のトルコ人スタッフらが発掘調査を行い、遺骨や弾丸など1000点以上の遺品を引き揚げた。
- In January and February, 2008, Turkish staff members of the Institute of Nautical Archaeology of the United States carried out an underwater excavation and salvaged over 1000 articles of her remains, such as bullets and remains of the body.
- 朝鮮において『万国公法』が読まれたのは、国際法における局外中立が朝鮮を取り巻く国際環境に有効ではないかと考えられたためであった。
- 'Bankoku Koho' was read in Korea because people considered that neutrality might be an effective way in the international circumstances around Korea.
- 縄文後期・晩期になると呪術的な遺物が著しく発達することからも、磨製石斧も儀器や装飾品としての意味合いを濃くしたものと考えられる。
- Because in the end of the Jomon period occult relics developed remarkably, it was believed that ground stone axes increased the meaning as ceremonial vessels and accessories.
- それでも不動穀引継のための儀式は実態がないまま、国司の制度が存在していた南北朝時代_(日本)頃まで継続していたと考えられている。
- Yet it is thought that the ceremony for transfer of Fudokoku did exist although there was no existence of real warehouse until the period of the Northern and Southern Courts in which the provincial governor system still existed.
- 人には「魂」というものがあると信じられ、熟睡したり悩み事に屈託したときには衰弱した肉体からその「魂」が遊離すると考えられていた。
- It was believed that a person possesses a 'soul,' and when he is in deep sleep, or is troubled by something, the soul drifts away from the weakened body.
- しかし、これらはいずれも王の居所である宮(みや)にすぎず、国家の中心都市である京(みやこ)には至っていなかったと考えられている。
- However, it is thought that these palaces were just the Emperors' residences (Miya) and were not the capitals which were the central cities of the state.
- その後、朝鮮半島や日本などへ周礼思想とともに条坊制が伝わり、これらの地域でも条坊制の王城が営まれるようになったと考えられている。
- It is thought that Jobosei was later introduced to the Korean peninsula and Japan as the Shurai idea was spreading and Jobosei-type capitals were being developed in these countries.
- そのため、民間からの資本を入れてでも建設をおこなうべきだという声が出たが、実際に鉄道を見せないことにはそれすら進まないと考えた。
- Then, some insisted that it should be constructed even with some private capital, but also they thought that they needed to show people an actual railway in order to attract capital.
- 河内王朝は、瀬戸内海の海上権を握ったことと奈良盆地東南部の有力豪族葛城氏の協力を得たことが強大な河内王朝をつくったと考えられる。
- It is thought that strong Kawachi Dynasty were built by holding the maritime power of the Seto Inland Sea and having the cooperation of the Katsuragi clan, an influential local ruling family in the southeast part of Nara basin.
- そのように考えると、元年に太歳記事がないのは見落としのせいではなく、もともとそのように編集されていたのだとするほうが自然である。
- In consideration of that fact, it is natural to think that the tai sui article did not appear in the first year not because it was overlooked, but because it was edited in such a way from the beginning.
- 『南北両町奉行連著書上』が伝える元文三年(1738年)、寛保三年(1743年)の人口は誤記と思われるが、参考までに斜体で記載する。
- The figures of population for 1738 and 1743 in the 'Nanboku ryo machibugyo rencho shojo' (the joint report by the Minami and Kita town magistrates) seem to be erroneous, but they are included herein in italics for reference.
- ただし、孝徳期に大規模な改革が行われたことに違いはなく、後の律令制へつながっていく王土王民を基本理念とした内容だったと考えられる。
- Such differences, however, do not alter the fact that a major reform occurred under the regime of Emperor Kotoku, and the contents of the edict are thought to be based on the principle of Odo Omin (the fundamental principle that all people and land belong to the Emperor) which led to the Ritsuryo system later adopted in Japan.
- また、国家への強制に基づく条約調印を無効とする国際慣習法上の規範もしくは規則が1905年にはなかったと考える立場からの主張もある。
- There is also a claim from the position in which they think that in 1905 there were no norms or regulations in the international common law which could invalidate a conclusion of a treaty based on compulsion against a state.
- 後半は主に出羽において戦闘が継続したが、伊治呰麻呂らの協力もあり、宝亀9年(778年)までには反乱は一旦収束したと考えられている。
- Although fighting continued mainly in the Dewa province for the last half of this period, most rebellions by Emishi/Ezo people are considered to have ceased by 778, partly thanks to the collaboration of IJI no Azamaro and others.
- 江戸時代においては米価と諸色は連動すると考えられていたが、米の増産による価格低迷が享保年間には「米価安の諸色高直」の現象を招いた。
- In the Edo period rice price was considered to link with shoshiki, however, price slump caused by increased production of rice incurred the phenomenon of 'shoshiki-kojiki by low rice price' in Kyoho era.
- 形は石斧によく似ているが、文字通り手に握って、土を掘ったり動物を解体したり木を削ったり、その他多様な用途に用いられたと考えられる。
- Akufu resembled stone axes in shape, and Akufu were used for a variety of applications: Literally gripping these to dig the soil, disorganize animals and shave wood.
- 甕棺墓は、縄文時代後・晩期の埋甕習俗を下敷きとし、半島から伝来した壷形土器を埋葬容器として採用することにより成立したと考えられる。
- Kamekanbo was based on the manners and customs of maiyo (custom of burial during the Jomon period, dead body, etc. was placed inside a pot and buried) in the end to last Jomon period, and was completed by adapting a jar-shaped vessel from the Korean Peninsula as a container for burial.
- 日本国家の成立から考察すれば、前期・中期の古代国家の形成期を経て、後期から終末期にかけて日本の古代国家が成立したと考えられている。
- Taking into consideration what was known of the 'Kofun period' as a view point into the establishment of the Japanese Nation, historians and other experts came to this conclusion; that ancient Japan was formed during the early and middle portions of the 'Kofun period,' then to be fully developed and established during the late and final periods of the 'Kofun.'
- しかし、征夷政策の収束と共に10世紀頃から急速に城柵は廃れ、11世紀には史料上からも考古学的成果からも消滅する事が確認されている。
- But josaku went into a rapid decline since around the 10th century along with the end of the government's policy against barbarians, and by the 11th century, it had disappeared from historical documents as well as archeological records.
- 近年の研究には、公使館の人々を人質として生かし、列強との外交交渉を有利に運ぶ材料として清朝が考えていたという主張をするものもある。
- Some modern studies state that the Qing dynasty was planning to keep people of the legation alive as hostages and use them to make profitable diplomatic deals.
- それとともに中国領内にある嶺南地方をヴェトナムと一体として考える思想が衰退し、18世紀末には正史において南越国は正統から外された。
- In association with it, the idea of regarding China's Lingnan region as a part of Vietnam declined, and Nanetsukoku finally lost its legitimacy in the official history book at the end of 18th century.
- 延喜8年(908年)に宇多上皇のために信濃国が与えられ、10年後に更に武蔵国が与えられたのが最古の例と考えるのが妥当とされている。
- However, it is now most commonly believed that the oldest example of the system being used occurred when Shinano Province was given to Retired Emperor Uda in 908, followed by Musashi Province ten years later.
- その調達方法については諸説あるものの、租や正税・地子交易を用いた現地における調達や雑徭による製作によって入手したと考えられている。
- There are various theories regarding collection method; collection at the local area using So, Shozei (rice tax) and Jishi trade (trade between tax [rice] and specialty goods), and labor for production with Zoyo are considered possibilities.
- 生類憐みの令が出された理由については、他に長寿祈祷のためという説もあるが、これも隆光僧正の勧めとされているため、事実とは考えにくい。
- There is another theory that it was issued for the prayer of longevity, but this theory also states the law was issued on Ryuko's recommendation therefore is hard to believe.
- 彼らは「公卿は官禄は高くても貧しく、我輩の商賈(大坂商人)に手を下くる(へつらう)。世の中に富より尊いものがあろうか」と考えている。
- They believe that 'the aristocracy may be elevated in status but is poor and ingratiate themselves to us Osaka merchants and there is nothing more important in the world than wealth.'
- このため、鎖鎌術を伝授する流派では、鎖分銅をかわされた場合の戦闘を考慮した(鎌の部分を利用した)接近戦戦闘法を繰り返し稽古している。
- For this reason, pupils in schools teaching the art of the kusarigama repeatedly practice a close quarters combat style (utilizing the portion of kama) that takes into account situations in which the opponent has managed to dodge the chain weight.
- このため、弘安の役で戦争に勝利した暁には屯田を目的として長期的な日本の占領・支配することを意図していたのではないかと考えられている。
- It is considered, therefore, that he would have been thinking about a long-term occupation and ruling of Japan for the purpose of land cultivation after winning the war of Koan no Eki.
- 薩軍は勇戦し、4月9日、再び隈府に攻め入った官軍を撃退したが、弾丸・武器の不足によりこれ以上の戦闘を不可能と考え、赤星坂へ撤退した。
- On April 9, the Satsuma army bravely fought and drove off the government army that invaded Waifu again, but according to the judgment that it could not keep on fighting due to lack of bullets and arms, it retreated to Akahoshizaka.
- このことから墾田永年私財法の施行は、公の土地という大前提を覆すものであると捉えられ、律令体制崩壊の兆候として一般には考えられている。
- As a result, enforcement of the Konden Einen Shizai Law was regarded as an overthrow of public land which was its major premise, and it is generally considered as an omen of the breakdown of the Ritsuryo system.
- 目安箱(めやすばこ)は施政の参考意見や社会事情の収集などを目的に、庶民の進言の投書を集めるために設置した箱、及びその制度の事である。
- Meyasubako was a box which was set up to collect letters of proposal by the common people for the purpose of collecting opinions about administrative policies and information about the society, or the system thereof.
- 元々中国と西欧とでは法に対する観念が全く異なる上に、国際関係についての考え方も大きく違っているため、その作業には大きな困難を伴った。
- The work involved large difficulties because concept of law was completely different between China and western countries, and there was a big difference in the way of thinking about international relations.
- しかし弥生時代の開始年代を繰り上げる説に関連してこれを否定するか、あるいは殷から周への政変に関連付ける考えが検討されるようになった。
- However, in connection with a theory to moving up the beginning date of the Yayoi period, whether or not to reject the previous theory, or to relate a new date with political changes of the Yin Dynasty to the Zhou Dynasty has been considered.
- 量目は1匁2分(4.5グラム)程度、金品位も五十二匁二分位(84.3%)程度とみられ、これも慶長一分判に継承されていると考えられる。
- Its ryome is likely to be only 1 monme 2 bu (4.5gram) and gold carat is approximately 52 monme 2 bu (84.3%), and it was also inherited by Keicho Ichibuban.
- 後鳥羽上皇の院政において訴訟対応への強化が図られ、その一環として明法勘文や実務文書作成のための手本として作成されたと考えられている。
- It is believed that this law book was created as an example used for preparing Myobo kanmon (written reports to the Imperial Court by scholars of the law) and practical documents, as a part of the efforts to reinforce responses to lawsuits under the cloister government of the retired Emperor Gotoba.
- そのためか、歴史学や考古学的な文脈においても、飛鳥時代あたりの飛鳥を指すのに「飛鳥京」という名称が必ずしも使われているわけではない。
- Maybe because of the ambiguity of the term, the name 'Asuka-kyo' is not always used to mean the Asuka area in the Asuka period in historical and archaeological contexts.
- これが見世升とか町枡といわれる商業升であり、これは新京升よりやや小さく、古京升に近い量をもっていたと考えられる(寶月圭吾『前掲書』)。
- This masu for commerce, called mise-masu or machi-masu, seems to have been a bit smaller than new kyomasu, and to have had the volume similar to old kyomasu (according to the previously mentioned book written by Keigo HOGETSU).
- この政権交替は、蘇我氏に変わって権力を握ることではなく、東アジア情勢の流れに即応できる権力の集中と国政の改革であったと考えられている。
- This political power shift was not aimed at taking over authority from the Soga clan but at centralization of authority and reform of national administration which will enable adaptation to the tide of the East Asian situation.
- 一方、逆説的であるが興亜論(後の時代では「大アジア主義」)の考えこそが、中国・朝鮮への進出を押し進めたという説も有力に主張されている。
- On the other hand, paradoxically, there is a widely-accepted theory that Pan-Asianism (a movement that Asian nations unite and solidify and create a continental identity to defeat the designs of the Western nations to perpetuate hegemony) led Japan to the invasions of China and Korea.
- 和同開珎は、「珎」の字が「寶」の異体字である「寳」の略字であると考えられ、以後公式に鋳造された銭には一貫して「寳」の文字が使用された。
- Wado-kaichin contained a letter 'chin' which was thought to be a variant and a simplified character of 'ho'; therefore, the letter 'ho' was consistently used for coins which were officially minted thereafter.
- また、激派の中には返納派が密かに幕府へ勅書を渡してしまうのではないかと疑い、脱藩して実力行使にて幕府返納を阻止しようと考える者もいた。
- Some of the extremists thought that the conservatives may secretly give the chokusho to the bakufu, and tried to leave the domain and resort to violence to stop it.
- 以上の内容を考慮して織田家が使用した鉄砲数が通説よりも少ない1000丁だったとみても、当時のことを考えれば十分に特筆すべき数ではある。
- Supposing, on the basis of this, that they used only 1,000 teppo as opposed to the standard figure, this is still a remarkable figure for the period.
- しかしながら、私は、「いや、そうでない,西郷はくみする考はなくとも、是迄の情報に於いては、外のものが必ず漕ぎ出すに違ひない」と云ふた。
- However, I said that 'It is not true: Even if SAIGO has no idea of aiding the rebellion, he would eventually become involved in it by others, according to the obtained information'.
- 主要な政治ポストには従来の豪族ではなく諸皇子をあてて、その下で働く官僚たちの登用・考課・選叙など官人統制に関する法令を整備していった。
- Emperor Tenmu appointed princes, instead of the usual powerful clans, to major political posts and established laws for regulating the appointment, evaluation, and selection of officials working under the princes.
- さらに関野貞は、大極殿の基壇を見つけ、平城宮の復元研究を深めて、その成果を『平城宮及大内裏考』として1907年(明治40)に発表した。
- In addition, after Tadashi SEKINO discovered the substructure of Daigokuden and conducted research on the restoration of Heijo-kyu Palace, its results were published as 'Heijo-kyu oyobi Daidairi ko' in 1907.
- 伏屋式が主流で、壁立式は拠点集落の大形住居に限られ、首長居館として権威を示す形式として弥生・古墳の両時代に築造されたと考えられている。
- While the fuseya type was predominant, the kabedachi type was limited to large-scale structures in key settlements, believed to be built in both Yayoi and Kofun (tumulus) periods as an architectural style aimed at demonstrating authority as the residence of the chieftain.
- 区分けの方法は村を東西や南北などの地理的条件により一律に区切るということはせずに各田畑の良し悪しなどを考慮して個別に帰属が決定された。
- A village was not uniformly divided based on geographical distinctions (e.g. east and west and north and south); each territory was readjusted on a case-by-case basis in view of the conditions of its land (e.g. the land's fertility).
- 土器の生産は集落ごとに行われ、集落ごとに自給自足によりまかなわれたと漠然と考えられているが、土器生産に関する遺構はほとんど事例がない。
- Earthenware was manufactured in each settlement and it is vaguely believed that the material was self-sufficient in each settlement, but there was hardly any case of ancient structural remnants for earthenware manufacturing found.
- それゆえに、鉄資源の入手ルートの支配権を巡って戦争が起こったのではないかと考えられているが、今はまだ考古学的に立証することができない。
- Therefore, a war may have broken out over the control of the iron acquisition route, but it is not archaeologically proved yet.
- 尚この雑分中の鉛の含有率は2~3%と慶長銀と比較して高くなっており、南蛮吹による銀銅吹分けに伴いかなりの鉛が残存したものと考えられる。
- The lead contained in this miscellaneous was 2 to 3%, which means that its containment was larger than keicho-gin, and a large amount of lead must have remained by cupellating method to seperate silver and bronze, a nanban (Western Europe) -style cupellating method.
- 用途としては、現在使われている鏡のように単純に物の姿を映し出す道具としてではなく、祭祀・呪術用の道具として用いられたと考えられている。
- When it comes to its use, it is believed that it was not simply as a tool to catch sight of a thing like a mirror being used today but a tool for religious services and magic rites.
- 今津から香椎までの海岸線に築かれた元寇防塁であったが、江戸時代の福岡城築城の際に、石垣の石として防塁の大半が失われたと考えられている。
- Genko borui was constructed along the coastline from Imazu to Kashii, but when Fukuoka-jo Castle was built in the Edo period, most of borui was lost, because it was used as stones for the stone wall.
- 日本側が韓国併合は現在において「もはや無効」であるという立場をとることで日韓併合条約の締結自体は合法であったという考えを内包している。
- Japan has adopted a stance that the annexation of Korea is 'no longer valid' today, which implies the conclusion that the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty itself was legal.
- また、現在黄砂の発生源となっている黄土高原は、250万年前から始まり200万年前から増えた、風送ダストによってできたと考えられている。
- It is considered that the Loess Plateau, which is a kosa producing place, was formed by wind-sent dust that started falling there 2.5 million years ago and whose amount increased starting 2 million years ago.
- これら黄砂や風送ダストの量の変化は、気候変動や地殻変動によって、風や降水、地形などのパターンが変わったことによるものと考えられている。
- It is considered that these changes in the amount of kosa or wind-sent dust occurred, because climate changes and crustal changes altered wind, rainfall or land shape patterns.
- 元は租庸調として各国より特産品が実物の形で貢納されて中央で消費されていたが、その不足分を補うために行われた制度であると考えられている。
- Originally, specialty goods from each province were sent as Soyocho tithes to the central government and consumed there but it is considered that this system was established to make up a shortfall.
- (水稲)稲作に始まり、後には仏教や寺院建築技術などを日本に持ち込み、古代日本における文化・政権形成に大きな役割を演じたと考えられている。
- It is thought that they played an important role in the formation of culture and administration in ancient Japan by beginning with rice cultivation (wet rice culture) and by bringing Buddhism and temple architecture to Japan later.
- 貿易を通じて商人から得たのか、あるいはベトナムは朝貢使節を清朝に派遣していたので、そのときに買い求めたものかもしれないと考えられている。
- It is considered that it was brought by merchants or bought in China and brought back to Vietnam by tributary delegates, which Vietnam sent to the Qing dynasty.
- そのためには徳目の大意や四書五経の語句を暗誦出来るまでに徹底した反復させる必要があるとして、その考え方を強く反映させた内容となっている。
- For this purpose, he said that they should thoroughly repeat the virtuous phrases of 'Shishogokyo' until they could recite them by heart, which were strongly reflected in the book as his approach to education.
- また、当初の伊藤は政党内閣は事実上主権(国体)が天皇から政党に移るから認められないと考えていた(もっとも、伊藤は後に立憲政友会を結党)。
- Also, at that time, Ito thought that a political party cabinet was not acceptable because it meant that the sovereign power (national structure) would in effect shift from the Emperor to a political party (yet Ito established the Rikken Seiyukai Party later on.)
- 考古学的な見地からは、平群氏の奥津城とされる平群谷古墳群(平群町に所在)の変遷を考えると、同氏の台頭は6世紀中期以前には遡れないという。
- According to archeologists, when they see the changes of Heguridani-kofun Tumulus Cluster (located in present Heguri Town) which is said to be the okutsuki (Shinto tomb) of the Heguri clan, the emergence of the Heguri clan cannot be traced before the middle of the sixth century.
- シロッコは砂塵の混じった赤い雨を降らせたり、地中海に広く分布する赤土テラロッサの起源になっていると考えられており、黄砂との類似性がある。
- Scirocco resembles kosa in the following sense: It brings the falling of red rain that includes dust, and is considered contributing to the generation of terra rossa, the red clay distributed widely in the Mediterranean region.
- 地上からの観測による情報は無いが、衛星画像による観測の解析から、ロシアの沿海州・樺太なども黄砂の通過ルートとなっていると考えられている。
- Although no ground-level data observed is available, it is considered, based on analyses of images observed with satellites, that Enkai shu (Russian maritime provinces) and Sakhalin in Russia also constitutes a kosa-passing route.
- こういった場合、再度隠れ里に行くことができなかったり川上から漆塗りの器が流れてきたりすることから隠れ里自体を妖怪化して考えることがある。
- Even in such cases, however, outside people couldn't find kakurezato again, or saw lacquer ware come floating down from upstream and as a result, they sometimes came to think of kakurezato as something like a specter.
- 図3は武徳編年集成に記載されている小田原の陣における徳川家康軍団の構成を模式図にしたものである(但し、本陣備については再考の余地あり)。
- Figure 3 shows a diagrammatic representation of how Ieyasu TOKUGAWA's troops were composed at the Siege of Odawara, as recorded in Butoku Henen Shusei (however, there is room for reexamination of the army headquarters sonae).
- 現存する養老律令の田令には、農地開墾に関する規定がないことから、特に墾田を推奨するため、三世一身法を特別措置法的に定めたものと考えられる。
- It is considered that the Sanze-isshin Law was established as a special measure especially to urge cultivation of rice fields because there were no regulations concerning the cultivation in the Denryo (the law about providing rice fields) of the existing Yoro Ritsuryo code.
- 柳川は、家康の覚えも良く、幕閣有力者からの支持もあり、「幕府も日朝貿易の実権を直接握りたいであろう」との推測から、勝算があると考えていた。
- Yanagawa stood high in Ieyasu's favor, and received support from influential cabinet officials of the Shogunate, and conjecturing that the bakufu hoped to seize real power over Japan-Korea Trade, he believed that he stood a fair chance of success.
- 本格的に侵攻し領土とする、または服属させるには、3万人程の人数で、当時の主力武器である弓の矢がすぐに尽きる程度の準備で来るとは考えにくい。
- It is difficult to believe that it seriously tried to invade and conquer, or subject, with only about thirty thousand men and such a small number of arrows that soon run short, which was the main weapon of that time.
- 縄文時代前期では、概ね方形、台形、楕円形で、6本の主柱をもち、壁面周辺に支柱穴とも推察されるピット (考古学)が並んでいる状況が見られる。
- In the early half of the Jomon period, dwellings were generally quadrilateral, trapezoid or elliptical in shape and were found to have six large columns, as well as support columns located near the wall, based on small pits that were found in archaeological excavations.
- 『阿含経』などもっとも古いと思われるものでも早くて紀元前4世紀、それから長い時間をかけて、徐々に結集として編集されたものと考えられている。
- The oldest transcription such as 'Agonkyo' is from the 4th century BC, at the earliest, and it is thought that the transcription was edited to match the style of collection over a long period of time.
- ただし、埼玉県の稲荷山古墳から出土した鉄剣には「獲加多支鹵(わかたける)大王」とあり、大王号も併用されていたのではないかと考えられている。
- However, on an iron sword excavated from Inariyama-kofun Tumulus in Saitama Prefecture, it says 'Wakatakeru okimi,' and it is thought that the title okimi was also used.
- その国際法を(『万国公法』の訳出を介して)中国に普及することで、西欧を夷狄視する中華思想的思いこみを徐々に是正していこうと考えたのである。
- He intended to correct gradually assumption by Sinocentrism that deemed the western world as iteki by making international law widely understood in China (through translating work for 'Bankoku Koho').
- 漁業面では切目石錘(石を加工して作った網用の錘)の使用が特徴であるが、これは関東の土器片による錘の技術が伝播して出現したと考えられている。
- In terms of fishery, the use of stone sinkers with slits (the sinkers for nets shaped out of stone) was the characteristic of the region; it is assumed that the technique of using earthenware sinker pieces in the Kanto region was handed down and lead to the use of the stone sinkers with slits.
- これは、埋葬姿勢の差異に由来するものと考えられる(縄文時代の土壙墓には屈葬が多く認められる一方、弥生時代の土壙墓は伸展葬が一般的である)。
- This was due to the difference in burial posture (Crouched burial are often found in a hole-shaped grave during the Jomon period, on the other hand full-length burial was common in a hole-shaped grave during the Yayoi period.)
- これらのことから、北家主導下で光仁擁立→他戸立太子が行われた事と式家への政権移行後にその廃太子が行われた事には矛盾は無いと考えられている。
- Therefore, it is thought that there was no contradiction between the enthronement of Emperor Konin and the Crown Prince Osabe carried out under the leadership of the Northern House of the Fujiwara clan and the dethronement of the Crown Prince after the change of political power to the Ceremonial House.
- このことは当時のヨーロッパ人が「トンキン」「コーチシナ」と呼んだ今日のヴェトナムの領域に天下国家が設定されるようになったと考えられている。
- Based on the above, it is thought that tenkakokka (Tenka and the state) was defined as the territory of present Vietnam, which Europeans referred to 'Tonkin' or 'Cochinchine' at the time.
- 主に人口の多い東日本から徴兵され、その間も税は免除される事はないため、農民にとっては重い負担であり、兵士の士気は低かったと考えられている。
- Because the soldiers, who were mainly drafted from eastern Japan which had a larger population, were not exempt from taxation during their service, they bore a heavy burden as farmers and it is thought that morale was low.
- しかし、人為的な処置によって黄砂の量を減らすことはできるのではないかと考えられており、発生地の砂漠化の防止を中心とした対策が行われている。
- However, it is considered that the amount of kosa can be reduced by taking appropriate measures, and various measures have been taken centered on the prevention of desertification of the areas where kosa occurs.
- これに対し、在寮生で構成する吉田寮自治会を中心に卒寮生も含めた廃寮反対運動が高まり、自主入寮選考の成功で寮生数は減少するどころか増加した。
- With the rise in the opposition movement against the above decision conducted by the council of Yoshida dormitory and the graduates, however, the number of dormitory residents increased, instead of decreased, thanks to the success of autonomous selection of residents.
- 『解体新書』は基本的に『ターヘル・アナトミア』の翻訳であるが、他にも数冊の洋書が参考にされており、杉田玄白による独自の注釈も付けられている。
- 'Kaitai Shinsho' is basically a translation of 'Ontleedkundige Tafelen,' but referred to several other Western books and incorporated Genpaku SUGITA's own notes.
- その制度として当然のように当てはめられていた班田収授制が関連しないとすると、そもそも裏打ちとなる公的制度はなかったと考えられるようになった。
- As described above, now it is considered that the system of periodic reallocations of rice fields (handen shuju sei) was not a backing public system of jori sei (a system of land subdivision in ancient Japan) and therefore it came to be thought that there was no backing public system in jori sei.
- 江戸時代後期の人口を伝える史料は残っていないが、山城国の人口がほぼ一貫して減少しており、京都の人口も20万人台まで減少していたと考えられる。
- Although no data for the population in the latter Edo period is available, it is supposed that the population in Yamashiro Province was in the consistent decline and the population in Kyoto also went falling to the 200,000 level.
- 無効論者の多くは本協約について、国家(大韓帝国)と個人(皇帝・高宗 (朝鮮王))の両方に強制と脅迫が加えられたために無効であると考えている。
- Many of the advocates of invalidity think it is invalid because compulsion and a threat were imposed both on the state (The Korean Empire) and the individual (Emperor Gao Zong [Korean King]).
- 倭国における王権形成期とされる弥生時代中期には防御的性格を強め、高地性集落とともに、王権形成過程の軍事的動向を反映していると考えられている。
- As Wakoku was strengthening its position as a kingdom during the mid-Yayoi period, the defensive aspect of moat settlements as well as upland settlements became more evident to reflect the kingdom's military trend.
- ここで桐野は官軍による包囲が極めて厳重であり、地形が非常に険しいことから薩軍の全軍が突破することは困難であると考え、熊本城の奪取を提案した。
- Here, KIRINO proposed that they should take back Kumamoto Castle, considering that the siege by the government army was quite tight, the terrain was rugged and therefore, it would be difficult for all forces of the Satsuma army to break through the siege.
- 日本の竪穴住居は、伏屋式と壁立式とがあり、後期旧石器時代から造られ始めたと考えられており、縄文時代には盛んに造られ、のちの弥生時代に伝わる。
- Pit-type dwellings in Japan are divided into fuseya type and kabedachi (walled) type and are believed to be built starting in the latter half of the Paleolithic era, becoming widely built in the Jomon period and in the subsequent Yayoi period.
- 同年10月31日、下野新聞が前年ごろから足尾の木が枯れ始めていることを報じ、これら2つが足尾銅山と公害を結びつける最初期の報道と考えられる。
- On October 31 of the same year, Shimotsuke Shinbun (newspaper) reported that trees in Ashio area had been dying since about the previous year; and those two articles are considered to have been the first reports linking the Ashio copper mine and the pollution.
- 殉死を禁じる時代もあったが、それは殉死によって優秀な人材を喪失するのを避ける目的や、道徳に反することを恐れて禁ずる目的があったと考えられる。
- There was a time when junshi was prohibited, but it is thought that this prohibition was introduced to avoid the loss of valuable human resources or out of fear of offending public morality.
- これらのことから、紐を巻きつけて首にかけたり腰にまいたりして持ちはこんだと考えられており、上野佳也は個人所有を明確にしていたと位置づけている
- These facts suggest that people probably were carrying ishisaji around their neck or waist by tying the string around it, and Yoshiya UENO positions it as a manifestation of individual ownership.
- 用途は使用痕の観察から動物の皮や肉、角や骨など動物質の加工や、木や蔦など植物質の加工など、一種の携帯万能ナイフとして用いたと考えられている。
- According to the traces of how they were used, ishisaji is thought to have been used as a kind of portable utility knife to process skin, meat, horns, bone and other animal parts as well as to treat plant materials such as trees and ivy.
- 従って、「行基図」が実際に行基によって作られたものであるかは定かではないものの、行基とその教団が地図と全く無関係ではあったとは考えられない。
- Accordingly, it is unclear that 'Gyoki-zu' was actually made by Gyoki, but it is unconceivable that Gyoki and his religious community had nothing to do with the map.
- 一方銅鐸も半島から伝わったと考えられるが、持ち込まれた製品と列島で作られた製品とは形態にやや差があり、列島での生産開始過程はよくわからない。
- On the other hand, although dotaku is thought to have been introduced from the Korean Peninsula, there was a difference in forms of introduced and manufactured products, and the process of manufacturing in Japan Archipelago is not known.
- これに対して、西洋の技術を受け入れるにはやはり西洋の考え方を基盤とする必要がある、という意味の洋魂洋才(ようこんようさい)という言葉もある。
- On the contrary, there is an expression, Yokon yosai, which means that Western thought should be adopted in order to adopt Western arts.
- 当時は貨幣鋳造技術が未発達であり、土木工事などの賃金の支払いで小額貨幣が大量に必要になったときに、これらの私札が発行されたと考えられている。
- At that time, coin-casting technology was not well-developed, so private bills are assumed to have been issued when a large amount of low denomination coins were needed for purposes such as payment of workers on construction projects.
- これを農民らに負担を強いるようしむけたものだと考える研究者もいるが、差し戻し審を前回と別の裁判所で行うのは当時の慣例だったという主張もある。
- Some researchers say the trial was held at a court different from the previous court because that would put a greater burden on peasants, but other researchers say it was customary to hold trials at a different court in those days.
- 土一揆は、惣村の生活が困窮したために発生したというよりも、自治意識の高まった惣村が、主張すべき権利を要求したために発生したと考えた方がよい。
- It should be considered that the peasants' uprisings took place because the soson, which had enhanced their awareness of autonomy, insisted on their rights, not because people in the soson had become poor.
- 東勝寺旧跡での発掘調査では三つ鱗の入った瓦などが見つかるものの遺骨の発見はなく、新田勢や時宗の僧らによって遺体が処理されたと考えられている。
- When the Tosho-ji Temple site was excavated, Mitsu uroko (tiles inscribed with three scales in a circle, the crest of the Hojo clan), and other cultural artifacts were discovered; no cremated ashes of the war dead were ever found, and it is assumed their remains were taken to another place, possibly by Buddhist priests of the Ji sect, Nitta forces or others.
- 日本の政財界の中にも、朝鮮の近代化は隣国として利益となる面も大きいと考え、積極的な支援を惜しまない人々が現れ、改革の土台が出来上がっていった。
- Some people in the Japanese political and financial worlds found the modernization of Korea more valuable as a neighbor and came to provide positive support, and this formed the foundation of reform.
- 大石は、内心では開城してのお家再興派だったが、これを主張すれば収まりがつかないと考え、最初は篭城を主張して原惣右衛門ら篭城派の支持を獲得した。
- Oishi was in favor of surrendering the castle as a way to restore the clan; however, he thought it would not be accepted by many and therefore he supported the idea of besieging the castle at first and gained support from people such as Soemon HARA who were in favor of the besiegement.
- 更に富本銭よりもさらに前の貨幣として無文銀銭が知られているが、これは銀の地金的な価値が認められて物々交換的に使われた秤量貨幣と考えられている。
- Moreover, Mumon-ginsen coin is known as the older coin than Fuhonsen coin, and it is considered as Hyodo kahei (currency valued by weight) for barter exchange by the value of silver as raw metal.
- 同年11月、入鹿は蘇我氏の血をひく古人大兄皇子を天皇に為さんと欲し、そのためには有力な皇位継承権者である山背大兄王の存在が邪魔であると考えた。
- In November of the same year, Iruka felt the need to kill Prince Yamashiro no Oe who had the right of succession to the Imperial Throne since he wanted Prince Furuhito no Oe to be the next emperor who was biologically related to the Soga clan.
- このように体系性、宗派性が低い事実とあわせ、朝鮮寺は死者儀礼とも無関係であることがほとんどであり、現世利益の祈祷仏教に属すると考えられている。
- In addition to the fact that they are not affected by any systematic or religious influence, Korean Temples have no relation to the ceremony for dead, therefore, it can be considered to belong to Buddhism for prayer, worshipping material benefits.
- 前者とすると院らの収入が少なすぎる上に任命された受領にとってのメリットも無くなるために後者であろうと考える説が有力であるが、詳細は不明である。
- According the to first theory, income to the recipients would have been too small and zuryo would not benefit from the system, so the second theory is more plausible, however the details are unknown.
- 平城宮の朱雀門は1997年、考古学的研究と奈良県下の寺社に残る門を参考にして、五間三戸の二重門がかつての位置に等寸復元されている(平城宮跡)。
- Suzakumon Gate of the Heijo-Kyu Palace was restored in 1997 with a two-story structure, double roofs and a life-sized goken sanko (a gate where three of the five spaces between its columns are used as entrances); the restorations were based on gates that remain in temples in Nara prefecture (Heijo-Kyu palace ruin) and findings in archeological studies.
- この論争の意義については、かつては学問的な論争と考えられていたが、実際には言いがかり的な論争も多く、中心は政治的・派閥的な争いとする見方も強い。
- The significance of the disputes was once regarded as an academic one; however, in fact, there were so many arguments just for objection that many people take the disputes mainly as political and sectional conflicts.
- 徳川家としては、今後の遠江攻略を視野に入れると、今回是非とも合戦を発生させて、強力な織田の援軍のいる時に武田を叩いておきたいという考えがあった。
- Seeking to acquire Totomi Province in future, the Tokugawa family was in desperate need of the battle in which to defeat the Takeda family while Oda's powerful reinforcements were still available.
- 軍船が他国の河川を無断で遡航することは国際法違反であり、この場合さらに首都方面に行こうとしたことから、日本軍の行動は挑発だったと考えられている。
- Sailing the rivers of foreign countries without permission is a violation of the international laws, and in this case, it was assumed that the Japanese army's act was provocation against Korea, because they were going to the capital.
- 当時の為政者や作者(と推定される人物)の心理面やその影響力を考察する点では歴史学上の価値もあるが、作為上の意図も踏まえ厳密に検証する必要がある。
- Although they have historical value from a psychological standpoint, and influence from politicians and authors (or presumed authors), it is necessary to review them while strictly bearing the intent with which they were written, in mind.
- すり潰すための石器である磨石と対になり、ドングリなど種実類の製粉など植物加工をはじめ、顔料や土器の材質となる石の粉砕などの用途が考えられている。
- It is considered that they were used with a mill stone as a pair and were used for grinding acorns or various seeds to produce flour, or for grinding stones to get materials for pigment or earthenware.
- これに対して、受傷人骨の中でも、明らかに武器によってつけられたと考えられる傷のある人骨の存在は、戦闘の存在を示す証拠として扱うことが可能である。
- Among these human bones with trauma, there are human bones with a clear sign of weapon trauma and they are treated as the evidence of the existence of battles.
- こうした考えを支持する人々・党派を対外硬派(たいがいこうは)と呼び、明治後期の条約改正から日清戦争・日露戦争、韓国併合の時期に最も盛んであった。
- People or parties who support those ideas were called 'Taigaiko Group' and they were at peak over the period from the revision of treaty in the end of the Meiji Period to the Japanese-Sino War, Japanese-Russo War, and annexation of Korea.
- 江戸時代を通じて公対民の年貢率は一貫して下がる傾向があり(特に幕府直轄地において)逃散はそれほど深刻な問題とはならなくなっていったと考えられる。
- Since public versus private land tax tended to fall consistently throughout the Edo period (especially in government-ruled areas), it is thought that chosan was no longer serious issue.
- しかし、吉備国造や筑紫国造(527年の磐井の乱)などの反抗もあったが、古代国家統一の情勢にあり、日本の古代国家の成立期に当たると考えられている。
- However, despite the opposition of the kuni no miyatsuko of provinces including Kibi Province and Tsukushi Province (Iwai War in 527), it is thought from the fact that this reflects the unification of the nation that it was this period in which ancient Japan was established.
- 大宝律令(701年)によって、九州の大宰府は政府機関として確立したが、他の大宰は廃止され、一般的に「大宰府」と言えば九州のそれを指すと考えてよい。
- By Taiho Ritsuryo (701), Dazai-fu in Kyushu was established as a government agency, but other Dazai were abolished, so it is correct to think that 'Dazai-fu' in general refers to the one in Kyushu.
- 当初彼等は尊皇攘夷の下で、異国との交わりを忌み嫌い、天皇を中心とした国家の建設が不可欠だとして、幕府に対して、尊皇攘夷の履行を徹底すべきと考えた。
- In the beginning they adhered to the ideal of 'Sonno Joi ('Sonno'is the principle of revering the emperor, while 'Joi' stands for anti-foreigner sentiments)', opposed all interactions with foreigners, believed that it was imperative to establish a emperor-centered government, and believed that the government should implement this ideal.
- しかし、立原との大日本史編纂を巡る考え方の違いや、立原に謹慎を申し渡されていた中で藩主徳川治保へ封事を提出して免職されるなどしたため、立原は絶交。
- However, Tachihara made a break with Yukoku because they had different ideas about the compilation of Dainihonshi and Yukoku was dismissed since he submitted a written opinion sealed and presented to the lord of the Domain Harumori TOKUGAWA while he was suspended by Tachihara.
- 「環濠」と「環壕」のルーツはそれぞれ、長江中流域と内蒙古(興隆窪文化)であると考えられており、日本列島では、弥生時代と中世にかけて各地で作られた。
- Water moat and dry moat are respectively thought to have its origin in the midstream of the Yangtze River and in Inner Mongolia (where the Xinglongwa Culture flourished), and were built in various places on the Japanese archipelago since the Yayoi period until the medieval period.
- 「匙(さじ)」の名称はその形状に由来し、江戸時代の考古・金石学研究において木内石亭が「天狗の飯匕(めしかい)」の俗称を紹介したことに始まっている。
- The name 'saji' (spoon) came from its shape, and began to be used by Sekitei KIUCHI who introduced a popular name, 'rice spoon of tengu (a mountain spirit, portrayed as winged and having a long nose),' to refer to this type of stone tool in his archaeological and epigraphical studies in the Edo period.
- なお、山城国愛宕郡小野郷(現在の京都市左京区内)も支配下にあったと考えられており、京都市左京区上高野西明寺山の崇導神社内には小野毛人の墓碑がある。
- It is thought that Ono-go, Otagi County, Yamashiro Province (present day Sakyo Ward, Kyoto City) was also under the control of the Ono clan; there is the gravestone of ONO no Emishi in Sudo-jinja Shrine in Kamitakano-Saimyojiyama, Sakyo Ward, Kyoto City.
- 2007年から、トルコを中心とする数カ国からなる水中考古学の調査団は海中のエルトゥールル号の調査を進めており、海底からの遺品引き揚げを進めている。
- Since 2007, the multinational underwater archaeological research group, consisting of Turkey as a leading country and several countries, has been investigating the Ertuğrul in the water and working on the salvage of her remains from the seabed.
- よって、国家に自力で自存・自立しなければ、国際法を利用することができないと考えられるようになり、以後改革に前向きな姿勢が導き出されるようになった。
- Therefore, people recognized the self-existence and independence were essential for a state to take advantage of international law, and reforms were promoted in a proactive manner.
- アメリカ海軍の東インド艦隊はかつて来航したことがあったが、そのときはイギリス海軍やロシア海軍艦艇のように帰ったため、今回も同じだろうと考えていた。
- The Shogunate believed that the East India Squadron would simply turn back, as they had done once in the past like the British and Russian navy ships.
- このほかに明初の曹昭の『新増格古要論』・明末の張応文の『清秘蔵』・万暦年間の高濂の『遵生八戔』・屠隆の『考槃余事』などに文房趣味が論じられている。
- In addition, Bunbo Shumi was discussed in 'Shinzo Kakuko Yoron' (新増格古要論) written by So Sho at the beginning of the Ming period, '清秘蔵' by CHO Obun in the end of the Ming period, '遵生八戔' by KO Ren in the Banreki era, 'Kohanyoji' (考槃余事) by Toryu, and so on.
- 明治時代に建築史家、関野貞が田んぼの中にある小高い芝地が大極殿(第二次)の基壇であることを発見、1907年『平城京及大内裏考』を奈良新聞に発表した。
- During the Meiji period, an architectural historian Tadashi SEKINO discovered a grassy mound in the rice paddies to be a stylobate for Daigokuden (the Imperial Audience Hall) (latter), and published 'Heijo-kyo oyobi dai-dairi ko' (A Study of Heijo-kyo and Dai-dairi) in Nara Newspaper in 1907.
- 政府による官庁集中計画が立てられると、専門家育成が必要になり、ヨーロッパの中でも日本がめざすべき先進国と考えられたドイツ政府に指導的人物を打診した。
- With a plan to construct numerous government offices and realizing the need to develop specialists in the field of architecture, the Japanese government sought assistance from the German government, an advanced European nation that the Japanese admired.
- 天王寺合戦は島津家の「薩藩旧記」で「真田日本一の兵、古よりの物語にもこれなき由、徳川方、半分敗北」、「家康が切腹も考えるほどだった」などと記された。
- The Battle of Tennoji was described in 'Sappan Nikki' of the Shimazu Family as follows: 'Because the Sanada troop was the srongest troop in Japan, stronger than any troop in stories from ancient times, the Tokugawa army was half defeated', 'Ieyasu even thought of committing seppuku', and so on.
- ヤマト王権が成熟し、大王家を中心として有力氏族の職掌や立場が次第に確定していく中で、各有力者の職掌や地位を明示するために付与されたと考えられている。
- It is believed that they were given to powerful clans to show their ranks and official duties as they began solidifying their positions in relation to Royal Family when Yamato sovereignty became stable.
- 今日の法制史の研究者の間ではその存在を否定されており、公家政権(朝廷)に対する江戸幕府の優越的地位を示すために創作された偽書であると考えられている。
- The existence of Kobu-ochoku juhakka-jo is being denied by the researchers of legal history of the present day, and it is assumed that the document was a apocryphal book which was created by the Edo bakufu to display its superiority in social position over the Kuge (court nobles) Government (Imperial Court).
- (早期は紀元前5世紀半ば頃から)前期は紀元前3世紀頃から、中期は紀元前1世紀頃から、後期は1世紀半ば頃から3世紀の半ば頃まで続いたと考えられている。
- (The Earlier period started from the middle of fifth century B.C.) early period started from the third century B.C., middle period started from the first century B.C., end period started from the first century and lasted until the middle of third century.
- 1953年(昭和28年)12月、霧島市の向花小学校拡張工事中に刀剣や土器などが発見され、隼人の反乱で殺害された国司の墓所ではないかと考えられている。
- The premises of the Muke Elementary School in Kirishima City is thought to have been the graveyard of the provincial governor who was killed during the uprising of the Hayato people since swords and earthenware were found during the school's expansion work in December 1953.
- 無格社は、法的に認められた神社の中で村社に至らない神社であり、社格を有する神社と区別するために設けられた呼称であるが、一種の社格とも考えられている。
- Mukakusha is shrine which is legally approved but not qualified to be Sonsha, and this term is used to distinguish them from shrines with shrine rankings, but it is also considered as a kind of the shrine rankings.
- また旅客と貨物の比率について、鉄道側に貨物運用の準備不足もあったが、明治維新直後で近代産業が未発達な時期であり「運ぶ荷物がなかった」事も考えられる。
- The high ratio of passenger to freight transport might have been partially due to insufficient preparation for freight management, but also due to the circumstances where there was 'nothing to transport' since it was just after the Meiji Restoration and modern industries were still underdeveloped.
- The utilization ratio between passenger and cargo was due to the fact that there wasn't adequate preparation to handle cargo and there wasn't enough freight to carry just after the Meiji Restoration Period, when no modern day industries were yet fully developed.
- また、こうした風潮によって、大学寮のでの儒教教育が一種の行政処理のための「技術」とみなされて、中下流貴族の立身のための機関と考えられるようになった。
- Also, influenced by these trends, the education of Confucianism in Daigaku-ryo was regarded as a kind of 'technique' for the management of administrative jobs, and Daigaku-ryo came to be considered an institution where middle and low ranking nobles made a name for themselves.
- なお、音博士の音道と書博士の書道 (大学寮)は、明経道の学習を補助するための学科であり、平安時代中期には明経道に実質的に統合されたと考えられている。
- Incidentally, Ondo (study of pronunciation of the Chinese language) taught by On Hakase (professors of pronunciation of Chinese language) and Shodo (calligraphy) taught by Sho Hakase (professors of calligraphy) were subjects that supplemented the study of Myogyodo, and it is considered that the two subjects were practically integrated with Myogyodo by the middle of the Heian period.
- この意識は少なくとも室町末期ごろまで続き、後世に言われるような「裏切りは卑怯」「主君と生死を共にするのが武士」といった考え方は当時は主流ではなかった。
- This concept continued until at least the late Muromachi period and the ideas that a 'betrayer is a coward' 'samurais should die with their lords' were not mainstream at the time.
- また、武家政権である鎌倉幕府の性格からの武断的措置であるとする解釈や、対外危機を意識させ防戦体制を整える上での決定的措置であるとする考え方などがある。
- Some also consider that a decision was made, trying to solve the problem by force of arms, taking into consideration the nature of Kamakura bakufu as a military government, or trying to prepare the defense system by alerting its people about a threat from foreign countries.
- 西郷軍の士気が高かったのは西郷隆盛が総大将であったからだと考え明治政府は、天皇を大日本帝国陸軍・海軍の大元帥に就かせて軍の士気高揚を図るようになった。
- Reasoning that the supreme commander Takamori SAIGO raised the fighting spirit of Saigo's army, the national government in the Meiji period appointed Emperor to the commander-in-chief of the Imperial Army and Navy to raise the morale of the armies.
- 秀忠は同日4日に岡山に着陣し、家康が講和を策している事を知り家康に総攻撃を具申するが、家康は敵を侮る事を戒め戦わずに勝つ事を考えよとこれを退けている。
- Hidetada, arriving at Okayama on 4th of the same day, and knowing that Ieyasu was thinking of pacification, advised Ieyasu to make an all-out attack, however, Ieyasu rejected it, telling him not to take the enemies lightly, but to think of winning without fighting.
- この規定では国の正丁人口の三分の一が軍団に勤務することになるが、実際の徴兵はこれより少なかったようで、一戸から一人が実情ではないかとも考えられている。
- Under this statute, one third of the population of Seitei in the nation was obliged to work in Gundan, but the actual number of soldiers inducted seemed to be smaller than that, and it is considered that, in fact, one Seitei was inducted from one Ko (smallest organization unit in provincial administration).
- なお、蝦夷の哲学とは、女性の大虫の周期が日の自転周期に一致する事から、その胎から生まれたなん人にも宇宙の理が備わり、日の恩恵を受けているという考え方。
- Based on the belief that the female menstruation cycle was the same as the rotation cycle of the sun, the philosophy of the Ezo people taught that everyone born by a woman embodies cosmic principles and receives benefits from the sun.
- またこうした自然法を強調する翻訳傾向は総理衙門から派遣され訳書を校訂した4人の章京たちによる語彙選択も影響していると考えられている(張嘉寧1991)。
- It is believed that selection of vocabulary by four government officials who were dispatched from sorigamon and revised translation also affected to this tendency of attaching importance to natural law (張嘉寧1991).
- 木棺墓は、明確な出自は明らかになってはいないものの縄文文化には認められない墓制であることから半島から渡来した墓制と考えられている埋葬様式の一つである。
- Although it is clear the place of origin for mokkanbo (wooden coffin grave) is not yet known, it is a burial system not found in the Jomon culture therefore it is considered as a burial system introduced from the Korean Peninsula.
- 『日本書紀』683年の記事に「今より以後、必ず銅銭を用いよ。銀銭を用いることなかれ。」とあり、富本銭以前に流通していた銀銭ではないかと考える説もある。
- There is a view that Mumon-ginsen coins were silver coins circulated before Fuhonsen coins, because in 'the Nihonshoki' (Chronicles of Japan) it says in 683, 'Do not use silver coins but use bronze coins hereafter.'
- 社会進化論が当時先進的科学言説として世界を席巻していたさなかにあって、文明/野蛮言説の外から思考・発言することは非常な困難であったと言わねばならない。
- It should have been very difficult to think and make statements from outside of the civilization vs. barbarianism logic when social evolutionism swept the world as the latest scientific theory.
- だが、慶長13年(1608年)に永楽通宝の使用を禁ずる法令が幕府から出されている事から、永楽通宝に代わる然るべき銅銭が存在したと考えるのが妥当である。
- However, considering the act enacted by the government in 1608 that banned the use of the Eiraku Tsuho coins, it is reasonable to think that other appropriate copper coins would have existed.
- なお、武士道を語るとき「君、君たらずとも、臣、臣たるべし」といった言葉がしばしば言われるが、これは江戸時代の武士道成熟期には見られなかった考え方である。
- When people speak of Bushido, they often quote the words 'If a lord is not enough as a lord, his vassals should be loyal', but this idea did not come to fruition until the Edo period, when the idea of Bushido matured.
- 第二次桂太郎内閣にて農商務省 (日本)による『職工事情』を参考に初めて同法が制定され、1911年(明治44年)公布、1916年(大正5年)に施行された。
- By the Second Taro KATSURA Cabinet, this act was established for the first time in reference to 'Shokko-jijo' (a report of the actual conditions of the factory workers) edited by the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce (Japan), promulgated in 1911, and enforced in 1916.
- これらのことから、大化当時に戸籍・計帳の作成や班田収授法の施行は実施されなかったが、何らかの人民把握(戸口調査など)が実施されただろうと考えられている。
- From these facts, it is believed that although Koseki and Keicho were not made and the law of Handen Shuju ho was not enacted in the Taika era, some demographic investigation (such as door-to-door investigation) was made.
- などがあり、すでに動作しているパーツやドライバが原因の可能性も考えられ、この状態に陥ると、解決を目指すよりも、諦めて構成を変更したほうが良い場合が多い。
- And, it is also possible that some operating parts and drivers are the cause and when the computer falls into such a state, it is often better to change the configuration rather than trying to solve the problem.
- その後伊藤博文が発券銀行制度を導入しているアメリカ合衆国のナショナル・バンク制度(国法銀行制度)を参考に建議し、国立銀行条例として1872年に制定した。
- Later, Hirobumi ITO proposed the regulation of national bank, for which he had consulted the National Bank System (state law bank system) of the United States of America that adopts the system of issuing bank, and then it was enacted in 1872.
- 包丁と名はついてはいるが、一般に魚や肉・野菜の調理に用いられた訳ではなく、米の収穫時にイネから稲穂の部分だけを切り取るために使ったものと考えられている。
- Although ishi-bocho means a knife made of stone in Japanese, it was not used for the cooking of fish, meat and vegetable, and it is believed that the tool was used to cut off the rice ear from rice in the time of rice harvesting.
- 近年、畿内の弥生時代IV・V期の年代観の訂正により、これらはおおよそ弥生時代後期後半 - 末(V期後半 - VI期)に併行するという考えが主流になった。
- As a result of recent chronological corrections to the Yayoi IV/V period in Kinai, the description is now considered to fall under the latter to the end of the Yayoi period (latter V period to VI period).
- また「大黒像」、「常是」、「寳」に加えて家紋の一覧沢瀉(おもだか)の極印が打たれた澤瀉丁銀(おもだかちょうぎん)は初期の試鋳貨幣的存在と考えられている。
- In addition to 'daikokuzo','joze' and 'ho', omodaka-chogin where hallmark of family crest of ichiran-omodaka was inscribed was regarded to be the trial of minting coin in the beginning.
- 大友皇子即位をめぐる学説史を通観した研究論文は、『大日本史』までを扱った1897年(明治30年)に発表された平出鏗二郎の論文「大友天皇考」が初めである。
- The first thesis that covered a history of theories on the enthronement of Prince Otomo was 大友天皇考Study of Emperor Otomo, a thesis covering 'Dainihonshi' (Great history of Japan) by Kojiro HIRADE, published in 1897.
- なお、施行当時より慣例的に「交替式」と呼ばれてきているが、律令法における格式のおける考え方からすれば、これは「格」にあたるのではないかとする意見もある。
- By the way, although it was called 'kotaishiki' (indicating a kind of 'shiki') from the time it was enforced for the first time, there is also the following opinion: According to the concept of 'kyakushiki' (kyaku indicates supplementary laws or regulations, and shiki indicates detailed rules for enforcing them) in the Ritsuryo laws, use of 'kyaku' is more appropriate.
- 例えば、黄砂による被害は、モンゴルでは砂による害、中国では砂嵐による害、韓国では気象現象、日本では大気汚染と、かなり異なった概念であると考えられている。
- For example, the concept of damage by kosa is considered quite different in each nation as follows: Sand-hits in Mongolia, sandstorm-hits in China, damage by weather phenomena in South Korea, and air pollution in Japan.
- 給田の経営は、はじめ自らの下人・所従らを駆使して行なわれていたが、時代が下るにつれ、荘園内の名主・百姓らへ請作に出して行なわれていったと考えられている。
- The management of shoen was first done using their own servants and followers, but as the ages went on, leasing out to the village headman and farmers within the shoen became the practice.
- 政庁第2期に対応する8世紀段階において条坊に関連すると考えられる遺構は、政庁中央から南へ伸びる南北中央大路(朱雀大路に相当する)周辺を中心として存在する。
- For the time of eighth century that corresponds to the second period of the government, there are remains that are considered to be related to jobo mainly around the vertical central street (equivalent to Suzaku-oji Street) that runs from the central government to the south.
- 彼らは「諸侯でさえも貧しい(財政難で多額の負債を抱えた)時節である。貧しいは愧ることではなく、実を置いても立身する(名声を得る)ほうがいい」と考えている。
- They believe that, 'when even feudal lords are poor (having debts due to financial problems), being poor is not a shame and making achievements (winning fame or recognition) at the expense of money is better.'
- 飛鳥池遺跡そのものが飛鳥寺の傍に存在しており、同寺または「造飛鳥寺司」と称される同寺造営のための臨時の官庁(造寺司)の関連施設と考えるのが適当であること。
- The Asukaikekobo ruins are located beside Asuka-dera Temple and it is appropriate to consider that the ruins were the affiliated facilities of either Asuka-dera Temple or a temporary authority (Zojishi [officials in charge of building temples]) called 'Zo Asuka-dera jishi.'
- これは、人類の歴史を原始社会→奴隷制社会→農奴制社会→…と類型化したヨーロッパ的な発展史観、なかんづくカール・マルクスの唯物史観に準拠した考え方であった。
- That idea complied with a historical view of European development, particularly Karl MARX's historical materialism, that classifies human history as primitive society to slavery society to villeinage and so on.
- そのため、豊臣方の制止を無視して「だまし討ち的に」内堀まで埋め立てたとする通説は俗説であるが、以上のような経緯が誇大に伝えられた結果と考えることができる。
- Therefore, a popular theory is that the Tokugawa side reclaimed even the uchibori 'in a cheating way', ignoring the determent of the Toyotomi side, however, the theory may have come from the results that the exaggerated above-mentioned process has been passed down
- 後深草天皇が退位する1259年で完結し、かつ本文中には「新院」として登場することから原本が完成した時点では次の亀山天皇は未だ在位していたと考えられている。
- Because the book was completed in 1259 when the Emperor Gofukakusa retired and he appeared in it as 'Shin-in' (new ex-Emperor), the next Emperor Kameyama was presumably still on the throne at the completion of the original book.
- 元は純粋な実用印であるが、宋 (王朝)代頃からその美術性の高さが評価されるようになり、蒐集・鑑賞の対象、篆刻の参考資料として使用されるようにもなっている。
- Kanin were originally designed only for actual use, but their high artistic quality was recognized approximately after the age of the Sung Dynasty and they became the subject of collection and appreciation and also used as a reference material for tenkoku (seal-engraving).
- 古紙,古着,金物,番傘,屎尿,樽,桶,糠など様々で,江戸時代は最近の研究では,全ての時代の世界の中でも高い水準でのリサイクル社会であったと考えられている。
- The vendors purchased wide variety of things including used papers, used clothes, metal utensils and fittings, coarse oil-paper umbrellas, human waste, used barrels, used wash tubs, and rice bran; according to a recent study, Japan was one of the most advanced society in recycling throughout the history of the whole world.
- またこの隠逸そのものの考え方も時代的変遷が著しいが、大まかに六朝以前を儒家的隠逸、以降を儒家的隠逸と道家的隠逸のせめぎ合いというように分けることができる。
- In addition, although the idea of recluses itself greatly changed depending on periods, it can be roughly classified into the period of Confucianist recluse before the Six Dynasties and the period of rivalry between the recluse of Confucianists and the one of Taoists after that.
- また一説には、友好使節のはずの朝鮮通信使が、当時の朝鮮人と日本人の間の文化の違いからかえって偏見を生み、のちの征韓論や韓国併合に繋がったとする考えがある。
- There is another view of considering that the Chosen Tsushinshi, which should come for friendly purpose, bore distorted views due to cultural differences between the Japanese and the Korean at that time, leading to Seikanron (debate on subjugation of Korea) and the annexation of Korea in later years.
- もっとも、同条約には中華民国が参加していないことなどから、台湾については、日本国と中華民国との間の平和条約の発効日(1952年8月5日)とする考え方もある。
- However, since Republic of China did not join the treaty, the date of the renunciation of Taiwan may be considered as the effective date (August 5, 1952) of the peace treaty between Japan and the Republic of China.
- 『続日本紀』はそれよりも23年早い延暦16年(797年)に完成しており、『続日本紀』の方が本来の詔の文章(あるいはそれに近い文章)であったと考えられている。
- 'Shoku Nihongi' had already been completed in 797, which was 23 years earlier than the publication of 'Ruijusandaikyaku,' and the sentences written in 'Shoku Nihongi' are considered as the original sentence (or sentence akin) describing the imperial orders.
- 簡明な叙述であり、情熱的な文章であった為に広く愛読されたが、参考史料として軍記物語なども用いているため、歴史的事実に忠実であるとは言いがたい記事も散見する。
- Concise descriptions and enthusiastic sentences were very popular, however, it used those war chronicles and so on as reference historical materials and there are some articles found, which are hard to say to be true to the historical facts.
- ひとつは、土地で知行を与える行為を中世のものとみなし、地方知行を中世の制度の名残として次第にそこから脱却して近世的な蔵米知行に移行していった考える説である。
- The first one is the theory that providing chigyo in a form of territory was a medieval practice and chigyo, which was a legacy of the medieval system, was gradually transferred to a form of kuramaichigyo in the early-modern times.
- この時点では連邦型国家の中でも、ドイツ連邦のような分権型国家か、あるいはアメリカのようなより中央集権を強めた国家とするかという二つの選択肢が考えられていた。
- Two models of federal states were considered at that time and one option was decentralized government of German Confederation and another was centralized government of the United States.
- 出雲地域に存在する安来・西谷の両墳丘墓集積地には特殊器台形土器と特殊壺形土器し、出雲と吉備の両地域に同盟関係が生まれていたことを示していると考えられている。
- Tokushu-kidai (ceremonial vessel stand) shaped earthenware and tokushu tsubo (ceremonial jar) shaped earthenware were excavated from a concentrated distribution center of Yasugi Grave and Nishidani Grave Mounds, which indicate Izumo and the Kibi region formed an alliance.
- 昭和8年(1933年)に慶應義塾編『続福澤全集〈第2巻〉』(岩波書店)に「脱亜論」が収録されたため、「脱亜論」は福澤が執筆した社説と考えられるようになった。
- Because 'Datsu-A Ron' was included in the 'Zoku Fukuzawa Zenshu (Vol. 2)' (The Continued Complete Works of Fukuzawa) (published by Iwanami Shoten Publishers) in 1933, Datsu-A Ron has been regarded to be an editorial written by Fukuzawa.
- これは、麻田藩領の多くが経済の中心地であった大阪に程近い摂津国豊島郡 (摂津国)(豊嶋郷)、川辺郡 (兵庫県)(高平郷)にあったことによるものと考えられる。
- This might have been because most of the territories of Asada Domain were located in Toshima-gun (Toshimago) and Kawabe-gun (Takahirago) in Settsu Province close to Osaka, which was the center of finance.
- 遺跡との関連においては、明日香村に飛鳥京跡と呼ばれる遺跡があるが、飛鳥京跡が文字通り飛鳥京の遺跡と考えられるものと等しいわけではないことに注意が必要である。
- It requires attention that the ruins found in Asuka Village called the site of Asuka-kyo is not literally considered as the ruin of the Asuka-kyo.
- 酒屋が室町時代のころに持っていた政治的影響力は表面的に減じたが、それでも幕閣、奉行、代官らに多額の政治献金を送り、陰の政治力はかなり残っていたと考えてよい。
- Although the political power sakaya had in the Muromachi period diminished superficially, it can be considered that they made considerable financial contribution to the cabinet officials of the Shogunate, magistrates and local governors, still retaining a significant political power behind the scenes.
- 明治時代に歴史学者の喜田貞吉が条坊制の存在を信じて文献史料にはみえない「大津京」という語を用いて以降、歴史地理学や考古学の研究者がこの語を用いるようになった。
- Since historian Sadakichi KIDA believed in the existence of a street plan and began using the word 'Otsu-kyo' never mentioned in historical documents during the Meiji period, historical geographers and archaeologists started to use this word.
- そのため、『弘仁格』編纂段階において、面積制限の規定が削除されていたために当該部分を削除した文章が採録され、それが『類聚三代格』に採用されたと考えられている。
- Therefore, stipulations on the restriction of space was deleted at the time when 'Koninkyaku' (collection of various Imperial orders issued during Konin era) was compiled, and the sentence without restriction clause were recorded on the Koninkyaku, which are believed to have been adopted in 'Ruijusandaikyaku.'
- 特に、戦後の歴史学に強い影響を及ぼした唯物史観は、発展史観の度合いをさらに強め、古代アジアの社会はアジア的生産様式の中で総体的奴隷制度が行われたと考えていた。
- In particular, historical materialism, which strongly influenced the Japanese post-war historical school, further advanced the historical view of development to consider that ancient Asian society was generally based on slavery in the Asiatic mode of production.
- 日本で作られたと考えられる古墳時代の他の銘文について字数が多い例は、熊本県江田船山古墳出土の大刀銘75字、和歌山県橋本市隅田八幡宮所蔵の鏡銘48字などがある。
- The other examples of inscription in the Kofun period which seem to have been made in Japan and has a lot of letters are an inscription of long sword (75 letters) unearthed from Eta Funayama Tumulus in Kumamoto Prefecture and an inscription of mirror (48 letters) owned by Sumida Hachimangu Shrine in Hashimoto City, Wakayama Prefecture.
- しかし幕府は藩祖・且元の大坂の陣における功績を考慮して、為次の弟にあたる片桐且昭を3000石の交代寄合として取り立てることで片桐氏の名跡を存続させようとした。
- Still, the bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) attempted to preserve the Katagiri clan name to honor the domain founder Katsumoto's accomplishments at the Siege of Osaka by granting the status of kotai yoriai (landholding vassal with alternate attendance obligations) with 3,000 koku to Tametsugu's younger brother Katsuteru KATAGIRI.
- さらに、約3万年以前の尖頭器、最終氷期最寒冷期以後の槍先形尖頭器、縄文時代の石槍など、製作ないし使用された年代の相違を考慮し、それぞれを呼び分ける場合も多い。
- In addition, these stone tools are often called by different names considering the difference of the time when these stone tools were made or used, such as those made more than 30 thousand yeas ago called simply 'point,' those appeared soon after the coldest period of the Last Glacial Maximum called 'lanceolate-shaped point,' those of the Jomon period called 'stone spear.'
- 中国側の認識では条約体制は、それまであった朝貢や互市といった華夷秩序の一部が変形したものとしか考えておらず、国際法もほんの一部分の特例に過ぎないと捉えていた。
- Chinese side understood that treaty system was partially-modified Kaichitsujo based on choko and goshi and acceptance of international law was just a special case.
- 前述のような学説は皇国史観の強い影響下に成ったものとする考えから、その反動として戦後の研究では、日本の出先機関が存在したことを否定しようとする姿勢が強かった。
- After the World War II, the studies strongly attempted to deny the existence of a regional office of Japan in the Korean Peninsula on the rebound because the above-mentioned theory was thought to have been born under the strong influence of Kokoku Shikan (emperor-centered historiography which is based on state Shinto).
- この「生類憐れみの令」は、幕府の権威の失墜につながらないよう、「徳川禁令考」など、幕府やその関係者が編纂した法令集からは意図的に削除されているともいわれている。
- It is said that the 'law prohibiting cruelty to animals' was intentionally deleted from the collection of laws compiled by the Shogunate, so as not to damage the Shogunate's authority.
- そして、改新時に一気に改革が進んだとは考えにくく、特に改新の主要政策は地方社会への影響が大きいものばかりだったため、諸制度が全国に浸透するには長い年月を要した。
- It is quite unlikely that the political reforms were completed at a stroke at the time of the Great Reformation of the Taika Era and especially, since all of the main policies of the reforms were to have great influence on local societies, it took many years for the new institutions to penetrate nationwide.
- しかし、長篠合戦に参戦した織田軍の兵力を通説に従って3万、また先述のように参戦しない武将にも鉄砲隊を供出させた史実を考えれば、数千挺ほど用意出来た可能性はある。
- However, the Oda family could have acquired a few thousand teppo, if we take the standard number of 30,000 men deployed by the family, and if we recall the historical fact that they ordered the non-participating busho to provide teppo.
- 鉄砲は高価で貴重な兵器であったため、軍役として鉄砲を用意するよう義務付けられるのはある程度大身の者であることを考慮すると、この軍役率はそのまま参考にはならない。
- This rate cannot be taken at face value because only men of significantly high rank could have been obliged to provide for military service teppo which were expensive and rare at the time.
- 第一に朝鮮の統治政策に関して「将来、朝鮮で日本への抵抗・独立勢力になり得る芽を先に除去すべき時期である」と考えて抵抗勢力や反乱についての対策に腐心していたこと。
- Firstly, in line with their policy on the rule of Korea, they were trying hard to take measures against the resistance forces and rebellions, believing that 'it was time to defuse potential resistance or independence forces beforehand.'
- 1903年、夕張からやってきた永岡鶴蔵は、夕張にある大日本労働至誠会と同じような鉱山労働者の組織を足尾でも結成しようと考えたが、この時代にはうまくいかなかった。
- In 1903, Tsuruzo NAGAOKA who came from Yubari thought of establishing an organization for mine workers in Ashio, like Dainihon Rodo Shiseikai in Yubari, but it didn't work out at that time.
- 政権の性格は、「鬼道を事とし、能く衆を惑わす」卑弥呼を女王とする邪馬台国の呪術的政権ではなく、宗教的性格は残しながらもより権力的な政権であったと考えられている。
- The nature of the regime is considered not like that of the magical regime of Yamatai-koku Kingdom with Queen Himiko who 'used the art of shaman and often misled the people,' but more powerful government remaining the religious nature.
- なお、実際には家臣などを代官として支配・経営させている場合も多く、実態としては朝廷や幕府を本所や本家あるいは領家とした荘園に近い形態であったとも考えられている。
- In many cases Goryosho was actually controlled and run by local governors and was almost like a manor where Imperial Court and Shogunate took the place of honjo (the administrative headquarters of manor) or of Honke, the head family (the owner of the highest-graded patches of land under the stratified land ruling structure of Shoen) or of ryoke (virtual proprietor of manor.)
- 考古学上の成果によると、一般的な城柵は小高い丘上に官衙が設置され、その周辺に鎮兵の住居を配置し、周囲を土塁、材木列塀などを巡らし、望楼を設けて防御を固めている。
- According to archaeological findings, a general josaku was consisted of an office mounted on an elevated hill, around which the residents of soldiers were located, with earthen walls and fences made of lumber around them, as wells as watchtowers to reinforce defenses.
- そのほかにも、地球温暖化により内陸部の降水量減少や気圧配置の変化が引き起こされ、それらが乾燥化や強風の増加をもたらして、黄砂の増加に関係しているとの考えもある。
- In addition, there is also another theory that global warming has been related to an increase in kosa in the following way: Global warming has caused the amount of rainfall in the inner land to decrease and has also caused the atmospheric pressure patterns to change, consequently expanding dry area and increasing the occurrence of strong winds.
- また、日本の南西諸島にはクチャ(学術名島尻層泥岩)と呼ばれる厚さ約1,000mの泥岩層が分布しているが、この層には黄砂由来の粒子が含まれていると考えられている。
- Approx. 1,000m thick mudstone layers called kucha (Shimajiri Mudstone in the scientific name) exist on the Nansei (Southwestern) Islands of Japan, and it is considered that the layers include sand grains that originated in kosa.
- 「大宰」の文字の初見が609年(推古天皇17年)であるが、既に見たように福岡県博多に官家を造るなどの記事から大宰府の起源はもっと遡るのではないかと考えられている。
- First appearance of the letters 'Omikotomochi' is in the section of year 609, but as described above, the origin of Dazai-fu is considered to be older based on articles on building miyake in Hakata, Fukuoka prefecture.
- 法隆寺西院伽藍は、かつては聖徳太子の時代の建築と信じられていたが、近代における研究の進展の結果、670年の火災以後、7世紀末から8世紀初めの再建と考えられている。
- Saiin Garan of Horyu-ji Temple was once believed to have been built in the age of Prince Shotoku, but it is now considered, thanks to the development of research in the modern times, that the complex was destroyed by fire in 670 and rebuilt sometime between the late seventh and early eighth century.
- 地租改正による農民一揆と並び、神風連の乱や西南戦争(1877年)など明治初期の士族反乱は、秩禄処分により収入が激減した士族階級の不平が原因であった考えられている。
- Like peasant uprising caused by the land-tax reform, revolts by former samurai warriors, such as Shimpuren-no-ran War (turmoil of Shimpuren, a dissatisfied warrior group) and the Seinan War (1877), were led by former warriors who suffered from drastic reduction of their income caused by Chitsuroku-shobun.
- 戦死を肯(がえ)んぜず、挙兵の意を法廷で主張すべきと考えていた別府九郎・野村忍介・神宮司助左衛門らは熊本鎮台の部隊に、坂田諸潔は第四旅団の部隊にそれぞれ降伏した。
- Those including Kuro BEPPU, Oshisuke NOMURA, and Sukezaemon JINGUJI, who did not accept death in battle and considered that they should insist on the meaning of having taken up arms in court, surrendered to a troop of Kumamoto Garrison, and Morokiyo SAKATA to a troop of the 4th brigade.
- 義政は弟の義尋を還俗させて(足利義視)将軍を譲ろうと考えたが、正室日野富子に足利義尚が誕生したため、両者の間で継承を争うことになり、応仁の乱の原因の一つとなった。
- Yoshimasa considered making his younger brother Gijin return to secular life (his secular name was Yoshimi ASHIKAGA) and transferring shogun to him, but Yoshimasa's lawful wife Tomiko HINO gave birth to Yoshihisa ASHIKAGA, and they conflicted with each other about succession, causing the Onin War.
- そのような幼児が信長や今川氏と渡り合えるはずがないと考えた家臣団は、信康が成長するまでは、替え玉である世良田二郎三郎元信に松平氏の家督を代行させたというのである。
- MURAOKA argues that Motoyasu's followers did not consider the infant to be an equal match for the ODA and IMAGAWA Clans, so they allowed Motonobu SERATA to lead the MATSUDAIRA Clan until Nobuyasu grew up.
- つまりアフリカやアジアの文明は、かつてヨーロッパが遠い過去において経験した発展段階だと考え、ヨーロッパ文明圏以外の人々・地域を「遅れた」「劣った」文明とみなした。
- In other words, civilizations of Africa and Asia were considered as the stage in development which Europe had experienced in distant past, and those civilizations and people outside Europe were regarded as'primitive' and 'inferior'.
- 「信義」という言葉が紙切れに近かった戦国時代において、20年間も同盟関係が維持されたのは(後半10年間が完全な従属同盟であったことを考慮しても)異例のことである。
- In the Sengoku period when the word 'being faithful' meant almost piece of paper, it was exceptional that this alliance was kept for 20 years (even if taking into consideration that later 10 years was an alliance not of equals but of fully subordinate-superior relationship).
- こうした大量の銅は、宗氏が新たに入手したものではなく、朝鮮王朝が交易の制限を強化していく中、対馬・博多において大量に過剰在庫となって溜まっていたものと考えられる。
- This large amount of copper was not mined by the So clan, and it is thought that a large amount of copper had been accumulated as excess stock in Tsushima and Hakata due to the trade restrictions imposed by the Korean Dynasty.
- 外地を喪失した法的な時期については、日本国との平和条約第2条に外地の権原放棄に関する規定があるため、同条約の発効日(1952年4月28日)と考えるのが一般的である。
- The effective date (April 28, 1952) of the peace treaty with Japan is generally considered as the date on which Japan officially lost Gaichi, as Article 2 of the said treaty stipulated the renunciation of titles in Gaichi.
- だが、土地の賦課の是非は大名などの領主の権限と考えられていたこと、従来の検地に代わる大規模な測量の必要性があることから、政府内でも賛否両論があってまとまらなかった。
- However, this proposal was not put into practice because there were arguments for and against within the government; the main reasons for the opposition lied in that at that time it was believed that the authority to impose land tax or not lied in the feudal lords such as daimyo and that it was necessary to conduct a large scale land survey replacing the existing nationwide land survey before getting into the land-tax reform.
- 政庁地区については、発掘調査以前には「現在見える礎石が創建時のもの」、「941年(天慶4)の藤原純友の乱で焼亡した後は再建されなかった」、という考えが主流であった。
- Theories that 'the foundation stones that are currently visible are those when it was built', and 'it was never rebuilt after it was burned down in FUJIWARA no Sumitomo's War in 941' concerning the government district were mainstream before excavation and research.
- しかし、最近の考古学研究では、班田収授が飛鳥時代又は奈良時代初期に開始したと見られるのに対し、条里による土地表記の初見が奈良時代中期の天平15年(743年)である。
- In recent archaeology study, however, while handen shuju is considered to have started in the Asuka period or early Nara period, first appearance of land representation using jori was in 743, the mid Nara period.
- このほか明らかに山城国全域の人口と混乱して50万人前後の人口を伝えたり、同じ人口に関して異なる年代で記述されるなど、信頼の低いものもあるが、参考までに以下列挙する。
- For reference, the table below shows the following data sets, although they are less reliable owing to some defects of sources, such as the data confusion with the total population (approx. 500,000) of Yamashiro Province or the repetition of the same figure in different years.
- 幕藩体制維持のため各藩の拠点は一箇所の城下町に固定化され、更に領外への経済圏の自由な拡大が制約されたため、全国的な拠点とされた三都との間に格差が生じたと考えられる。
- Such a difference between the three major cities positioned as national centers and the rest of the cities is believed to have been deliberately brought about by the bakufu's policy to secure the shogunate system, by concentrating the center of each domain into a single castle town, and by restricting the free economic expansion of the city beyond the sphere of the domain.
- 官人の人事評価制度(人事考課)、礼式、及び選叙(叙位及び任官)、行賞を司り、役人養成機関である大学寮を統括するため、八省の内でも中務省に次いで重要な省とされてきた。
- Shikibu-sho was regarded as the most important ministry after Nakatsukasa-sho (Ministry of Central Affairs) among the eight central ministries, because it managed the personnel evaluation system (the Personnel Rating Section was responsible), the code of etiquette, the recruitment and promotion (the conferment of a court rank and appointment to an office), and the award, with administering Daigaku-ryo - an organization for training up government officials.
- さらに、佐賀県吉野ヶ里遺跡や福岡県筑紫野隈・西小田遺跡などでは、中期前葉の男性甕棺数が女性の倍にも達する事実は男性が戦闘に参加する機会が多いことを示すと考えられる。
- Moreover, the fact that a number of kamekan (earthenware jar-coffin) for males excavated at the Yoshinogari site at Saga Prefecture and Kuma/Nishioda site at Chikushi City, Fukuoka Prefecture is double the number of female's, which is interpreted as the males had more occasion to join in battle.
- 日本では、正史には記載されていないが、天皇が定めたものとして一部の史書に記載があったり、考古資料に使用例が見られる古代の年号を逸年号と呼び、これに含める場合がある。
- In Japan, the nengo written in some historical books as declared by the Emperor but not written in official history, or the nengo which was ancient and its use was seen in antique archaeological materials are called Itsunengo (era name which really existed but taken out of official history) - and they are sometimes classified as Shinengo.
- 森博達は1999年の『日本書紀の謎を解く』において、「十七条憲法の漢文の日本的特徴(和習)から7世紀とは考えられず、『日本書紀』編纂とともに創作されたもの」とした。
- Hiromichi MORI commented in 'Nihon shoki no nazo o toku' (Solving the Enigma of the Chronicles of Japan) published in 1999 as follows: 'Considering the grammatical deviations affected by Japanese (washu) in the kanbun (Chinese classics) used in The 17-Article Constitution, it is unlikely that the Constitution was established in the seventh century, and it was created at the time when the 'Nihonshoki' was compiled.'
- このため、これを補うために文化_(日本)年間に評定所の幕臣がまとめた恩赦の記録が『大赦律』という名称で評定所において参考資料として用いられたが十分なものではなかった。
- In order to compensate the loss, the Shogun's retainers at the conference chamber complied the records on pardon collected in the Bunka period (1804-1818) into 'Taisharitsu' and it was used as reference at the conference chamber, but it was not sufficient enough.
- ただし、異民族の侵攻の恐れのある大陸においては、郭城(塀=羅城をめぐらした城)であるが、島国である日本では城壁は作られず(大宰府には城壁があったとも考えられている)。
- However, walls were not constructed around the capital cities in Japan because invasion by other races was not considered a threat because Japan was an island (Dazaifu might have been built with walls), although a castle with outer bailey (a capital surrounded by walls) was seen in the continent where invasion by different races was feared.
- この当時にイギリスの死刑執行人を務めていたウィリアム・マーウッドが考案した物と金具の形状やロープの長さ、床の開き方などが酷似しており、参考にされた可能性が考えられる。
- The shape of metal fittings, the length of the rope and the way the floor opens are similar to those devised by William Marwood, who served as executioner in England in those days, so it is possible that his method was used as a guide for preparing the Scheme.
- 東京時代(とうきょうじだい)とは、日本の歴史における時代区分のうちで、江戸幕府が崩壊して明治維新が開始された1868年以後についての呼称として考え出された概念の一つ。
- The Tokyo period is a notion devised as a way to refer to the period after 1868, when the Edo bakufu collapsed and the Meiji restoration was started, within the framework of periodization of Japanese history.
- 日本における黄砂濃度の最高値は、黄砂以外も含む浮遊粒子状物質(SPM)の参考値ではあるが、2002年に0.79mg/m3(790µg/m3)という値が観測されている。
- The maximum kosa density ever observed in Japan was 0.79 mg per cubic meter (790µg per cubic meter) in 2002, although the value is to be used only as a reference, because it actually is a density value of suspended particulate matter (SPM) including kosa.
- 日本政府は治外法権(領事裁判権)、関税自主権の問題解決の足がかりとして、アジア以外の国の1つとまず対等条約を結び、それを前例として欧米諸国と再交渉することを考えていた。
- The Japanese government was hoping to renegotiate the unequal treaties with the Western countries and solve the issues concerning extraterritoriality (consular jurisdiction) and tariff autonomy by concluding the first equal treaty with a non-Asian country as a precedent.
- 実際には鎌倉幕府の摂家将軍や宮将軍、江戸幕府の大政委任論のように、幕府もまた朝廷の実質とは一線を画しつつも、朝廷から分離してその存在を考えることはできないものであった。
- As a matter of fact, the bakuhu also could not exist without the Imperial Court while keeping the characteristic of its own which is different from the one in the Imperial Court, such as Sekke Shogun and Miyashogun (shogun from the Imperial Court) from Kamakura bakufu, and Taisei-ininron (a theory holding that government powers were delegated to the Shogun by the Tenno) of Edo bakufu.
- このことから、「律令制=奴隷制」、「律令制=独裁制に基づく搾取制」という考えが否定されていき、代わって百姓を隷属農民として見る隷農制という概念が提示されるようになった。
- Accordingly, the idea of 'the Ritsuryo system equals slavery' or 'the Ritsuryo system equals a system of exploitation based on a dictatorship' was refuted and, instead, the concept of villeinage that views the peasants as serfs, has been suggested.
- カマドは時代が下るごとに発達し、「壁」の外へ向かって張り出していくようになるが、実際には竪穴住居の堀くぼめた部分が狭まってそのぶんカマドが発達していると考えられている。
- The stove developed over time and began to protrude outward beyond the wall, but this is believed to have been a development resulting from the pit dug into the dwelling becoming narrower.
- この時代、鉱毒が減ったような報道が多くされたのは、鉱毒発生当初は山田郡は鉱毒激甚地とはみなされていなかったため、マスコミが取材に訪れなかったためだと考える研究者がいる。
- During this period, it was reported that the mining pollution was decreased in many presses, however, some researchers consider that it was because Yamada County had not been regarded as heavily polluted area in the beginning of the mining pollution and journalists did not visit there yet.
- それまで法とは、皇帝がつくり制定するものである(「国法とは皇帝の家法」)とする伝統的な考え方が支配的であったが、自然法という皇帝を介さない天与の法という観念が伝わった。
- Although traditional way of thinking which understood that laws should be prepared and enacted by an emperor ('national laws are family laws of an emperor') was dominant until that time, new conception of heaven-sent law without mediation by an emperor was brought in.
- というのも当時の江戸幕府倒壊直後の日本は諸藩割拠状態であって、諸藩をどのようにまとめ上げて統一国家とするかという点において、国家スタイルとして連邦制が妥当と考えられた。
- After the collapse of the Edo bakufu, federal system was considered to be the best way to unify domains, which were defending authority and created a unified nation.
- これを憂慮した島津斉彬・松平慶永・徳川斉昭ら有力な大名は大事に対応できる将軍を擁立すべきであると考えて斉昭の実子である一橋慶喜擁立に動き、老中阿部正弘もこれに加担した。
- Several main daimyo (Japanese feudal lords) who were concerned with that, such as Nariakira SHIMAZU, Yoshinaga MATSUDAIRA, and Nariaki TOKUGAWA, considered that they should put up a shogun who could deal with crises and attempted to back up Yoshinobu HITOTSUBASHI, a real son of Nariaki, as shogun, with a support of roju Masahiro ABE.
- 文献においては「短甲一領」が胴部のみのものを意味し、「短甲一具」が草摺や冑、肩甲、頸甲、篭手、脛当などの装備一式を意味すると考えられているが、一具の出土例は見られない。
- According to documents, 'Tanko ichiryo' means the armor covered only torso and 'Tanko ichigu' means complete equipment including Kusazuri tassets, samurai warrior helmet, pauldron, neck armor, gauntlet and shin guard, though there is no example of complete equipment unearthed.
- しかし、木戸の説得に押され、また『板垣を在野で放置して過激派と結びつかれるよりも、政府につなぎとめておいた方が、政府への反対運動を分断できる』と考え、態度を軟化させた。
- Nevertheless, he was moved by Kido's s persuasion and also thought that 'instead of leaving Itagaki outside the government to let him join radical groups, he should keep him inside in order to sever the anti-government movement,' and thus he took a softer line.
- 同時代の顧炎武は明の滅亡は「亡国」であるが「亡天下」ではなく、夷狄の王朝である清が皇帝となっても、中華の文明が維持される限り天下は継続するものであるという考えを述べた。
- Ko Enbu of the same era expressed his opinion saying that the fall of Ming is 'bokoku' (fall of the state), not 'botenka' (fall of Tenka), and Tenka continues to exist, so long as the Chinese cultures are maintained, even the Qing dynasty, a dynasty of iteki, becomes the ruler.
- しかし、惣村の持っていた自治的性格は、祭祀面や水利面などを中心に近世村落へも幾分か継承され、村請制度や分郷下における村の統一維持に大きな役割を果たしたと考えられている。
- However, the soson's predisposition toward self-government was passed down to early-modern villages mainly in terms of religious service and water supplies, and it is considered that such a characteristic was instrumental in unifying and maintaining the village under the murauke system (village-wide, collective responsibility for tax payment) and Bungo (system of governing the Go).
- しかし信長は「天下布武」をかかげて自らの天下統一を目指し、一方の義昭は上杉謙信や毛利元就らにも上洛を促して幕府政治の再興を目指すという、両者には考えの食い違いがあった。
- Under the slogan 'tenka fubu' (the realm subjected to military power), Nobunaga intended to unite all of Japan by himself; on the other hand, Yoshiaki also invited Kenshin UESUGI and Motonari MORI to Kyoto with the intention of restoring the shogunate government -- there were discrepancies between their opinions.
- また、フランシスコ会の活発な活動が禁教令に対して挑発的であると考え、京都奉行の石田三成に命じて、京都に住むフランシスコ会員とキリスト教徒全員を捕縛して処刑するよう命じた。
- Hideyoshi also thought that Franciscan's energetic activities were provocative against the Ban on Christianity and ordered to the Kyoto magistrate, Mitsunari ISHIDA, to arrest and execute all Franciscan members and Christians.
- ただし、これらの報道については、当時のマスコミのみの取材能力では、渡良瀬川沿岸全域を調査したとは考えられず、一部地域のみの情報を元にしたものであるという指摘がされている。
- However some people point out that such report must have been based on a research at very small part of the area, as the press's researching capacity of that time was limited and they could not research all the parts of the area along Watarase-gawa River.
- これにより李氏朝鮮がロシアの保護国と見なされる危険性もあったと考え、日本は朝鮮への影響力を維持するため1897年に大韓帝国と国号を改めて独立の事実を明確にさせようとした。
- Believing this posed the risk that the Yi Dynasty Korea might be regarded as a Russian protected state, Japan tried to clarify the fact of its independence by changing its name to the Korean Empire in order to maintain Japan's clout on Korea in 1897.
- その他、古代の戸籍制度を6年に1回作成すること(六年一造)、50戸を1里とする地方制度、班田収授法に関する規定など、律令制の骨格が本令により制度化されたと考えられている。
- It is believed that the structural framework of the ritsuryo system was systematized by this code, which included the stipulation that the ancient family register had to be revised every six years, definition of the smallest administrative division consisting of 50 families in the regional system, and the enactment of the law of the rice field allotment system.
- しかし、この記事が、ヤマト王権において、服属させた周辺の豪族を県主として把握し、県主によって支配される領域を県(アガタ)と呼んでいたことを伝えていると考えることはできる。
- However, it can be thought that these articles refer to the fact that, during the Yamato Dynasty, powerful families of areas loyal to the court were controlled by being appointed agatanushi and that the areas ruled by agatanushi were called agata.
- この条件は、国民が考えていた条件とは大きくかけ離れるものであった(日本側は賠償金50億円、遼東半島の権利と旅順-ハルピン間の鉄道権利の譲渡、樺太全土の譲渡などを望んでいた。
- These conditions were far from what Japanese people were expecting, which are reparations of 5 billion yen, the transfer of the right for Liaodong Peninsula as well as the right of the railroad between Lushun and Harupin, the transfer of the entire land of Sakhalin and so on.
- 民権派の一部にはそれに対抗する形で'「真に善美なる国会」を開設するには、圧制政府を実力で転覆することもやむなし'という考えから急進化する者も出始め、各地で対立が起きていた。
- Some minken (democratic rights) activists, against the suppression of the government, began to change into radicals urged by an idea that they could not avoid use of force in overthrowing the repressive government in order to establish a 'truly superb Diet', which caused confrontations to occur in various places.
- この松菊里型住居は、縄文時代後・晩期に西日本一帯でしばしば見られる円形プランの住居跡とともに、弥生時代前期から中期にかけて主流となる円形住居の祖形となったと考えられている。
- It is assumed that the dwelling (habitation) site from the end to last of Jomon period around western Japan and 'Shokikurigata dwelling' became original forms of round plan dwellings that became main stream in the early to middle Yayoi period.
- すると、弥生時代とは、水稲農耕による食料生産に基礎を置く農耕社会であって、前段階である縄文時代(狩猟採集社会)とはこの点で区別されるべきだとする考え方が主流になっていった。
- Then the point of view that the Yayoi period was an agrarian society based on food production by rice-paddy cultivation and should be distinguished from previous periods, Jomon period (a hunting and gathering society), became mainstream.
- しかし、お雇い外国人であるエドモンド・モレルの発案により、予算の問題や今後の鉄道敷設のことを考えると、加工しやすい国産の木材を用いたほうがよいということになり、変更された。
- However, the plan was changed because the employed foreigner Edmund Morel suggested using Japanese lumber, which was easier to process hence a better choice for future railway construction and also preferable in terms of the budgetary issue.
- エドモンド・モレルなどお雇い外国人が予算や輸送需要を考えれば、狭軌を採用して鉄道を早期に建設すべきと主張して、それら外国人の説得に押されてしまったことに拠るという説もある。
- Some say that employed foreigners such as Edmund Morel insisted to adopt narrow gauge in order to construct the railway quickly in consideration of the budget and transportation demand and that he was persuaded by them.
- 谷森種松は、『懐風藻』が天智天皇のことを「淡海先帝」とことさらに「先」の字を付けて書いたのは、淡海後帝の存在を暗示するもので、大友皇子の即位を知らせようとしたのだと考えた。
- Yoshiomi TANIMORI considered that the fact that 'Kaifuso' referred to Emperor Tenchi as Tankai Ex-Emperor suggests presence of Tankai Post-Emperor and the enthronement of Prince Otomo.
- 例えば、隋以前に均田制は北朝のみで施行されており、南朝では実施されていなかったので、唐初期において均田制は、おそらく華北を中心に施行されたにとどまっただろうと考えられている。
- For example, as the equal-field system before the Sui period was enforced only in the Northern Dynasties and not in the Southern Dynasties, it is considered that the it was enforced only around the North China in the early Tang Dynasty.
- これらの、嗅覚が鋭く行動の機敏な動物の捕獲には、手持ちの槍よりも投げ槍が狩猟具として適していたものと考えられ、特に有舌尖頭器の急増は、こうした事情を物語っていると推定される。
- A javelin was considered more suitable than a spear as a tool for hunting these sharp-nosed and nimble animals, and probably the particularly rapid increase of the hafted point can be explained by these reasons.
- 実際には地金価値で取引されたと考えられるため、「貨幣」と認めるべきか否かは議論がある(江戸時代など後代になっても、豆板銀や丁銀等の銀の秤量貨幣が、西日本では使用されている)。
- Some people argue that Mumon-ginsen coin was not 'a coin,' because it was practically exchanged based on the value of bare metal (In western Japan, silver Hyoryo kahei coins [currency valued by weight] such as mameitagin [an Edo-period coin] and Chogin [collective term of silver] were used even in the later Edo period.)
- 以後の倭国王たちも治天下大王の称号を代々継承しているが、このことが背景となって、7世紀初頭に倭国王が隋皇帝への親書に「日出処天子」と自称した事件につながったと考えられている。
- The successive kings of Wa used the title of amenoshita shiroshimesu okimi, and this fact led to the incident which occurred at the beginning of the seventh century in which Wakokuo called himself 'Hiizurutokoro no tenshi' in the letter he sent to the Emperor of Sui.
- ただし、極端な場合には持ち合わせの財産が債権額に達しないことを理由として一般的には差し押さえの対象にはならないと考えられていたウシやウマ、妻子などを差し押さえる場合もあった。
- In extreme cases, however, cows, horses, wives and children, not considered to be subject to seizure in general, were occasionally attached for the alleged reason that the property on hand of a debtor was short of the amount of credit.
- 本来は地税である田租を指して官物と呼んだと考えられているが、律令制以後には租庸調をはじめとする貢納物や出挙・正税などのその運用・集積物を含めて「官物」と呼ばれるようになった。
- Originally Kanmotsu is thought to have been the term for Denso (rice field tax), a property tax, but after the Ritsuryo system was established, 'Kanmotsu' became the term to describe tithes such as Soyocho and suiko (government loans), shozei (the rice tax stored in a provincial office's warehouse) and its use and accumulated products.
- 文化財保護法による国宝の指定対象となるものは有形文化財であり、具体的には建造物、絵画、彫刻、工芸品、書跡、典籍、古文書、考古資料、歴史資料である(同法第2条第1項第1号参照)。
- The items that can be designated national treasures as specified in the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties are any items considered tangible cultural assets; specifically, they are broken down into the following categories: buildings, paintings, sculptures, crafts, calligraphy work, books, ancient documents, archaeological materials, and historical materials (for more information, see the first part of item one under Article 2 of the abovementioned law).
- 5世紀後半までに大王・治天下大王(あめのしたしろしめすおおきみ)の称号が成立し、この称号が飛鳥浄御原令の編纂が始まった680年代まで日本国内において用いられたと考えられている。
- The title okimi and amenoshitashiroshimesu okimi (the title of the king of Wa) were established at least by the latter half of the fifth century, and it is thought that these titles were used in Japan until the 680s when the compilation of the Asuka Kiyomihara Code began.
- 名の由来は明治時代の研究者らが北方ネイティブ・アメリカンの利用していた石の調理用ナイフに形状的に似ることからこう呼んだものが広まったもので、当初は調理器具と考えられていた模様。
- The name ishi-bocho derived from researchers in the Meiji period who called it the name because ishi-bocho resembled the cooking knife used by Northern Native Americans in shape, and afterwards the name became common; it seems that ishi-bocho was believed to be cookware at first.
- 特に欧米の事情に通じた人材となると、自然と幕末に留学をした旧幕臣が占める割合が高くなってしまい、特に旧幕臣の一掃こそが改革の早道と考える大久保利通らの反感を強める原因となった。
- Especially, since most personnel who knew well about Europe and America were naturally those who had studied abroad and they were former retainers of shogun, this caused strong antipathy from Toshimichi Okubo who thought the fastest way of reformation was to wipe out old retainers of shogun.
- その一方で、石高が1万石に満たないために旗本とされながら、参勤交代を行い、大名と同様の支配体制を保障された交代寄合は、やや主体性の高い紙幣発行の事情があった可能性も考えられる。
- On the other hand, for the kotaiyoriai (alternate yoriai, a family status of samurai warriors in the Edo period), that were Hatamoto but were obliged to keep Sankinkotai (a system under which feudal lords in the Edo period were required to spend every other year residing in Edo) and ensured the control system similar to that of daimyo (Japanese feudal lord) because their earnings were less than 10,000 koku of rice (approximately 180 liters per koku), it is also considered that there might have been slightly more independent situations to issue paper money.
- 後の時代の藤原京 (や平城京等) のように全体的に計画されて作られたものだとは考えられておらず、また、発掘調査など考古学的な成果においても全体像を明らかにするにいたっていない。
- Unlike later Fujiwara-kyo (the Imperial capital of Japan for 16 years between 694 and 710; or Heijo-kyo [the ancient capital of Japan in current Nara]), it is agreed that Asuka-kyo didn't have an overall city plan, in addition, the result of archaeological studies such as the data collected in excavation is not yet enough to form a comprehensive view of the Asuka-kyo.
- この時代の銅鏡の中には、中国大陸の年号が銘されている紀年鏡が13枚のうち12枚が含まれており、出土した古墳やその他の副葬品が製造された年代を推定するための参考資料とされている。
- Because twelve out of thirteen Kinen mirrors, which were with the name of an era of China, were included in bronze mirrors produced in this period, these mirrors were used as references to estimate the era when the excavated tumulus or other burial goods were produced.
- 徳川家康の影武者説(とくがわいえやすのかげむしゃせつ)、は江戸幕府を開いた徳川家康の生涯は通説で考えられているものと異なり、人生のいずれかの段階で別人と入れ替わったという俗説。
- Although it is commonly believed that Ieyasu TOKUGAWA founded the Edo shogunate, there is another theory that suggests an imposter took the place of Ieyasu TOKUGAWA at some stage of his life.
- 『䕃涼軒日録』によると義満は土岐氏の断絶を考えたが、雲渓支山のとりなしでこれを思い止まり、義満は頼世へ支山に感謝して在所を寄進するよう命じ、頼世は美濃国玉村保を寄進したという。
- According to 'Inryoken Nichiroku' (Inryoken's Diary), Yoshimitsu at first thought to end up the family line of the Toki clan, but held back the idea by the intervention of Unkei Shizan, a monk; in the end Yoriyo was ordered by Yoshimitsu to donate some places to the monk as a graditude, and Yoriyo donated Tamamura no ho of the province of Mino.
- 春になると、表土を覆った積雪が融け、高気圧の勢力が弱まる代わりに偏西風が強まり、低気圧が発達しながら通過するなどして風が強い日が増えるため、黄砂の発生も増えると考えられている。
- It is considered that kosa occurs more frequently in spring by the following conditions: Melting snow on the topsoil, being stronger westerlies by weaker high pressures, increasing windy days by passing of developing low pressure, and so on.
- 源平の争乱を生き抜き、少なくともその時期に武士となり、鎌倉時代に御家人、源平の争乱となった者、一部の荘園の下司について以外に、後世に記録が残っていないことを考慮する必要がある。
- It is necessary to take into consideration that there should be no records of previous generations, except for records of those that survived the Genpei War and became bushi during that period, gokenin during Kamakura period, those who participated in the Genpei War, and followers of a lower ranked officer in some shoen.
- また江戸時代の藩は,半独立国的存在であったことを考えれば,現代においてパスポートを取得して海外旅行に行くようなもので,事実上届出さえすれば自由に旅行は可能であったとの見方もある。
- However, according to a different theory, people were actually able to travel without restraint as long as they made notification, which is like traveling abroad after getting a passport in modern times, considering the fact that domains in the Edo period were like semi-independent states..
- 以上の点から、7世紀中~後半に、大化の改新と同様な改革が行われたことは、比較的見解の一致するところではあるが、その時期を645年よりもっと後に設定するべきであるとの考え方もある。
- From the above points, though it is relatively well agreed that there were carried out reforms such as the Taika Reforms in the mid to latter half of the 7th century, there is a point of view that the date should be much later than 645.
- この翻刻が与えた歴史的影響は非常に大きく、ある研究では「此書は維新当初の開国方針を決するに重大なる参考書となり、また経典の如き権威を以て読まれた」と評している(尾佐竹1932)。
- The historical impact given by the reprint was major; according to a research it is evaluated 'The book was primary guide to decide the policy of opening of a country at the early stage of the restoration and read as if it was some sort of scripture' (Osatake 1932).
- つまり、最初に渡来人が来たと考えられている北部九州や大陸系渡来人が移住した可能性のある瀬戸内・近畿地方でさえ、弥生時代初期の遺跡からは渡来系の人と判定される人骨の出土数は少ない。
- In other words, the number of excavated human bones confirmed as immigrants to ancient Japan are very rare in sites from the early Yayoi period, even in northern Kyushu where it is said immigrants to ancient Japan first entered, and in the Setouchi and Kinki region where it is believed continental immigrants to ancient Japan migrated.
- また、名古屋大学名誉教授の安川寿之輔は、初期の福澤の思想にも国権論的立場を見出し得るのであるから、「脱亜論」がそれ以前の福澤の考えと比較して特段異なるものとはいえないと指摘する。
- Also, Junosuke YASUKAWA, a professor emeritus at Nagoya University said that, because Fukuzawa's national power perspective can be detected in his earlier thoughts, the 'Datsu-A Ron' was no different from what he had said before.
- 斎藤実や鳩山文相が当時語っていたように、政府当局が処分を強行した意図は、「大学自治の総本山」と見られていた京大を強力な国家権力のもとに屈服させるという点にあったと考えられている。
- As Minoru SAITO and Minister of Education Hatoyama talked at that time, the reason why the government used force was to place Kyoto University, which was thought to be the 'stronghold of university freedom,' under the power of the government.
- 一方、朝鮮では文禄・慶長の役が終わり、朝鮮を手助けした明が朝鮮半島から撤退すると日本を恐れ、友好関係を何とか結びたいという考えを持っていたようである『明史 列伝 第二百八 朝鮮』
- On the other hand, after the Bunroku-Keicho War ended and the Ming, which had helped Korea in the war, pulled out its troops from the Korean peninsular, Korea began to fear Japan and thought that it should manage to establish a good relationship with Japan (according to 'Korea, the 208th Items of the Itemized Ming History').
- 蛍光X線分析によると青森県の「三内丸山遺跡」や北海道南部で出土されるヒスイは糸魚川産であることがわかっており、このことから縄文人が広い範囲でお互いに交易をしていたと考えられている。
- The fluorescent X-ray analysis shows that the jade excavated at 'Sannai-Maruyama Site' in Aomori Prefecture and southern Hokkaido is from Itoigawa; therefore, it is assumed that the Jomon people traded among themselves over the wide area.
- 庶民の間では、芸事や趣味の道が次第に洗練されたものになり始め、『風姿花伝』のように芸の道を人間の道と重ね合わせて修行のありようを考えるという視点も、この武家階級の時代の産物である。
- Among ordinary people, their accomplishments and hobbies began to be refined, and the following perspective was also a product of the era of the bushi class arms: they had the insight into practice by superposing their accomplishments on their lives as expressed in 'Fushikaden.'
- 例えば、2005年の大河ドラマ『義経 (NHK大河ドラマ)』でも、そのように描かれている(もちろん、ドラマなので考証性は問題にならないが、この説が一般に流布しているという点である)。
- For example, in 'Yoshitsune' (NHK Taiga-dorama [Historical Drama]), produced in 2005, depicted as above (Of course authenticity as historical evidence is not very important since it was constructed as a dramatic production, but we can point out this theory was well circulate to the general audience.)
- この事件の背景として、これに先立つ日清戦争での戦費負担を補って大いにあまりある賠償金獲得により「戦争は勝てば儲かる」という発想が民衆(および新聞社以下マスコミ)にあったと考えられる。
- It can be considered that, in the background of this incident, there was a people's (and media's, especially, news companies') anticipation that the war could bring a huge fortune if win, inspired by earlier Sino-Japanese War from which Japan had gained reparations much enough to compensate the war expenditure.
- この一連の改革が歴史家によって評価の対象にされたのは意外と遅く、幕末の紀州藩重臣であった伊達千広(陸奥宗光の実父)が『大勢三転考』を著して、初めて歴史的価値を見出したと言われている。
- It was unexpectedly late that this series of Reforms became the object of estimation by historians and it is said to be DATE Chihiro (natural father of MUTSU Munemitsu), a senior vassal of the Kishu Domain at the end of the Edo Period, who first discovered the historical value of the Reforms by writing 'Taisei-Santen-ko' (Three Stages in the Historical of Japan).
- 水戸藩藩主第2代徳川光圀が彰考館において大日本史の編纂を始めて以来、第10代徳川慶篤の孫徳川圀順が1906年(明治39年)に完成させるまで、代々多くの藩士が事業に携わることとなった。
- Since the time the second lord of the Mito Domain Mitsukuni TOKUGAWA started compilation of Dainihonshi (Great history of Japan) in Shoko-kan (a place for compilation of history books) until when Kuniyuki TOKUGAWA, the grandson of the tenth lord Yoshiatsu TOKUGAWA, completed it in 1906, many feudal retainers of the domain were engaged in this project for generations.
- 第二次世界大戦終了後日本を占領した連合国軍最高司令官総司令部は、国家のための自己犠牲を奨励していた皇民化教育が軍国主義国家形成に果たした役割が大きかったと考え、教育改革に乗り出した。
- The General Headquarters of the Allied Powers (GHQ) which occupied Japan after the Second World War worked on education reform, thinking that Japanization education, which promoted sacrificing oneself for the nation, played a big role in forming the militarism nation.
- 安帝紀に「倭国王帥升等」とあるように、倭国王は地域の小国家ではなく、いくつかの地域国家連合の首長としての「倭国の王」と考えることができ、これは倭国の成立を示すものではないかとされる。
- As it is written 'the King of Wa Suishora' in the Record of Emperor An, it is possible to think that the King of Wa was not a toparchy of the region, but was a 'King of Wa' as a chief of several regional nations, and this is thought to be the establishment of Wakoku (country of Wa).
- 考古学的な研究についても、研究そのものに朝鮮人の参画が認められていなかったこともあり、まず任那日本府の解釈に沿って日本府を合理的に説明しようとする姿勢から抜け切ることができなかった。
- Japanese archaeological study also failed in the first place to completely get rid of the inclination to rationalize the existence of Mimana Nihon-fu in accordance with such interpretaion, partly because Koreans were prohibited from participating in the study.
- また韓国の考古学者の中にも、民族主義の影響を強く受けた従来の自国の研究者の学説を厳しく批判し、この時期の韓半島と日本列島の交流が極めて密接なものであったことを指摘する者が現れている。
- Some South Korean archaeologists now sharply criticize conventional theories by Korean researchers strongly affected by nationalism and they point out that the interaction between the Korean Peninsula and the Japanese archipelago at the time was extremely inseparable.
- 2005年11月13日奈良文化財研究所は甘樫丘東麓遺跡で蘇我入鹿邸「谷の宮門」跡とみられる遺構を発掘したと発表、考古学者たちは『日本書紀』の記述が裏付けられるだろうと期待を寄せている。
- On November 13th, 2005, the Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties announced it had been excavating remnants of what is believe to be the 'Valley Palace Gate' of SOGA no Iruka's residence at Amakashi no Oka Toroku Site; archeologists expect their findings to verify inscriptions in the 'Nihonshoki.'
- しかしこれを予め知りたいという欲求も、人間がその関係性のなかでしか存在できない(社会的動物)という面もあるために無理の無いところで、しばしばこういった相性を知ろうという考えも存在する。
- However, it cannot be denied that, as social animals that cannot exist outside the social relationships, humans have desire to know it beforehand; as such, often there is a tendency in us which tries to know the compatibility with others in advance.
- 消費物資から租税を徴収する仕組としては消費税などが考えられるが、専売制はこれを更に徹底して生産・流通・販売の過程を全面的に支配することで競争原理を排除して独占的利益を収める方法である。
- One of the systems for collecting tax from consumption goods is consumption tax, but monopolization is a system that develops this further and monopolizes profits by completely controlling the processes of production, distribution, and sales and excluding competition.
- この屯倉がある程度発達・広域展開した段階で、屯倉を拠点として、直接的に地方を把握・管轄した単位が県(コホリ)であり、のちに律令制における郡(コホリ)へと発展していったと考えられている。
- When these miyake developed and expanded to a certain size, they became the bases of kohori (written as 県 in Chinese characters), which was a unit that the central government directly administered and controlled in local areas, and it is believed that they later developed into the kohori (written as 郡) of the ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code).
- 一方、鹿児島では、2月9日に県庁に自首してきた野村綱から、「大久保から鹿児島県内の偵察を依頼されてきた」という内容の自供を得て、西郷暗殺計画には大久保利通も関与していたと考えるに至った。
- On February 9, in Kagoshima, Tsuna NOMURA surrendered to the prefectural office and confessed that he was sent by OKUBO on reconnaissance in Kagoshima Prefecture; accordingly, it was concluded that Toshimichi OKUBO was engaged in the plan of assassinating SAIGO.
- しかし、710年(和銅3)に遷都された時には、内裏と大極殿、その他の官舎が整備された程度と考えられており、寺院や邸宅は、山城国の長岡京に遷都するまで、段階的に造営されていったと思われる。
- However, when it was relocated in 710, it is believed that the construction of only a few facilities such as the Imperial Palace, Daigokuden (the central building) and official residences were completed, and other facilities like the temple and residence were being constructed step by step until the capital was transferred to Nagaoka-kyo in Yamashiro Province.
- また、『日本書紀』垂仁紀には、野見宿禰が日葉酢媛命の陵墓へ殉死者を埋める代わりに土で作った人馬を立てることを提案したという(埴輪の起源説話であるが考古学的には否定されている)記載がある。
- According to Suininki in 'Nihonshoki' (Chronicles of Japan), NOMI no Sukune suggested to bury the people and horses made of earth instead of burying people who sacrifice their own lives to follow the Empress in the imperial mausoleum of Hibasuhime no mikoto (it is a narrative about the origin of haniwa [a clay figure]; however, it is not admitted archaeologically).
- しかし、時代が下るにつれて徐々に大型化するとともに、つるす部分が退化することから、最初は舌を内部につるして鳴らすものとして用いられたが、徐々に見るものへと変わっていったと考えられている。
- However, dotaku became larger and part for hanging was lost as period went forward, therefore it became an object for viewing whereas originally it was a bell with metal parts hung inside for ringing.
- 続いて、中央集権体制の近代国家にとって国民軍の創出が必要と認識され、西郷隆盛も最終的には山縣の考え方を支持して、山城屋事件で山縣が辞職に追い込まれた後も、西郷は桐野利秋らの反対論を退けた。
- Subsequently, the necessity to create a national army for a modern nation under centralized administrative framework was recognized, and Takamori SAIGO finally supported Yamagata's opinion and turned down the opposing opinions by Toshiaki KIRINO and others, even after Yamagata was forced into resignation due to the Yamashiroya incident.
- しかし、現在の研究では双方共に被害を出していることが判明していることから、日本側もある程度まとまった兵力を投入できた局面などでは、一方的に圧倒されたわけではないケースもあったと考えられる。
- However, present studies have confirmed that both parties suffered damage, and therefore, there would have been cases in which Japan could employ a fairly large number of warriors and fought well.
- 不平等条約における片務的最恵国待遇についても、当初は不平等であるという意識すらなく、「一視同仁」(中国はそれ以外の夷狄を平等に扱う)という儒教的観点から中華が夷狄に与える恩恵と考えていた。
- With regards to one-sided most-favored-nation treatment based on unequal treaties, it was not considered unfair at first but as benefits for iteki given by China based on a thought '一視同仁' (China treats all iteki equally).
- そこで、家慶は水戸藩徳川斉昭の子で一橋家を継いでいた徳川慶喜(一橋慶喜)を養子とする事を考えたが、老中阿部正弘の反対で思いとどまり、家定に不測の事態が起きた際に慶喜を後継とすることとした。
- Ieyoshi considered adopting Yoshinobu TOKUGAWA (Yoshinobu HITOTSUBASHI), a son of Nariaki TOKUGAWA of the Mito Domain, who succeeded the Hitotsubashi family, but was persuaded not to do so by roju (senior councilor) Masahiro ABE, and made a decision to make Yoshinobu an heir if an unexpected accident occurred on Iesada.
- これは本来伊達氏特有の現象ではなく、この地域の戦国大名家の洞は周辺部にある国人領主たちによる小規模な洞をいくつも包括していく中で自己の洞という形で大名領国を形成していったと考えられている。
- This was not particular to the Date clan, since Utsuro of the Sengoku daimyo families in this region are considered to have developed into daimyo ryokoku (territories ruled by daimyo) by integrating many small-sized Utsuro of Kokujin ryoshu in neighboring regions.
- 細川澄元、三好之長軍は3千名前後しかおらず、この戦力で京都奪還を目指すというのは、戦上手である三好之長が立案するとは考えにくく、戦局の打開、阿波国へ逃げ帰る事が目的であったとも思われている
- With such limited armies of Sumimoto HOSOKAWA and Yukinaga MIYOSHI around three thousand strong, Yukinaga MIYOSHI who was proficient in directing a war could not have devised a strategy aimed at retaking Kyoto -- They might have aimed at turning the tide of the war and retreating back to Awa Province.
- また一進会は、日露戦争時に設立され、日韓軍事同盟においてロシアを侵攻を阻止することが、ロシアの大韓帝国に対する影響力を弱め、さらには欧米列強のアジア進出を防ぎ、朝鮮の復興になると考えていた。
- Also, Isshinkai which was founded in the middle of Russo-Japanese War had a thought that blocking Russia's invasion under the Japan-Korea Military Alliance could weaken Russia's influence on the Korean Empire, that it further could prevent the allied western powers from advancing into Asia, and that it finally could lead to the restoration of Korea.
- 今日においては「朝廷」という言葉が幕府に対応する言葉としてよく使われるが、これは天皇・貴族(公家政権)と武家(武家政権)を対立した存在として捉えるようになった近世以後の考えからの影響が強い。
- Today, 'Chotei' is often used as the word comparable to a bakuhu; this is strongly influenced by the thoughts after the modern times in which the Emperor/aristocrat (the Government of kuge, or the court nobles) and buke (military government) oppose one another.
- ただし、この「白装束の者」たちは「白装束」という甚だしく「異形の者」たちであるため、鎌倉武士団その他の実際の軍勢では無く、「筥崎宮の八幡神による神威の顕現」の類いを描写したものと考えられる。
- However, these 'people in white' are so 'uncanny' that they are considered as a kind of 'manifestation of the power of the God of War in Hakozaki-gu Shrine' and not the warriors of the Kamakura shogunate nor any other actual force.
- かつて東禅寺 (東京都港区)のイギリス公使館襲撃に加わっていた伊藤博文は、その後のイギリス留学を通じて攘夷が非現実的な方針であり、いつまでも実現不可能な路線に固執すべきではないと考えていた。
- Hirobumi ITO who used to be involved in British Legination Attack in Tozenji Temple had thought through study in Britain that anti-foreigner was unrealistic way and that it was wrong to cling to the unfeasible way.
- 鎌倉時代から室町時代の伊達氏歴代の居城として有名であるが、現在の遺構はむしろ伊達政宗移封後の、蒲生氏時代または上杉氏時代に、対伊達氏政策で防備を強化して改築されたものであると考えられている。
- The castle was famous as the residential castle for the successive Date clan since the time from the Kamakura period to the Muromachi period, and the present structural remnants are what has been rebuilt to reinforce the defense against the Date clan in the era of Gamou clan or Uesugi clan after the Masamune DATE was transferred to other domain.
- 考古学者の岡村は、定住化の程度で時期区分すると草創期から早期半ば頃までは住居とゴミ捨て場が設置されるが、住居をもたなかったり、季節によって移動生活を送るなどの半定住段階であると想定している。
- Okamura, an archaeologist, based his periodization on the degree of adapting to sedentary life: he assumed that the Jomon people built dwellings and set up garbage dump sites from the incipient period to the earlier period, however, they lived in a semi-sedentary life, didn't always have dwellings, and lived a nomadic life depending upon the season.
- これは日本側の主導によるもので、変更の骨子は、第一に、朝鮮側の国書で徳川将軍の呼称を日本国王から日本国大君に変更すること(この「大君」呼称の考案者は京都五山の高僧・玉峰光璘である)であった。
- The Japan side led this change, and the main point of the change was to alter the terms for expressing the Tokugawa shogun in the sovereign's message on the Korean side from King of Japan to Tycoon of Japan (the term of tycoon was devised by Gyokuho Korin, a high priest at Five Great Zen Temples of Kyoto).
- 国人領主制(こくじんりょうしゅせい)とは、中世後期の日本(南北朝時代 (日本)・室町時代・戦国時代 (日本))の体制を、直接農民層を支配していた国人領主の動向から把握すべきであるとする考え。
- Kokujin-ryoshu sei was a thesis concerning the structure of Japan during the late medieval period (the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (Japan), the Muromachi period, and the Sengoku period - period of warring states) -- accordingly, the structure should be comprehended through research of movement of kokujin-ryoshu (local samurai lords) who directly ruled the farmers.
- 倭の五王による中国への冊封要請遣使は、4世紀後期から倭国が朝鮮半島南部の伽耶諸国群へ資源・利権獲得のために介入しようとしたため、その地の冊封を受けて大義名分を得ようとしたものと考えられている。
- According to one belief, the five Kings of Wa, who intended to intervene in Gaya, located in the southern part of Korea, for acquiring concessions of natural resources there from the latter half of the fourth century, dispatched an envoy to China to submit to a suzerain-vassal relationship with the Chinese sovereign so that they might make use of such a relationship on the pretext of their intervention in Korea.
- 古来より永きに渡って琉球と並んで日本と大陸との交流におけるパイプ役を果たしてきた朝鮮半島が敵対国家に渡ることは、日本にとって戦略的に致命的な弱点を握られることを意味していると考えたためである。
- This was because Japan thought if the Korean Peninsula, which had acted as an intermediary for exchanges between Japan and the continent since ancient times, together with Ryukyu, was possessed by an adversarial country, it would catch hold of a strategically fatal weakness of Japan.
- 一方の信長も、美濃国の斎藤氏と交戦している経緯、そして関東の北条氏康や甲斐国の武田信玄に対する抑えへの対抗策から家康との同盟を考えており、家康の母方の伯父に当たる水野信元らに交渉を命じていた。
- The other party Nobunaga also had an idea of forming an alliance with Ieyasu for reasons of his being at war with the Saito clan of Mino Province and his need to have a countermeasure to keep movements of Ujiyasu HOJO of Kanto region and Shingen TAKEDA of Kai Province in check; therefore, Nobunaga himself already had ordered Nobumoto MIZUNO, who was Ieyasu's maternal uncle, and others.
- 律令初期は原則どおり議政官会議における決定を受けて太政官符が発給されたと考えられているが、平安中期頃になると、上卿(太政官筆頭)が主宰する陣定での決定をもとに太政官符が発給されるようになった。
- During the early period under the Ritsuryo system, it is considered that Daijokanpu was issued in accordance with the principles following the decision of the Giseikan Conference, but in the middle of the Heian period, Daijokanpu came to be issued based on Jin no Sadame (one of the Imperial conferences) hosted by Shokei (court novels who work at Imperial Court as high rank post) (the top official of Daijokan).
- (後に伊藤は松本奎堂の密書を岩倉具視に届けたと弁明しているが、岩倉具視と松本奎堂の関係を考えればあり得ないことである。伊藤三弥と同郷の碩学森銑三は「脱走者三弥の言い訳に過ぎない」と断じている)。
- (Later ITO justified himself by saying that he delivered a secret letter from Keido MATSUMOTO to Tomomi IWAKURA; however, when one considers the relationship between Tomomi IWAKURA and Keido MATSUMOTO, the above is an unlikely circumstance; Senzo MORI, a great scholar who shares his hometown with Mitsuya ITO declares, 'It is no more than an excuse made by an escapee Mitsuya.')
- さらに、これらの王たちの宮(都)は『記紀』によれば、先に挙げた大古墳のある地域と重なっていることを考え合わせると、崇神に始まる政権はこの地域を中心に成立した推測でき、三輪政権と呼ぶことができる。
- Furthermore according to the 'Kojiki' and the 'Nihon Shoki,' the capitals of these kings overlap with a region with previously-mentioned kofun, the regime started with Emperor Sujin is estimated to have been established centering on this region and can be called as the Miwa Regime.
- つまり、京の貴族社会から脱落しかけていた状況を、当時多発していた田堵負名、つまり地方富豪層の反受領武装闘争の鎮圧の任に当たり、武功を朝廷に認定させることによって失地回復を図ったとも考えられている。
- After that, Takamochi, who had fallen from aristocratic society in Kyoto, tried to restore his status by suppressing anti-Zuryo (provincial governors) movements, which were frequently being staged by tax collectors of the upper class in the province, and thereby highlighting his military prowess to the Imperial Court.
- 『山海経』(戦国-秦漢期成立)には倭が中国東北部にあった燕_(春秋)国に服属していたという記述があり、紀元前6-4世紀頃のことと考えられているが、同書についても依拠することに慎重な見解が存在する。
- There is a description in 'Sengaikyo' (oldest topography of China), written sometime between the Warring States Period and Qin/Han Dynasty) that says Wa was obedient to Yan (Chunqiu period) which was in the northeast of China, therefore it is considered to be in the period from the sixth century to fourth century B.C. but some think the book should also be taken with caution.
- 以後、西欧と同じ「文明国」(=富強国)とならなければ、不平等条約を解消し、「万国公法」の恩典には与れないという考えが広がっていき、西欧列強をモデルとした富国強兵改革が推進される思想的要因となった。
- Later, as spreading of thought that to be a civilized country (equal to a strong country) was necessary to dissolve unequal treaties and reap a benefit of 'Bankoku Koho,' the thought became a factor to promote fukoku kyohei reform (fortifying the country, strengthening the military) aiming powerful western countries.
- このうち曽於乃石城は国分城 (大隅国)と清水城、比売之城は姫木城と橘木城であったと考えられているが、他の5城については国分平野付近に集中していたとする説と九州南部に広く分散していたとする説がある。
- It is presumed that Soonoiwaki meant Kokubu-jo Castle (Osumi Province) and Shimizu-jo Castle and Himenoki meant Himeki-jo Castle and Tachibanaki-jo Castle, while there are conflicting theories concerning other five castles: one claiming that the castles were concentrated near the Kokubu Plain and the other claiming that they were widely dispersed in southern Kyushu.
- 例えば将来的に東京からの首都移転が行われた場合、東京の改称が行われた場合などに、それ以前と以後を区別する必要性から、明治以後の歴史の一括表現としてこの言葉が用いられる可能性があると考えられている。
- For example, if the capital is relocated from Tokyo or if Tokyo is renamed, the term 'Tokyo period' may be used for collectively referring to the period since the Meiji era in order to distinguish the times before and after such relocation or rename.
- 『日本書紀』の天智天皇10年(671年)紀に「学識頭」という役職が見られ、また『懐風藻』の序文に天智天皇が学校を創設したという記述が見られるため、この時代に大学寮の由来を求める考え方が有力である。
- Because a post named 'Fumi no Tsukasa no Kami' (head of Minister of Education) is mentioned in the 'Nihonshoki' (Chronicles of Japan) entry for the year 671, and the preface of 'Kaifuso' (Found Recollections of Poetry) includes the statement that the Emperor Tenchi founded a school, it is generally understood that the origin of Daigaku-ryo dates back to this era.
- 649年(大化5年)には「筑紫大宰帥」の記述があるほか、天智天皇から天武天皇にかけての時期にはほかに「筑紫率」「筑紫総領」などが確認でき、中央から王族や貴族が派遣されていた事を示すと考えられている。
- Besides there are descriptions of 'Tsukushi no Omikotomochi no sochi' in 649, 'Tsukushi no kami,' and 'Tsukushi no soryo,' which have been confirmed during the period from Emperor Tenchi to Emperor Tenmu, and are thought to indicate that the royal families and nobles were dispatched from the central government.
- つまり政子の関与により頼家から実朝への将軍職委譲がなされたという事件の側面をみることができるとともに、鎌倉幕府の権力構造を考える上で、のちの執権職につながる役割を考察する材料となることは確かである。
- In other words, one aspect of this incident shows Masako's involvement in relinquishment of shogunship from Yoriie to Sanetomo and the role of Masako is surely a good material in the study of the power structure of the Kamakura bakufu, as it eventually developed into the post of shikken.
- そのため、政府内にも島津久光を筆頭に前原一誠・桐野利秋ら保守的な反対論者を多数抱えており、また西郷隆盛も「壮兵」といって、中下層士族の立場を考慮した志願兵制度を構想していて徴兵制には消極的であった。
- Therefore, there were a lot of conservative people against it within the government, with Hisamitsu SHIMAZU as the leader, Issei MAEBARA, Toshiaki KIRINO and others, and Takamori SAIGO took a passive stance for conscription because he had his own plan of the volunteer 'sohei' military system in consideration of the middle to lower class samurai.
- なお、前方後円墳の出現は、ヤマト王権の成立を表すと考えられており、前方後円墳に宮山型の特殊器台・特殊壺が採用されていることは、吉備地方の首長がヤマト王権の成立に深く参画したことの現れだとされている。
- The appearance of large keyhole-shaped tomb mound is thought to be representing the establishment of Yamato sovereignty (the ancient Japan sovereignty) and adopting Miyayama type of ceremonial vessel stand and ceremonial jar in large keyhole-shaped tomb mound showed that a chief of Kibi region deeply involved in the establishment of Yamato sovereignty.
- 現在では共和国元首という意味で「大統領」と訳されるが、当時にあっては読者にそういう知識は無かったので新造語をあてても、正確に読者に伝わらないと考えられ、そのまま言語の音を漢字に置き換えたものである。
- Today, it is translated as '大統領' to mean a head of republic, but, at that time, since readers had no knowledge of that kind, it was considered that, even if they used a newly created word, readers could not understand correctly and it was determined to express pronunciation of the work in Chinese characters.
- 早期の北部九州の住居には、縄文時代晩期の系譜を引き継ぐと考えられる平面方形のもののほかに、平面円形で中央に浅い皿状のくぼみを持ち、その両脇に小さな穴(柱穴か)を1対持つ特徴的な形態の住居が存在する。
- A dwelling with square ground shape that carries on the tradition from last period of the Jomon period and a dwelling with a distinctive shape, which has a round ground shape with a bowl like shallow concavity at center and a pair of small hole (could be holes for pillars) at the side of the concavity, both from earlier period are found in northern Kyushu.
- 建築史家・福山敏男は写経所文書に含まれていた石山寺関係史料の復元考察を行い、石山寺の造営過程(761年-)を浮かび上がらせた(「奈良時代に於ける石山寺の造営」1933年、『日本建築史の研究』所収)。
- Toshio FUKUYAMA, an architectural historian, restored and studied historical materials related to Ishiyama-dera Temple, which were included in monjo created by the Sutra copying office and clearly showed the construction procedures for Ishiyama-dera Temple (constructed from 761) ('Construction of Ishiyama-dera Temple in the Nara Period,' 1933, included in 'Nihon kenchiku shi no kenkyu' [Complete Works of the History of Japanese Architecture]).
- そのため、府域が京都、東京や周辺地域と比べて最小で銀目廃止令による両替商の相次ぐ倒産に大名貸の不良債権による大阪経済の地盤沈下もあり大阪府を「府」に相応しい規模にするために行われたと考えられている。
- For that reason, it is said that Sakai was incorporated into Osaka to bring Osaka's size up to the level where it was fit to be called a 'Prefecture,' as it was the smallest in size compared to Kyoto, Tokyo or other peripheral prefectures and as the economy of Osaka had hit the bottom due to bad debts incurred by loans made to Daimyos (feudal lords) in addition to continuous bankruptcies of money-exchange businesses from the abolition of silver grain currencies.
- 水野の三王朝交替説はその後様々な研究者により補強あるいは批判がなされていくが、現在では万世一系を否定する学者でも水野の唱えるように全く異なる血統による劇的な王権の交替があったと考えるものは多くない。
- Later, Mizuno's changes of three dynasties theory has been reinforced or criticized by various researchers and at present even among the scholars denying the unbroken imperial line, not many think that there was dramatic change of sovereignty with the entirely different blood line as Mizuno advocated.
- かねてより日本の近代化そのものに否定的な考えを持っていることで知られた元田に警戒感を抱いていた伊藤は、ただちに「教育議」を執筆して元田の主張こそ現実離れの空論であると噛み付き、両者は激しく論争した。
- For a long time, Ito had been wary of Motoda who was known for his adverse opinion towards the modernization of Japan, and Ito immediately wrote 'Kyoikugi' (Proposition on Education) protesting vehemently that Motoda's view is the unrealistic theory; and thus they fiercely confronted each other.
- 埴輪の起源は、弥生時代後期後葉の吉備地方の首長のお墓であると考えられている弥生墳丘墓(例えば、楯築遺跡)から出土する特殊器台・特殊壺(特殊器台型土器・特殊壺型土器とも呼称される)であるといわれている。
- The origin of the Haniwa is thought to be Tokushu-Kidai (ceremonial vessel stand) and Tokushu Tsubo (ceremonial jar) (they are also called Tokushu-Kidaigata Doki and Tokushu Tsubo Gata Doki respectively) unearthed from Yayoi grave mound (Tatetsuki Tumulus for example), which was likely to be the grave of a chief of Kibi region in the latter part of the late Yayoi Period.
- 律は制定されず、令のみが唐突に頒布されていることから、草壁の死による政府内の動揺を抑え、天武の(律令制定という)遺志の継承を明示するため、予定を前倒しして、令のみが急遽公布されたのだと考えられている。
- Since all of a sudden only ryo was distributed without ritsu, it is believed that ryo was issued ahead of schedule in haste in order to quell the unrest within the government caused by the sudden death of Prince Kusakabe and to clearly express that the will of Emperor Tenmu to enact ritsuryo would be followed.
- これは天文道及び天文密奏が次第に実際の星の動きを見て占うという中国由来の上天思想的な解釈から日本独自に発達していった占いの技法である陰陽道的な解釈へと変化していく状況を示した事例であると考えられてる。
- That was considered to be an example of a transition of tenmondo and tenmon misso from the prediction originated from China, which was made according to the actual movement of stars based on 上天思想, to the divination based on Onmyodo, which was a divination technique originally developed in Japan.
- しかし、元寇が起こると、その撃退に宇佐神宮などの寺社の祈祷が功を奏したと考えられたため、1281年(弘安4年)には、寺社に領地を返還することを命じる神領興行法が発せられ、田染荘は宇佐神宮に返還された。
- However, Tashibu Manor was returned to Usa-jinja Shrine due to a shinryo kogyo ho (shrine estate recovery act) ordering the return of territories to Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines which was made in 1281 because it was thought that the prayers of temples and shrines such as Usa-jinja Shrine contributed to repeling the Mongol invasions of Japan.
- 令原文が現存していないので、詳細は判明していないが、戸籍を6年に1回作成すること(六年一造)、50戸を1里とする地方制度、班田収授に関する規定など、律令制の骨格がこの令により形成されたと考えられている。
- Details of the ryo are unknown as the text no longer exists, but it is believed that the framework of the Ritsuryo system including the creation of family registers every six years (rokunen ichizo), the local government system grouping 50 households into units called ri, and the regulations of the rice field allotment system was formed in the ryo.
- いわゆる貿易も、当初の頃はこういった行商で都市間を巡回していた商人らが担っており、これが交通・輸送技術の発達にも従い、より組織化され相互連結されて海外貿易などの極大な交易網に発展していったと考えられる。
- In the earliest years, merchants peddling from city to city had taken a role in so-called trade, so it is considered to be developed into massive trade routes including overseas trades after the routes were organized and connected each other according to the development of transport technologies.
- (手続としては、僧侶代表(鹿苑僧録・蔭涼職)から出された名簿を参考に将軍が選任し、将軍の指示に従って公文奉行が本文を執筆し、将軍が内容を確認の上で署名捺印して僧侶代表に発給してそれを被任命者に授与した)
- (The procedure: at first, Shogun selects a nominee referring to the name list submitted by representative Buddhist monks: Rokuon soroku [highest-ranking priest of the Gozan, the leader of the Zen sect] and Inryoshiki [corresponding officer of Shogun and Soroku], then the Kumon Bugyo [magistrate] makes the text under Shogun's instruction, Shogun later confirms it, and signs and seals it to issue to the representative Buddhist monks who hand it over to the nominee).
- 韓国報道などや新羅・百済・任那の勢力圏内で大量に出土(高句麗の旧領では稀)しているヒスイ製勾玉の原産地が糸魚川周辺に比定されている事などを踏まえ、一部地域への倭人の集住を認める論考が相次いで提出された。
- A series of arguments and considerations admitting the collective habitation of Wajin in certain areas within the spheres of influence of Silla, Baekje and Mimana appeared in light of the Korean media reports and the fact that the massive jade magadama found in the area (rare in the former territory of Goguryeo) had been identified as the products of the neighboring area of Itoi-gawa River.
- 朝鮮王朝実録には、恒居倭同士の殺人事件に関し朝鮮王朝が関与を放棄した事例や、宗氏の派遣した代官が検断権を握っていたことなどが記録されており、朝鮮王朝は恒居倭に対する検断権を放棄していたと考えられている。
- The 'Korean Dynasty's Fact Record' mentioned the incident that the Korean Dynasty gave up the investigation of a murder which occurred between kokyowa and the fact that a daikan which was sent by the So clan had the police authority and the legal jurisdiction. It is thought that the Korean Dynasty abandoned the police authority and the legal jurisdiction over kokyowa.
- しかし十数個同時に出土する例は「大変事」の規模にあわせたために大量に埋納したのか、全国各地で出土するのは全国規模で弥生時代を通して「大変事」が頻発したのか、等を埋納状況などを踏まえた上で考える必要がある。
- However, the states of a burial need to be still considered: whether the case of discovering over ten dotaku from one site shows such many were buried in accordance with the scale of the 'great happening,' or whether the case of the concurrent burials all over the country show the 'great happening' occurred on a nationwide scale during the Yayoi period.
- こうした考え方は商工業が盛んになって民事的な訴訟が増加した幕藩体制になっても基本的には変わらず、その司法制度は専ら刑事裁判の遂行のためのものであり、民衆が自己の権利として裁判を請求することは出来なかった。
- Such an idea did not change basically even in the shogunate system when civil suits increased due to activated trade and craft, and the judiciary system was entirely for performances of criminal trials, so that the people could not ask for trials as their own rights.
- 1世紀中葉になると北部九州(博多湾沿岸)にあったとされる倭奴国が後漢へ朝貢している(『後漢書』)が、これは北部九州における倭人の政治集団の統合が進み、その代表として倭奴国が後漢へ遣使したと考えられている。
- In the middle of the first century, 倭奴国, which is thought to have been located in northern Kyushu (the coast of Hakata Bay), paid tribute to the Later Han Dynasty ('Gokanjo' (Historical records of the Later Han Dynasty)), which is thought to indicate that Wajin political groups in Northern Kyushu were consolidated and 倭奴国 sent an envoy to the Later Han Dynasty as the representative.
- 蘇我氏自身の出自はともかく、渡来系の氏族と深い関係にあったのは確かなようで、王権の職業奴属民としての役割を担っていた渡来人の品部の集団などが持つ当時の先進技術が蘇我氏の台頭の一助になったと考えられている。
- Regardless of the origins of the Soga clan, its deep ties with migrant clans is without-doubt, immigrants to ancient Japan; and it is thought that the rise of the Soga clan was aided by the relatively advanced technologies introduced to Japan by Shinabe (technicians in offices) who were toraijin (settlers), who became subjects to royal authority as indentured professionals.
- この中西説に対して、細井浩志は『続日本紀』が道鏡政権を批判する際には、後日に'不正の暴露'などの形で対になる事実を提示しており、神託事件についてのみ創作を加えたとは考えにくいとして、中西説を否定している。
- Against this theory by NAKANISHI, Hiroshi HOSOI denies it, by stating that when 'Shoku Nihongi' criticizes the Dokyo administration, it presents a fact that forms a pair such as 'disclosure of injustice' in later dates, and it is hard to believe that the author added fiction to the part which deals with the oracle only.
- ただし、皇族が政争に巻き込まれることは好ましくないという考えから、皇族は議会で催される式典などに参列することはあっても、議員として日常的に議会内に立ち入ることは無く、登院は帝国議会史上、極めて稀であった。
- To avoid having imperial family members involved in political conflict, although they participated in ceremonies, they did not routinely attend the Diet and their appearance in the Diet was extremely rare in the history of the Imperial Diet.
- 教部省の意向で根本真苗・吉良義風が共同で『上記』の翻訳作業を行い、1875年(明治8年)に『上記』及び『上記直訳』41冊を発表すると、続けざまに、井上頼圀が『上津文辨義』、後藤碩田が『上記考』を発表した。
- According to the indication of Kyobusho (Ministry of Religion), Manae NEMOTO and Yoshikaze KIRA worked with coalition to translate 'Uesufumi' and in 1875, they published 41 volumes of 'Uetsufumi' and 'Direct translation of Uetsufumi', Yorikuni INOUE published 'Uetsufumibengi' and Sekiden GOTO 'Uetsukiko'.
- また、この直後に裏松固禅によって『大内裏図考證』が完成され、その研究に基づいて、古式に則った御所が再建されることになるが、同時に朝廷の動向が世間の注目を集めるようになり、尊号一件などの紛争の遠因となった。
- 'Daidairizukosho' (a historical investigation imperial palace images) was completed by Kozen URAMATSU soon after the incident and it was intended to rebuild the Imperial Palace according to its original appearance based on the study of this document but the drawing of public activity to the activity of the Imperial Court at this time became the underlying cause of disputes such as the Songo Incident.
- 武士がなぜ存在するのかを突き詰めて考えた山鹿の結論は武士は身分という制度ではなく自分が(封建)社会全体への責任を負う立場であると定義をすることで武士となり、(封建)社会全体への倫理を担うとするものであった。
- Yamaga deeply as to why samurai existed and came to the conclusion that it was not just a social status, but a responsible position to the whole (feudal) of society and to the ethics of the entire (feudal) society.
- 完成に近いものの周囲には、鋳型や鋳棹、溶銅が流れ込む道筋である湯道や、鋳造時に銭の周囲にはみ出した溶銅である鋳張りなどが残っており、仕上げ段階に至っていないことから、不良品として廃棄されたものと考えられる。
- In the surrounding area of the nearly-completed coins, mold, izao (ways where copper run into), runner of molten copper, and ibari which is stray copper at casting were remained, by which those incomplete ones are considered as bad ones to be discarded.
- 落葉性堅果類、いわゆるドングリや栗は秋の一時期に集中的に収穫される為、比較的大きな集落による労働集約的な作業が必要となる為、土偶を用いた祭祀を行うことで社会集団を統合していたのではないかという考え方である。
- Fujio presumes that the nuts from deciduous trees such as acorns and the chestnuts were harvested during a relatively brief period of time in autumn; therefore, a consolidated labor by a fairly large settlement was necessary and the Jomon people used the earthen figures to conduct religious services in order to promote solidarity in the society.
- なお、公議とは当時討幕派・佐幕派問わずに広く唱えられた公議政体論に由来すると考えられており、明治政府と戊辰戦争で敵対した奥羽越列藩同盟の諸藩代表による議事機関にも公議所(白石城に設置)の名称が用いられている。
- Incidentally, it is said that Kogi derived from Kogi-seitai-ron (parliamentary regime theory) that was then widely advocated without regard to anti-Shogunate group or Sabaku-ha (supporters of the Shogun), and Ouetsu-reppan alliance (alliance of strong domains in the northern part of Japan) also used the name of Kogisho (established at Shiraishi castle) for the assembly body of representatives of the domains who opposed to the Meiji Government at Boshin War.
- ところが、水野をはじめとした幕府首脳は幕府権力の保護を受けた株仲間の弱体化や、商取引の制度的基礎になっていたという現実を理解出来なかったために、株仲間を解散させれば、全国的な流通網を動かせると考えたのである。
- However, Mizuno and other heads of the bakufu could not understand the fact that kabunakama got weak due to the protection by the power of bakufu and kabunakama was the institutional basic of trading and thought that they could control the national distribution network if kabunakama were dissolved.
- これらの状況から、養老律令施行の背景には、両者共通の祖父である不比等の成果を活用することで、不比等の政治を継承することを宣言するとともに、孝謙・仲麻呂政権の安定を図ろうとする政治的意図があったと考えられている。
- Judging from these contexts, it is believed that the establishment of Yoro Ritsuryo Code was produced by the political intentions of Empress Koken and Nakamaro to utilize the code which was the achievement of their common grandfather, FUJIWARA no Fuhito, aiming not only to announce their succession of the policy of Fuhito but also to seek for the stabilization of their political power.
- また10世紀中葉の承平天慶の乱は、当初平氏一族内の私闘と考えられていたものが、のちに国家への叛逆行為と見なされるようになったものであるが、その最大の要因は平将門が常陸国府を包囲・攻略し、官印を奪ったことによる。
- In another episode, the Johei and Tengyo War in the middle of the tenth century was originally thought as a duel among the Taira family but later came to be regarded as a treason because TAIRA no Masakado surrounded and captured the local government of Hitachi and stole its kanin.
- また軍を解散させると職を失った大量の兵士達が社会不安の要因となってしまうというものだが、征服した現地兵を次の戦争に投入することは元ではよく行われており、日本との戦いのときのみことさら強調すべきこととは考えにくい。
- It is also said that dissolving the army would cause social anxiety by producing numerous unemployed soldiers, but the Yuan Dynasty often sent local conquered soldiers to the next war and it could not be particularly emphasized only in the case of war with Japan.
- さらに、自国で金本位制を実施出来ない場合でも、これを行っている他国の通貨と自国通貨との一定の交換性が保証されている場合には、為替を通じて間接的に金との兌換が行われていると考えて金為替本位制(きんかわせ-)と呼ぶ。
- Furthermore, it is called gold exchange standard system by considering a foreign exchange transaction as the currency is converted indirectly to gold in other countries, even if a country is unable to implement gold standard system domestically when a certain degree of the currency convertibility between countries is guaranteed.
- 価値の異なる原価をもった同一額面の通貨が同時に流通しようとするとき、人々は原価の高い貨幣(良貨)を集めて死蔵し、あるいはそれを元手に融解して多くの悪貨を生み出し、良貨が市場から消滅してインフレを招くという考え方。
- This indicates the following concept: When two coins have the same face value, but are made at different costs are circulated at the same time, people collect coins with a higher value (high-quality coins) and keep them, not using them, or melt them to mint many lower-quality coins, and therefore, high-quality coins disappear from the market and inflation ensues.
- 一つの都道府県に複数の運輸支局・自動車検査登録事務所がある場合、管轄区域をあまり考慮せず、単に所在地の都市名から名称を取ることが多く、釧路・和泉の場合は、所在地が旧国名をそのまま名乗る市であったに過ぎないと言える。
- In case that there are plural Transportation branches and Car Inspection & Registration Offices, they often take names from city names in their locations and it can be said that in cases of Kushiro and Izumi, their locations only happen to be the cities which bear the names of old provincial names.
- いっぽう打製石斧は、縄文時代早期末に、三味線の撥(バチ)に似た形状で、鋭い剥離面を刃部とした片刃の石斧が北日本にみられ、それは「直刃斧」あるいは「トランシェ様石器」といわれ、後世の「手斧」のような使用が考えられる。
- On the other hand, as for chipped stone axes single-edged stone axes of which sharp broken side was blade area, in the form of shamisen (a three-stringed Japanese banjo) stick, were found in the Northern Japan in the end of the early Jomon period, and these are called 'direct blade ax' or 'tranche-style stone tool,' and these are believed to be used as 'hand ax' in the following times.
- また、同国の将軍・関羽が中国最大の鹹湖である「解池」がある河東郡 (中国)解県の出身であったために、元々は塩の密売人であったという伝説が伝えられ、そこから後に関羽を「商売の神様」とする考えが生まれたと言われている。
- Also, since Yu GUAN, General of Shu, was from Hai County, Hedong (China), which has 'Hai Lake,' the biggest saltwater lake in China, a legend was transmitted that he was a trafficker of salt, and later this led to the idea that Yu GUAN was 'a god of trade.'
- しかし、太政官に立法・司法・行政の全機能を集中させ、太政大臣に強力な権限を与えるこの制度は、近代国家の国政運営に適さないと考えられ、また、太政大臣の負担が大きく、かえって国家運営の停滞と責任の所在の不明確さを招いた。
- However, this system, which concentrated all the state's legislative, judiciary and administrative functions in the Daijokan and gave broad authority to the Dajo-daijin (Grand Minister) was thought to be ill-suited for the political management of a modern nation; the High Chancellor's extensive responsibilities caused delays in the political management of the nation and invited confusion over who had responsibility for which tasks.
- この時期には、畿内を中心として北部九州から瀬戸内、あるいは山陰から北陸、東海地域以東にまで高地性集落が見られること、環濠集落が多く見られることなどから、これらを倭国大乱の証拠であるとする考え方はほぼ定説となっている。
- These are many upland settlements and moat settlements are found around Kinai to northern Kyushu, Setouchi, Sanin, Hokuriku, Tokai region, and east in this period, and it is an established theory that these are evidence for the Wakoku War.
- 646年(大化2年)1月1日 (旧暦)、孝徳天皇によって発せられた改新の詔による、駅馬・伝馬の駅伝制の設置に伴って造られたと考えられており、官吏は駅において、この鈴を鳴らして駅子(人足)と駅馬または駅舟を徴発させた。
- It is believed to have been created along with ekiden-sei (transportation system) consisting of ekiba (horses for transportation of official travelers) and tenma (post horses) established by Kaishin no Mikotonori (the Imperial Reform Edict) which was issued by Emperor Kotoku on January 1, 646 (according to old lunar calendar), and government officials brought ekishi (or ninsoku (coolie, laborer)) and ekiba or ekifune into requisition by ringing this bell at umaya.
- 奈良時代に編まれた記紀によれば、歴代大王 (ヤマト王権)の宮室が磯城 ・磐余(奈良県桜井市)のほか、難波 ・河内国地方(大阪府)などに複数営まれたため、各々の宮室を中心に萌芽的な都邑が形成されていたことも考えられる。
- According to 'Records of Ancient Matters' and 'Chronicles of Japan' edited in Nara period, it is thought that as an initial stage of capital, cities centering around palaces sprang up, because the palaces of successive great kings (Yamato sovereignty) (the ancient Japan sovereignty) were constructed in multiple places including Shiki, Iware (Sakurai City, Nara Prefecture), Nanba and Kawachi Provinces (Osaka Prefecture).
- その後、7世紀後半に至るまで国号の表記は倭国・倭のままであったが、天武天皇に始まる律令制建設の過程で、倭国・倭という表記を忌避する意識が再び高まり、701年前後に日本という表記が採用されることとなったと考えられている。
- From then on till the latter half of the seventh century, the name designating the country was still Wakoku or Wa, but in the process of remodeling its state and administrative apparatus on the ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code) by the Emperor Tenmu, there was growing national awareness about the avoidance of using Wa or Wakoku, so that before and after 701, a pair of Chinese characters, 日本, (meaning of 'the land from the sun-rise) came to be used.
- 中世ヨーロッパにおける神秘主義の中には、そういった商人の作り上げた嘘が真に受けられたと考えられる物品も数多く伝わっており、例えば「ウニコール」(イッカクの牙)がユニコーンの伝説と関連付けられ、解毒薬として流通していた。
- In mysticism of the Medieval Period of Europe, many goods with lies spread, which were created by merchants and thought to be accepted, for example, 'Unicorne' (fangs of unicorns) circulated as antidotes, related to a legend of unicorns.
- また、天智天皇紀と天武天皇紀の間で大海人皇子を「皇太子」「皇太弟」「東宮」とばらばらの用語で表現しており、大海人皇子が皇位を辞退して出家した場面が巻をへだてて2度出てくる点も、改定時の整理が不十分だったためだと考える。
- Ban also pointed out other evidences that revision was not organized properly; for example, Prince Oama was variously referred to as 'kotaishi (crown prince),' 'kotaitei (the younger brother of an Emperor who is heir apparent),' or 'togu' in Tenchi Tenno ki and Tenmu Tenno ki, and a story that Prince Oama declined the Imperial Throne and became a priest appeared twice in different volumes.
- 即位説に反対して、谷川士清は安永3年(1774年)に『続大日本史私記』で水鏡の資料的価値に疑問をはさみ、即位のような大礼が天皇の死後すぐに行われたのは乱世でも考えにくいことで、乱が起きる前の時点ではなおさらだと論じた。
- Kotosuga TANIGAWA opposed to the enthronement theory and doubted the worth of Mizu Kagami as a historical material in 'Zoku Dainihonshi Shiki' (a commentary on Japanese history) in 1774 and asserted that it was inconceivable that a state ceremony of enthronement was held immediately after the death of the emperor even in a turbulent age, not to mention the war immediately followed the ceremony.
- (訳;秀吉が死に(明と日本は停戦したため)、我が軍(明の軍隊)が全て撤退すると、朝鮮は日本を甚だしく恐れ、日本と友好関係を結びたいと考えたが、その一方で(日本と国交を結ぶことで)明の機嫌を損ねるのではないかと恐れた)。
- A translation: Hideyoshi died (and the war between the Ming and Japan stopped), and all of our troops (Ming troops) had been pulled out, and then Korea came to fear Japan exceedingly and came to consider establishing a good relationship with Japan, but on the other hand, Korea feared that the establishment of diplomatic relations might anger the Ming.
- そのため、籾を取った玄米の状態からかさはさらに減りだいたい70kg程度(およそ体積は0.4石である。数値は現在の普通酒と同程度より少し低い程度の精米歩合と考え算出)となり、これに同体積の水を加え酒造すると0.8石となる。
- The rice is hulled into brown rice, which further decreases in amount to approximately 70 kg (About 0.4 koku in volume. These values are calculated based on the rice-polishing ratio slightly lower than that for present-day futsushu [regular sake]), and the same volume of water is added to this to brew 0.8 koku of sake.
- 大久保は、木戸を政府へ復帰させることにより、自らの権力集中に対する批判を和らげる良い機会と考え、この会談に応じたが、板垣に対しては政権に復帰させる必要性を感じていなかったので、当初大久保・板垣両者は面会にいたらなかった。
- Okubo took it as a good opportunity to restore Kido to the government for the purpose to alleviate the criticisms against his political supremacy, and so he agreed to meet Kido; however, he did not consider it necessary to bring Itagaki back to the government, so he did not meet him at the beginning.
- また、韓子は『日本書紀』継体天皇24年秋9月の条の注に「大日本人娶蕃女所生為韓子也」(大日本人、蕃女(となりのくにのめ)を娶りて生めるを韓子とす)とされているように、倭韓混血児の通称であり、実在の人物名としては考えがたい。
- Furthermore, 'Karako' as it is inscribed in the September 531 entry of the 'Nihonshoki' refers to a 'child born of union between a Japanese man and a woman from a neighboring country'; since Karako is a common term used to describe people of mixed Wa (Japanese) and Korean descent, it is hard to believe that it specified any individual.
- 一進会の主張はあくまで日韓両国民の対等な地位に基づく日韓共栄であって日本の考える韓国の吸収併合とは全く異なるものであることや、日韓併合については韓国側の要求は一切受け入れない方針であったため日本政府は一進会の請願を拒否した。
- The Japanese Government refused their demand because Isshinkai claimed for the mutual prosperity between Korea and Japan on a basis of Korean and Japanese people's equal position, which was completely different from the merger and annexation of Korea, that Japan was expecting, and also Japan was taking its own policy that any request from Korea was unacceptable for the Japanese annexation of Korea.
- 中国王朝から見た華夷秩序は、中華思想に基づく世界観を現実に投影したもので、中国を「華」(文明)と自認し、中国という同心円的ヒエラルキーの中心から離れるに従い「華」から離れ「夷狄」(野蛮)に近づいていくと考える国際秩序である。
- Kaichitsujo looked from Chinese dynasty was a view of the world based on Sinocentrism projected to the reality and it was international order in which China is recognized as 'Ka' (culture) and the more remote from China, which was the center of concentric circle-shaped hierarchy the more remote from 'Ka' and come closer to 'iteki' (barbarians).
- 対外硬(たいがいこう)とは、国際社会における日本国家の現状を対外的に危機的状況と考え、国際協調を否定して、国家の自主・独立を重んじて軍事力をも視野においた強硬的な外交でのみによってこの危機を打開できるとする思想・主張のこと。
- Taigaiko was the idea or concept that considered the situation of Japan in the international community as the critical externally, and only the forceful diplomacy including the military force which denies the international cooperation, and values national independence can defuse a crisis.
- しかし、忠平の後に実際に政務をリードしたのは太政官筆頭である左大臣藤原実頼であり、村上治世を天皇親政の理想の時代とするのは、11世紀以降に摂関政治で不遇をかこった中下流の文人貴族による意識的な喧伝だったのだと考えられている。
- However, the person who led the governance after Tadahira was the head of Daijokan (Department of State) and also Sadaijin (Minister of the Left) FUJIWARA no Saneyori, and it is thought to have been conscious propaganda to admire Murakami's reign as the ideal of imperial governance by the middle- and lower-ranked literary nobility in and after 11th century.
- 3世紀中葉-後期に成立したとされるヤマト王権の王たちも対外的には倭王・倭国王を称したと考えられており、実際に4世紀後期から5世紀末にかけて中国王朝と活発な通交を重ねた諸王も中国に対して倭王または倭国王を称している(倭の五王)。
- It is considered that kings of the Yamato Dynasty, which was supposedly established in mid or later third century, externally called themselves the King of Wa or the King of Wakoku, and in fact, Shoo (princes without imperial proclamation) who were actively involved in friendly relations with Chinese Dynasties from the late fourth to late fifth century called themselves the King of Wakoku (The five kings of Wa).
- 建武中元二年(57年)、博多湾沿岸に所在したと見られる倭奴国の首長が、後漢の光武帝から倭奴国王に冊封されて金印(倭奴国王印)の賜与を受けており(『後漢書』「」)、当時は北部九州の勢力が倭国内の中心勢力であったと考えられている。
- In 57, a chieftain of Wanonanokuni (small country in Hakata area of Fukuoka Prefecture), which is believed to have been located along the Hakata Bay, had suzerain-vassal relationship with the Emperor Kobu-tei (Emperor Guangwu) of the Latter Han Dynasty, who invested him with Wakoku by giving golden stamp (Wa no na no kokuo in [the oldest known seal in Japan]), ('History of the Latter Han Dynasty'), therefore, the center of Japanese political force is believed to have been located in the northern part of Kyushu at that time.
- なお、明治40年制定の現行刑法では、殺人未遂罪に相当すると考えられるが、現行刑法では、自ら積極的に行為を中止した場合(中止未遂)の場合を除き、未遂による減軽は裁判官の裁量によるため、殺人罪の法定刑である死刑となる可能性はある。
- According to the current penal code enacted in 1907, Tsuda may be accused of attempted murder, but still there is a possibility that he is sentenced death penalty, because commutation for failed criminal cases are decided at discretion of judges except when a criminal gave up completion of crime on his own will.
- その他、『隋書』「卷八十一 列傳第四十六 東夷 俀國」に記述される開皇20年(600年)第1回遣隋使の上奏文に「俀王姓阿毎字多利思北孤 號阿輩雞彌」とあり、俀王多利思比孤の号 「阿輩雞彌」が「おおきみ」を表すと考えられている。
- In addition, in the johyobun (memorial to the Emperor) of the first Japanese envoy to Sui Dynasty China in 600 described in 'Volume 80 chapter 46 Dongyi Wakoku' in 'Suishu' (the Book of Sui Dynasty), it says 'in the year 600, the king of Wa, the surname Ame, the popular name Tarishihoko, calling himself Okimi' and it is thought that the title of the king of Wa, Tarishihiko, represents 'okimi.'
- また、これまでの輸入品であった綿布、生糸、砂糖、鹿皮、絹織物などの海外品はむしろ国産化を推進すべきである、農民は米穀のみをつくり商品作物の栽培は禁ずるという伝統的な封建制度の政策はその限りにおいて緩和されるべきであると考えた。
- In addition, Arai considered to promote domestic production of traditionally imported goods like cloth, raw silk thread, sugar, buckskin, silk cloth, etc and loosen the policy created under the traditional feudal system, which banned peasants from producing commercial crops except for cultivating rice.
- この姓(カバネ)は、後世での扱われ方からヤマト王権当初から氏族単位に賦与(ふよ)されていたと考えられていたが、実証的な文献研究により、ヤマト王権当初の姓(カバネ)は個人単位で付与されていたことが明らかとなったと主張する人がいる。
- It was believed that the kabane were given to each clan from the beginning of Yamato sovereignty; however, based on the research of historical records, some strongly suggest that they were given to individuals in the beginning of Yamato sovereignty.
- 理由は不明だが、大正時代、製錬方法が浮遊選鉱法に変更されたことにより渡良瀬川を流れる鉱石くずの粒が細かくなり、浮遊したまま川を流れるようになったため、上流部の渡良瀬川右岸に多く流れ込んで堆積するようになったと考える研究者がいる。
- The reason is unknown, however, some researchers consider that since the method of extraction was changed to froth flotation (flotation) in the Taisho period, copper waste became smaller enough to float on the river, and that a lot of those wastes accumulated in the right side of the upper stream of Watarase-gawa River.
- これらの行動を受けて、日本政府は大韓帝国が外交案件について日本政府と協議のうえ決定・処理しなければならないとしていた同条約を遵守する意志がないと考え、日本が韓国の外交権を完全に掌握できる第二次日韓協約の締結を要求するようになる。
- In response to these actions, the Japanese government decided that the Korean Empire had no intension of abiding by the agreement which ruled that the Korean Empire was to discuss any diplomatic matters with the Japanese government; the Japanese government began asking for the Second Korea-Japan Agreement so that they could totally control the diplomatic rights of Korea.
- 『養老令』によると「凡縁東辺北辺西辺諸郡人居、皆於城堡内安置。其営田之所、唯置庄舎。至農時堪営作者、出就庄田 謂、強壮者出就田舎、老少者留在堡内也。収歛訖勒還 謂、要勒而還於城堡也。」との記述があり、考古学の成果とほぼ一致する。
- For the most part, the descriptions '凡縁東辺北辺西辺諸郡人居、皆於城堡内安置。其営田之所、唯置庄舎。至農時堪営作者、出就庄田 謂、強壮者出就田舎、老少者留在堡内也。収歛訖勒還 謂、要勒而還於城堡也。' in Yoro-ryo (Yoro Code) correspond to what has been found in archaeology.
- 【参考】『資料 御雇外国人』(1975)には1868(明治1年)から1889年(明治22年)までに日本の公的機関・私的機関・個人が雇用した外国籍の者の数として2,299人の名前が挙げられている(注:家族や在外公館の雇用者も含む)。
- Reference: The 1975 document entitled 'Shiryo: Oyatoi-gaikokujin'(Document on Hired Foreigners) lists the names of 2,299 people with foreign nationalities who were employed by Japanese public and private institutions as well as by individuals between 1868 and 1889 (the list includes the names of families and employees at the foreign diplomatic missions).
- 足高の制によって、役職を退任すれば石高は旧来の額に戻るため、幕府の財政的な負担が軽減できるというのが最大の利点であった(ただし、遠国奉行は出費の機会が他の役職よりも多いことを考慮されて足高の有無を問わずに役料が別個に支給された)。
- The greatest benefit of Tashidaka system was that a financial load of the bakufu would be reduced because an amount of yield was returned to the past amount after retiring from a post under this system (however, taking it into consideration that ongoku-bugyo [the collective name of the magistrates placed at important areas directly controlled by the government in the Edo period] had more opportunities of spending expenses than people at other posts, yakuryo [executive allowance] was supplied separately whether or not tashidaka [wage] was paid).
- 家康の政治目標は徳川氏を頂点とした長期的かつ安定した政権をつくることであったとされ、徳川家の主君筋に当たり幕府のヒエラルキー社会では別格的存在となる豊臣家に対し、服属させるか、それが拒絶された場合には処分する事を考え始めたという。
- Ieyasu's political goal was assumed to establish a long-term and firm government led by the Tokugawa clan, therefore, he was said to have begun to think how he could make the Toyotomi Family, which kept a lord-like position to the Tokugawa Family and an exceptional existence in the hierarchy of the bakufu, obey the Tokugawa clan or punish them if they would not obey him.
- もっともこの場合でも、当時の日本政府の財政事情(西郷隆盛も反対論の理由の一つに財政問題を挙げている)から、ヨーロッパやアメリカ合衆国の本線用の車両を購入して輸送するコストを考えれば、必ずしも日本政府の判断が誤りだったとはいえない。
- But even if it were the case, if the financial conditions of the Japanese government at that time (Takamori SAIGO also mentioned financial reasons to oppose the construction) and the expenses which would have cost to purchase and convey carriages for the main line from Europe or America are considered, it cannot be said that the decision of the Japanese government was a mistake.
- また中国との交易に精通していたハリスは日本の一両も中国と同様に銀一両(テール/37.3グラム)と考え、1ドル銀貨は約3/4テールの量目に相当し一分銀の量目が偶然にも約1/4テールであったことも1ドル=3分の根拠としての口実となった。
- HARRIS, familiar with the trade with China, considered 1 ryo in Japan to be 1 ryo (tael; 37.3g) of silver just as 1 ryo in China, and drew his conclusion also from the fact that a one-dollar silver coin weighed about three fourths of a tael and an ichibu-gin silver coin happened to weigh about one fourth of a tael.
- 表面上部に桐紋を囲む扇枠、中央上部に長方形枠の「貮分」、下部に「光次(花押)」、裏面は中央に花押、左下に小判師のものと思われる極印が打たれ、現存極めて稀少であり一枚は造幣博物館が所蔵しているが、試鋳貨幣的な存在であったと考えられる。
- There is fan shape frame around Kiri-mon (paulownia patterns) on the upper part of its head, 'Nibu' with rectangular frame on the upper center, 'Mitsutsugu (Kao[written seal mark]) 'on the lower part, Kao on the center of tail, imprinted hallmark which likely to be Kobanshi's on the lower left, and it is thought to be like a proof coin because it scarcely exists now, one of which Mint Museum owners.
- 同時に官有物の払い下げによって官営工場の民間移管を表明したが、大隈は殖産興業政策そのものは放棄せず、殖産興業を大久保の遺志と考える薩摩藩出身の高官や大隈の下で大蔵省に起用された肥前藩出身の若手官僚(石丸安世・石橋重朝ら)も同調した。
- At the same time, he announced to transfer the control of government-owned factories to private sector as part of disposition of government property, but he did not abandon the encouragement of new industry policy itself which was aligned with high officers from Satsuma Domain, who believed the encouragement of new industry was the wish of Okubo, and the young bureaucrats (including Yasuyo ISHIMARU and Shigetomo ISHIBASHI) from Hizen Domain, who entered the Ministry of the Treasury under the leadership of Okuma.
- 一方清朝や義和団側の死傷者は統計としては正確性を欠かざるをえないが、上で引用したように天津城攻防戦だけで4000名ほどの遺体があったと日本軍が書いていることから考えて、一年ほどの戦争期間に多大な死傷者を出したことは容易に想像できる。
- Meanwhile, the number of casualties of the Qing Dynasty and the Boxers lacks valid statistics, but it can be assumed a huge number of casualties were produced over the one year war period because the Japanese army stated that there were about 4000 dead bodies just from the attack of Tianjin.
- また、建築史学者と歴史家の間に法隆寺の建設年代に関する論争(法隆寺再建・非再建論争)が起こったが、現存する建物の様式論や、六国史などの文献研究はもとより、遺構調査など考古学の発掘成果も取り入れられるようになって、学問の深化が見られた。
- Historians and scholars of architectural history were in dispute about the year of construction of Horyu-ji Temple (and whether or not the temple had been rebuilt), which led to a more in-depth study of Japan's architectural history using methods such as archaeological excavation and surveying remnants of ancient structures, examining the styles of existing buildings and studying literature such as Rikkokushi (Japan's six national histories).
- また、行基とその教団は諸国を移動して布教活動及び各種社会事業を行っており、後の東大寺盧舎那仏像建立にも関与していることから、当然こうした活動を円滑化するための地図を何らかの形で所持あるいは作成を行っていたことは十分考えられるのである。
- On the other hand, Gyoki and his religious community moved around various districts, performing both missionary and social works, and were involved in the construction of Todaiji-ji Temple rushanabutsuzo (the statue of Birushana Buddha), and therefore it is really conceivable that he possessed or was making in some way or other the maps to facilitate these activities.
- 仮に韓国人研究者たちが考えるように『万国公法』が中国で公刊されてすぐ伝来したのだとすると、1877年までの間表面的には国際法に対応しようとする積極的な動きがなかったことになり、その対応の緩慢さは一層際だつことになる(金容九1999)。
- If 'Bankoku Koho' had been brought to Korea soon after it was published in China, it means there was no action to deal with international law on a superficial level until 1877, so the slow response would stand out (金容丸 1999).
- これを再び統一したのは北宋であったが、宋王朝は遼や金 (王朝)などと対立していたことなどから、中国全土に対して強力な支配を行っていたとは必ずしもいえないが、宋のもとで中国の社会が安定し農業や商業が飛躍的に発展したと考えることはできる。
- It was the Northern Sung Dynasty that unified China again, but it can not be said that the Sung Dynasty was able to exert a controlling force over the whole area of China, since Sung was confronted with the Ryo and Jin Dynasties, but it can be thought that society achieved stability, and agriculture and commerce made remarkable progress in China during this period.
- また、その外敵が銅鐸祭祀を否定する集団で、支配下に置いた地域の住民に銅鐸祭祀を放棄させたと考えれば、銅鐸が壊れた状態で出土することや、三世紀に急速に銅鐸祭祀が廃れたこと、銅鐸の用途が全く伝わっていないことなどに説明が付くという説もある。
- On the other hand, there is a theory that the hypothesis that the foreign enemy denied worship of dotaku and forced its local subordinates to abandon dotaku can explain the facts: that some dotaku were found broken, that worship of dotaku rapidly declined in the third century, and that the purpose have not been passed down at all.
- また日本ではインフラ確立など、植民地統治のプラス面が評価されがちだが、それに対し結局は台湾人でなく日本人の利益を第一義に考えての投資、優遇された日本人商人による搾取、日本の食糧庫・南進基地に位置づけられ、工業化が遅れたなどの批判もある。
- The Japanese tended to mention the positive side of the colonial ruling such as establishing the infrastructure, on the other hand, some mentioned the investment that was allegedly done for the benefit of Japanese, not Taiwanese, the exploitation by the privileged Japanese merchants, delayed industrialization as a result of Taiwan being positioned as a source of food or a base for southward advancement.
- 元々、吉備地方に発生した特殊器台形土器・特殊壺形土器は、墳墓上で行われた葬送儀礼に用いられものであるが、古墳に継承された円筒埴輪は、墳丘や重要な区画を囲い込むというその樹立方法からして、聖域を区画するという役割を有していたと考えられる。
- Originally, ceremonial vessel stand form earthenware and ceremonial jar form earthenware started in Kibi region were used in funeral rituals, while cylindrical Haniwa passed on tumulus are thought to have had a purpose to divide the sanctuary based on their arrangement of surrounding a hill tomb and important section.
- ただし、継体天皇の即位に当たっては前政権の支配機構をそっくりそのまま受け継いでいること、また血統の点でも前の大王家の皇女を妻として入り婿の形で皇位を継承していることなどから、これを「王朝」として区別できるかどうか疑問とする考え方もある。
- However, some scholars think that it is questionable to think that Keitai dynasty as a separate 'dynasty' because at the enthronement of Emperor Keitai he inherited the form of government as it was from the previous government, and in the blood line, he inherited the imperial throne as a man whose wife was a princess of the previous great kings family and became irimuko (man who takes his wife's premarital family name).
- 農学者で思想家の新渡戸稲造は『武士道』(1900)において19世紀末の哲学や科学的思考を用いながら、島国の自然がどのようなもので、四季の移り変わりなどから影響を及ぼされた結果、社会という枠の中で日本人はどのように生きたのかを説明している。
- Agriculturist and thinker Inazo NITOBE explained the nature of the island country and how Japanese who lived in society were affected by the four seasons, using philosophy and scientific thinking of the late 19th century in 'Bushido' (1900).
- 前者の考えについては各遺構面が存在することによって否定された。後者については、第2期遺構面上に堆積する焼土層によって焼失の事実は証明されたものの、第3期の遺構がさらに規模を拡大して再建されていることが明らかとなり、現在では否定されている。
- The first theory was rejected because there are foundations of later periods, and the second one is also currently denied because the fact of destruction by fire was proven by the layer of burned soil on the second-period foundation, however, it became clear that the third-period foundation was rebuilt in a bigger size.
- 日本も封建制度の体制下で欧米の近代法にある法治国家の諸原則が存在しておらず、刑事面では拷問や残虐な刑罰が存置され、民事面では自由な契約や取引関係を規制して十分な保護を与えていなかったために、欧米列強からはその対象国であると考えられていた。
- Japan, too, was considered a target of unequal treaties by the allied Western powers because Japan, under the feudal system, did not have various principles of a nation under the rule of law as stipulated in modern Western laws and therefore maintained torture and cruel punishment in criminal cases and regulated free contracts and transactions without giving sufficient protection in civil affairs.
- 詳しくは自然法と実定法の記事に譲るが、自然法とは法の淵源(法律の拠って立つ根拠、すなわち法源)を人為的に定められたものに求めず、人の理性によって発見される、時代や地域を超越した普遍性(と思われるもの)と正義に由来すると考える法概念である。
- Although details should be consulted with articles on natural law and positive law, natural law is a legal concept which does not look for the origin of law (basis on which law can exist, namely source of law) in artificial provisions but considers that source of law is derived from generality (or what thought to be) and justice.
- つまり、当時の政府もその具体額は把握しておらず、将来的にも全容を明らかにするのは困難である(3,000万両は過大であるとしても、現在明らかになっているだけで800万両近くあり、それを遥かに上回る金額の悪貨・贋貨が発行されたと考えられる)。
- In other words, the government at the time also did not know the concrete amount of fake money coined, and even in the future, uncovering the whole truth would be difficult (even if 30 million ryo is exaggerated, the amount made clear presently is still close to 8 million ryo, and much more bad money and counterfeit money is thought to have been issued.)
- 律令格式や祖父坂上明兼が編纂し、明基が校訂したとされる『法曹至要抄』を参考としているが、条文や『法曹至要抄』の解釈とは違う案文を提示している部分もあり、杓子定規的な法文解釈に拘らずに社会の実情に合わせた法解釈を試みている点で評価されている。
- This law book refers to Laws of codes and ethics (conduct) and 'Hossoshiyo-sho' (The Essentials for the Judiciary) which is said to have been compiled by SAKANOUE no Akikane and revised by his grandson Akimoto, but in some cases provisions and texts different from the interpretation in 'Hossoshiyo-sho' are presented, and it is highly valued in that it tries to interpret laws in accordance with the actual situation of society instead of sticking to rigid literal interpretation of laws.
- パークスは薩摩藩・長州藩を支援して明治政府の成立に協力していた経緯があるだけに、政府が極秘で改税約書に違反した悪貨を鋳造していることに気づいていたが、これを放置しておくことは日本と貿易を行うイギリス商人の利益に反することであると考えていた。
- Having the background of cooperating with the formation of the Meiji Government by supporting the Satsuma and Choshu Domain, Parkes realized that the Meiji Government was breaking the kaizeiyakusho and secretly coining bad money, but thought that leaving this matter alone would go against the profit of English merchants who were trading with Japan.
- 1924年には干ばつがあり、これは、水源地の足尾の山林が荒廃して保水能力を失ったためだと考えた両組合は、それぞれ別個に活動を行い、1925年には群馬県側の農民ら数千人の署名が集められ、貴族院、衆議院、内務大臣、農務大臣宛てに請願書が提出される。
- In 1924, those areas was hit by a drought, and both unions considered it was because the damaged forests had no longer absorbed nor contained water; although the unions took action separately, in 1925 the petition including thousands of signatures of the farmers and peasants and others in Gunma Prefecture was submitted to the House of Peers, the House of Representatives, the Minister of Home Affairs and the Minister of Agricultural Affairs.
- だが、当時の江戸幕府は成立したばかりであり、国内最大の経済都市である堺市・大坂を幕府と敵対する豊臣氏が支配していた事や全国経済の把握が進んでいなかった事、更に悪質な私鋳銭も出回ったこともあって、全国的な流通には至らなかったものと考えられている。
- The Edo Shognate had in fact just been established at the time, and it seems that the Keicho Tsuho coins were not distributed nationwide because Osaka and Sakai, the most economically developed cities, had been ruled by the Toyotomi Clan, who had felt hostility against the Edo Shogunate; the national economy had not been fully understood; and private low quality coins had been distributed.
- 一方、旧自由党系内部でもとりあえず選挙に備えた新党の母体となる政治結社を結成しようとする(政社系)河野広中らと立憲改進党系が離脱した以上は新党ではなく自由党再興を目指すべきで今は政治結社を考える時ではないとする(非政社系)大井憲太郎らが対立する。
- At the same time, within the former Liberal Party, there was a confrontation between two groups: one led by Hironaka KONO (seisha group) who aimed to form a temporary political organization to prepare for the election which would be a parent organization of a new political party and the other led by Kentaro OI (hi-seisha group) who aimed to restore Liberal Party rather than form a new political party now that the Constitutional Progressive Party left and emphasized that it was not a time to think about a new political party.
- これに対しては幕府内反対派の林家から「国王は天皇を指し、将軍が国王を名乗るべきではなく、無用の改変。平地に波風を立てるもの」、また対馬藩藩儒雨森芳洲から「李氏朝鮮は急激な変革を特に嫌う。再考願いたい」とそれぞれ反論をうけたが結果として実現している。
- The Hayashi family, one of the bakufu members opposing Arai's plan, insisted, 'King means Emperor, therefore, Shogun should not introduce himself as King, this is an useless reform. This only causes a flutter in the dovecotes,' and also Hoshu AMENOMORI, a Confusion scholar in Tsushima domain opposed it saying, 'the Joseon Dynasty doesn't like sudden reformation. Please reconsider,' but as a result, the changes were implemented.
- これによって、名古屋市当局は市内路線の市有化を強力に求めるべきとの考えを強め、事態収拾のため25年後までの市有化(市内全路線の譲渡)を名電に約束させ、1922年(大正11年)に名古屋電気鉄道の名古屋鉄道と名古屋市電への分割・事業譲渡として結実した。
- The authorities of Nagoya city came to realize the necessity of promoting the municipalization of railways in the city due to this incident, and to settle the situation let Nagoya Denki Tetsudo make an promise they would pass the right to all lines to the Nagoya city within the next 25 years, and Nagoya Denki Tetsudo was spilt into Nagoya Tetsudo (Nagoya Railway Co., Ltd.) and Nagoya Shiden (Nagoya City Railway) in 1922.
- なお本事件に関しては、従来は専ら自由民権思想及び松方デフレの強い影響下に発生したと考えられてきたが、近年はそれらに加えて、他の養蚕地域との比較や、上述の国際的環境の影響、秩父地方特有の民俗学的状況等に関しても考慮した研究の必要性もようになってきている。
- This incident had been assumed in the past to have occurred under the strong influence mainly of the Freedom and People's Rights Movement and the Matsukata deflation, however, in recent years, in addition to the above, there has been an increased need of studies considering then comparison to other sericulture areas, the influence of the above-mentioned international environments, comparison with other sericulture regions and the above-mentioned international environments influence, the ethnological situation peculiar to Chichibu district.
- また、神風によって日本が救われたという出来事は「神国思想」(=日本は神国なのだから負けるはずがないという考え)を日本人に広く浸透させ、それが太平洋戦争末期の日本軍や国民思想の非合理性の温床となり、神風特別攻撃隊をはじめ数々の悲劇を生んだとも言われている。
- It is also said that the event in which Kamikaze saved Japan led Japanese to widely believe in 'Shinkoku Shiso' (the idea that Japan will never lose because it is a country protected by the gods), which became the grounds for the irrational idea held by the Japanese army and people at the end of the Pacific War, causing many tragedies, including Kamikaze Special Attack Units.
- こうした形態は結城氏や佐竹氏、宇都宮氏、小田氏などに見られ、これらの大名間の外交交渉の文書・書簡を見ても「当洞」・「○○洞中」などの表現が見られる(なお、西国でも似たような構造を有した毛利氏の文書中にも「洞」の語が登場するが、特異な例と考えられている)。
- This sort of organization was established by such clans as the Satake clan, Utsunomiya clan and Oda clan, and the words '当洞' (todo) or 'OO 洞中' (OO dochu) were used in the documents and letters of diplomatic negotiations exchanged between daimyo (Although the daimyo of the Mori clan, who was the daimyo of the western region of Japan, had a similar organization and also used the character '洞' in their documents, it is considered to be an exceptional case).
- 当時の政府は、外国人顧問から聴いた母国の植民地法制を参考にしつつ、日本の領域 (国家)たる外地(南樺太、台湾、朝鮮)には憲法の効力が及ぶのに対し、日本の領土ではない外地(関東州、南洋群島)には憲法の効力が及ばないという考え方を前提にして、統治方針を決めた。
- The government consulted foreign advisors and, referring to the legislation systems of the advisors' home coutries, established a governing policy based on the premise that the Constitution should be in force in Gaichi which were included in Japan's territories (Southern Sakhalin, Taiwan, and Korea) and should not be in force in Gaichi which were not included in Japan's territories (the Kwantung Leased Territory and the South Sea Islands).
- 以前には評に所属していた見られる郡稲との関係やそれ以前から続く屯倉との関連性については様々な学説が出ており、屯倉や国造領に納められていた租税や出挙、評稲などが大化改新以後に再編される過程で大税と郡稲に統合・分離したと考えられるということ以外には不明である。
- It is not clear, despite the various theories, about its connection to gunto (rice stored in a county) that used to belong to kori (provincial administrative organization), and the relation to miyake (a governing system in Yamato sovereignty [the ancient Japan sovereignty]) that was older than the first, but it can be considered that land tax, suiko and hyoto (rice in kori) stored in miyake and Kuninomiyatsuko-ryo (territory of the heads of local governments) were integrated or separated into taizei and gunto in the process of reorganization after the Taika Reforms.
- 銅鐸はその形状ゆえ、初期の小型の物は鈕の内側に紐などを通して吊るし、舞上面に開けられた穴から木や石、鹿角製の「舌(ぜつ)」を垂らして胴体部分か、あるいは「舌」そのものを揺らし、内部で胴体部分の内面突帯と接触させる事で鳴らされたと考えられる(西洋の鐘と同じ)。
- From the shape, it is thought that early small dotaku had a string or others hanging from a crown and a 'tongue (clapper)' made of wood, stone or a deer horn dangling inside the body through the top hole, and that it was rung when the tongue touches a raised-area on the inside wall of the body by swinging the body or the 'tongue' itself (same mechanism as in Western bells).
- ところが、平家と後白河法皇の確執が深まった治承3年(1179年)、宋銭による資金力が平家を台頭させたと考える法皇の意を受けた松殿基房や九条兼実が「宋銭は(日本の)朝廷で発行した貨幣ではなく、私鋳銭(贋金)と同じである」として、宋銭流通を禁ずるように主張した。
- Meanwhile, in 1179 when discord between the Taira family and the Cloistered Emperor Goshirakawa deepened, Motofusa MATSUDONO and Kanezane KUJO, with the intention of the Cloistered Emperor who thought the funds the Taira family got through the Sung currency was the source of their emergence, insisted on banning the circulation of the Sung currency as 'they are not coins that (Japanese) Imperial Court issued and they are the same as Shichusen (counterfeit money)'.
- 現存する公文書や『令集解』における明法家の説からは、祭祀に使う特殊な陶器を除いた宮中及び官司で用いられる陶器類は調・年料雑器による貢納や正税交易(正税を用いた調達)によって賄われ、筥陶司は中央に集められた陶器の管理・出納業務のみを行っていたと考えられている。
- The theories of existing official documents or scholars of the law in 'Ryonoshuge' (Commentaries on the Civil Statutes) says that earthenwares, used in the Imperial Court or government officials except for special earthenwares used for rituals, were provided by tributes of cho (tributes) and nenryo zakki (ware paid as a tribute) or shozei koeki (provision by shozei [the rice tax stored in provincial offices' warehouse]) and kyotoshi is considered to have only managed and done cashier job for earthenwares collected in the central government.
- どうか私と同じ志(仏教への信仰)をもってここに来た人達には、(様々な考え方の)空か有か(といった瑣末な事)を論じて(志を)滞らせることなく、自分の欲望を忘れて(学問や修行に励み)、後進の人達には世俗の苦労などを超越して悟りの境地を開いて欲しいと願うものである。
- I sincerely wish that those who come here with the same aspirations (faith in Buddhism) will abandon one's own desires (focus on learning and training) without wasting themselves on trivial matters of various thoughts, and those who are to follow will transcend worldly matters and open the path toward revelation.
- 律令制以前には陶作部(すえつくりべ)として存在していたことが分かっているが、陶器の生産技術の広まりによるものか、後世においては祭祀などに使う特殊な器を除いて官で陶器の生産を行うことはほとんど無くなったと考えられ、陶作部が律令制のもとでどうなったかも定かではない。
- It is known that Kyotoshi existed as suetsukuribe before Ritsuryo system, but it is unknown that Kyotoshi was born because of the spread of producing technique of earthenware or not, and for years to come, except for the special containers used for ritual and so on, the government is considered to have stopped producing earthenware and it is not sure what happened to suetsukuribe under the Ritsuryo system.
- 政府は当初、伝統宗教の権威と地盤を以ってキリスト教防御と維新後の新体制を国民に教導する考えであったが、近代国家の樹立の為には政教分離と信教の自由を国家の基本方針として盛り込むことは避けられず、また西洋諸国との外交関係に於いてキリスト教の禁制解除は不可欠となった。
- At first, the Meiji government intended to keep citizens away from the influence of Christianity and to educate them on the new systems made by the new government renewed after the Meiji Restoration with authority and foundations of the Japanese traditional religion; however, the separation of religion and politics and the freedom of religion were essential policies in order to establish a modernized nation, and the cancellation of a ban on Christianity was indispensable to maintain the diplomatic relationships with Western countries.
- 『吾妻鏡』によると、鎌倉幕府でも天文道に通じた陰陽師を京都から鎌倉へ招いて征夷大将軍に対して天文密奏を行わせたとされている(こうした場合、朝廷に対する密奏が不可能となるため、密奏宣旨は天文博士などへ昇進するための資格を得る以上の意味はなかったと考えられている)。
- According to 'Azuma Kagami' (The Mirror of the East; a chronicle of the early history of the Kamakura Bakufu), the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) also invited Onmyoji who was well versed in tenmondo from Kyoto to Kamakura to constitute him the mission as the medium of tenmon misso to seii taishogun (literally, 'great general who subdues the barbarians') (Since the misso could not have been available for the emperor in that situation, it was considered that the imperial decree of the misso meant no more than qualifying a person as tenmon hakase or the like.)
- 神主や巫女は神降ろしによって、神を呼び出し憑依させることを、神楽や祈祷というが、これは和御魂の神霊であり、式神は鬼神となっていることから、和御魂の神霊だけではなく、荒御魂の神霊いわゆる「荒ぶる神」や「妖怪変化」の類である位の低い神を呼び出し、使役したと考えられる。
- When the Kannushi (high priest) and Miko (high priestess) summon the god and allow themselves to be possessed by the god through Kagura (Ancient Shinto music and dancing) and Kito (prayers,) they invoke the divine spirit of Nigimitama (spirits of peace), but since Shikigami is said to have been a fierce god, it is believed that Onmyoji employed not only the divine spirit of Nigimitama but also the divine spirit of Aramitama (violent soul,) that is a 'violent god' and 'the gods of lower status who morphed into specters and monsters.'
- こうした考え方は戦国時代 (日本)の分国法にも取り入れられ、今川氏の今川仮名目録では「喧嘩におよぶ輩は理非を論ぜず双方とも死罪」「喧嘩を仕掛けられても堪忍してこらえ・・とりあえず穏便に振る舞ったことは道理にしたがったと・・して罪を免ぜられるべき」(第8条)とある。
- Its idea was also introduced into bunkokuho (the law individual sengoku-daimyo [Japanese territorial lord in the Sengoku period] enforced in their own domain) in the Sengoku period (period of warring states) (Japan): Imagawa Kana Mokuroku (Kana List of Articles of the Imagawa) of the Imagawa clan laid down that 'those who engaged in an armed conflict were both to be executed, irrespective of the question of right or wrong,' and 'who having borne and controlled himself under the provocation... and peacefully settled the matter for the moment was judged as reasonable..., and was to be exempt from punishment' (Article 8).
- こうした公文(公帖)の発給のために献上された礼銭が室町幕府の重要な財政収入になったのみでなく、織田信長によって京都を追放された足利義昭の追放中の活動資金にもなったと言われている(「五山十刹」の住持の任免権は室町幕府ではなく、足利将軍個人にあると考えられていたため)。
- The Reisen (honorarium) presented in exchange of kumon (kojo) is said to have been not only the important financial resource of the Muromachi bakufu, but also the funds for enabling Yoshiaki ASHIKAGA banished from Kyoto by Nobunaga ODA to work underground (because the appointive power over the chief priest of 'Gozan-Jissetsu' was considered being in Ashikaga Shogun himself, not in Muromachi bakufu.)
- 彼はフランス人ではあったが、ナポレオン法典の直輸入には反対してあくまでも日本国内の事情にも配慮した民法典を作成すべきであると主張していた(大木もこの考えに同意して、この年と1883年に民事法に纏わる全国的な慣習法調査が行われて「(全国)民事慣例類集」として編纂された)。
- Although he was a Frenchman, he disagreed to the direct import of Code Napoleon, and asserted that Minpoten should include considerations of the domestic situation in Japan (Oki agreed to the idea, and in the same year and in 1883 'Zenkoku Minji Kanreirui-shu' (national civil customary) was complied based on the nationwide research of customary law related to Civil Code.
- この年代は信頼が置けないが、この頃の書紀の記述は丁度干支二巡分(120年)年代が繰り上げられているとされており、訂正すると372年となって制作年の太和四年(369年)と符合することから、朝鮮の史書『三国史記』には記述がないものの、書紀の記述はこの剣を指していると考えられる。
- This date is not reliable, but the date in Nihonshoki around this period is said to have moved up 120 years, and if it is corrected, the year becomes 372, which corresponds to the year of creation (369), therefore it is considered that the description in Nihonshoki refers to this sword, though there is no description in 'Samguk Sagi,' a history book of Korea.
- ただし、両者は大きく違い別系統に属すると考えられ、前者は典型的な行基図の体裁であるが、後者は元寇以後の軍事的緊迫下にある鎌倉近郊で用いられた事情を反映したものか、日本列島は龍らしき生物に囲まれてその外側に唐土・蒙古などの海外の国々や雁道・羅刹国などの空想上の国々が描かれている。
- However, the two are quite different and seem to belong to different lineages, the former being in the typical Gyoki-zu format and the latter containing the Japanese archipelago surrounded by dragon-like creatures around which foreign countries like China and Mongolia and imaginative countries like Gando and Rasetsu-koku are painted, probably reflecting the circumstance of Kamakura which had been under military tension after the Mongol invasion attempts against Japan.
- 条坊制は儒教の古典である『周礼』(しゅらい)考工記による都制の基準で、都城は9里の方形であること、南北9条、東西9坊の街路が走りその幅が車のわだちの9倍であること、中央に宮室を置きその左右に宗廟と社稷を配置すること、宮室の南には朝廷、北には市場を配すること、などが記されている。
- Jobosei is the rule of capital system stated by Kao Gong Ji (Records of technology, architecture, city planning etc.) in 'Rites of Zhou,' a classic of Confucianism, which defines Tojo as follows: (1) its shape is a square, nine li (li is an old Chinese unit of distance) on each side; (2) it has nine north-south streets and nine east-west streets, which are nine carriage tracks in width; and (3) the palace is located in the middle, with the alter of imperial ancestors on the east, the altar of soil and grain on the west, the imperial court on the south, and the market on the north.
- 李氏朝鮮との国交問題が暗礁に乗り上げている中、朝鮮の宗主国である清との国交締結を優先にすべきとの考えから1870年7月27日(明治3年6月29日 (旧暦))柳原前光・花房義質を派遣して予備交渉を行い、次いで正規の大使として伊達が送られ、副使となった柳原とともに詰めの交渉を行った。
- While the issue on the diplomatic relations with Joseon Dynasty was stranded on a reef, Japan considered that the diplomatic relations with Qing which was a suzerain power of Korea should be concluded in priority to that, therefore, Sakimitsu YANAGIWARA and Yoshimoto HANABUSA were sent for the preliminary negotiations on July 27, 1870, followed by Date, a legitimate commander-in-chief, who led the negotiations to the final conclusions along with above mentioned Yanagiwara who had been appointed as a vice commander prior to it.
- 韓国忠清南道扶余郡松菊里遺跡で最初に注目されたことから、「松菊里型住居」ともよばれる(ただしこの名称は日本国内に限定して使用され、韓国考古学界ではむしろ「松菊里類型」という用語は住居跡の形態のみでなく土器や石器組成を含めた文化総体の名称として用いられることが一般的となっている)。
- It is called 'Shokikurigata dwelling' as it was first recognized at the Shokikuri site in Fuyo District, Sud Chungcheong, Republic of Korea (However the name is only used in Japan, and the term 'Shokikuri type-' are used not only for shape of dwelling, but to whole cultural description including form of earthenware and stoneware in Korean archaeological society.)
- 甕棺内に頭部を除く全身が埋葬されていたと考えられる事例が見つかっており、しばしば戦闘の際に敵に頭部を切り取られた死者を連れ帰り、埋葬したものと理解されているが、このような例が本当に戦闘の犠牲者なのか、それとも何らかの儀礼的行為によるものなのかは実際のところは未だ論証されていない。
- Also in some cases, kamekan with whole body except the head part were excavated, and these were interpreted as an enemy taking the victim's head from the battle field and the victim's body was taken back to the settlement for burial, however it is not proven if they really were victims of a battle, or if it was the result of some ritual.
- 副葬品として出土する甲には2代形式があり、「短甲」の呼称は奈良時代の文献である『東大寺献物帳』(天平勝宝8歳・756年)や『延喜式』などの文献において「短甲」と「挂甲」の記述や見られるため、明治期の考古学や歴史学において歩兵用と騎馬兵用に対応するとして「短甲」の名称が当てられた。
- The Ko (armor) unearthed as burial goods have 2 forms, and the name 'Tanko' was applied corresponding to armors for foot soldiers and cavalrymen in archaeology or historical science of Meiji era because 'Tanko' and 'Keiko (lacquered armor for ceremony)' appeared in the document of Nara period 'Todai-ji Temple Kenmotsu-cho (Lists of Treasures dedicated to Temples)'(in 756) and 'the Engishiki' (an ancient book for codes and procedures on national rites and prayers).
- また横浜市では、他の多くのアジア諸国と同様に「洋銀(メキシコドル)」での取引が常態化していたため、大隈としては金銀複本位制を考えていたが、当時アメリカ合衆国に出張中の大蔵少輔兼民部少輔伊藤博文の「現在、世界の大勢は金本位に向かいつつあり」との建言に基づき、金本位制の採用を決定する。
- In addition, although OKUMA was considering bimetallism should be introduced as 'nickel silver (Mexican dollar)'-based transaction was normal in Yokohama City as well as many other Asian countries, he decided the gold standard system would be introduced based on the proposal, 'now, most countries are going to the gold standard system.' by Hirobumi ITO, Okura no shofu (Junior Assistant Minister of the Ministry of the Treasury) and Minbu shohu (Junior Assistant Minister of Popular Affairs), who was on a business trip to the United States at that time.
- その一方で明治4年(1871年)に中央政府に復帰して下野するまでの2年間、上京当初抱いていた士族を中心とする「強兵」重視路線が、四民平等・廃藩置県を全面に押し出した木戸孝允・大隈重信らの「富国」重視路線によって斥けられた事に対する不満や反発が西郷の心中に全く無かったとも考えられない。
- Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that SAIGO might have resentment and antagonism toward the incident that a policy of placing a great importance on 'military buildup' mainly with the warrior class, which he had fostered during his early days in Tokyo for two years from his comeback to the central government in 1871 until he left the government, was defeated by a policy of placing a great importance on 'national enrichment' by Takayoshi KIDO and Shigenobu OKUMA, which emphasized the equality of all people and the abolition of feudal domains and establishment of prefectures.
- 『解体新書』は一般に『ターヘル・アナトミア』の翻訳書と言われているが、それ以外にも『トンミュス解体書』『ブランカール解体書』『カスパル解体書』『コイテル解体書』『アンブル外科書解体篇』『ヘスリンキース解体書』『パルヘイン解体書』『バルシトス解体書』『ミスケル解体書』などが参考にされている。
- 'Kaitai Shinsho' is generally understood as a translation of 'Ontleedkundige Tafelen,' but it had referred also to 'Thomas Kaitaisho' (Book of Anatomy by Thomas BARTHOLIN), 'Blankaart Kaitaisho' (Book of Anatomy by Steven BLANKAART), 'Caspar Kaitaisho' (Book of Anatomy by Caspar SCHAMBERGER), 'Coiter Kaitaisho' (Book of Anatomy by Volcher COITER), 'Ambroise Gekasho Kaitai-hen' (Book of Surgery and Anatomy by Ambroise PARÉ), 'Veslingius Kaitaisho' (Book of Anatomy by Johann VESLING), 'Palfijn Kaitaisho' (Book of Anatomy by Jan PALFIJN), 'Barushitosu Kaitaisho,' 'Miskell Kaitaisho' (Book of Anatomy by MISKELL) and so on.
- 冬の陣では出陣させるのは譜代大名のみに限ろうと考えていた徳川家康は、この夏の陣においては豊臣恩顧の大名に敢えて大坂を攻めさせることにより、将来的に徳川家に掛かってくる倫理的な非難を回避しようとしたとされている(江戸時代に徳川家が豊臣家を滅ぼしたことに対する道徳的議論が起こることはなかった。
- It is said that Ieyasu TOKUGAWA thought to use only fudai daimyo (daimyo in hereditary vassal to the Tokugawa family) to go into battles of the Fuyu no Jin (Winter Siege of Osaka), while in the Natsu no Jin (Summer Siege of Osaka) by ordering the daimyo who had been favored by the Toyotomi Family to attack Osaka Castle, he tried to avoid ethical accusation to the Tokugawa Family in later years.
- まず林田書記官について議院の先例をただし、法規の解釈上許す範囲の道を求めて決心するところがあり、先例である書記官長起草の原案、議員から成立した奉答文、起草委員の起草文は単に議長の参考にとどまるものと解釈し、自分が起草した上記一通を懐中し議場に臨み、これを朗読し、議場の賛同を求めたのである。
- He first asked the secretary HAYASHIDA about the precedent of the House, then he made up his mind to seek for the way as long as an interpretation of the law allowed and he interpreted that drafts written by the chief secretary as precedent, Hotobun formed by the members of the House, and drafts by draft committee only remained as a reference for the chairman, so he took the approach with his draft which was mentioned above in his pocket, read this and asked for approval in the House.
- 要するに、平家を見限った甲斐源氏の加々美長清が、老母の病を口実に東国へ帰ろうと考え、それを平知盛(平清盛の四男)に申し出たところ許しては貰えなかったが、高橋判官平盛綱はその真意に気づきながらも、「家人のように抑留すべきでない」と平知盛に口添えをしてくれて、やっと知盛の許しを得たという話し。
- Nagakiyo KAGAMI of Kai-Genji (Minamoto clan) saw a limit to the power of Taira clan and decided to return to Togoku (the eastern part of Japan, particularly Kanto region) by asking TAIRA no Tomomori (the fourth son of TAIRA no Kiyomori) using an excuse of the illness of his elderly mother, but his request was not granted, but TAIRA no Moritsuna, who was the Takahashi no hangan (inspector - third highest of the four administrative ranks of the ritsuryo period) advised TAIRA no Tomomori 'not to force him to stay like Kenin' despite knowing his true intention and he finally gained permission from Tomomori.
- しかしその実は、当時世界最高水準の複式簿記考案(中井源左衛門・日野商人)(小倉栄一郎『江州中井家帳合の法』)や、契約ホテルのはしりとも言える「大当番仲間」制度の創設(日野商人)、現在のチェーン店の考えに近い出店・枝店を積極的に開設するなど、徹底した合理化による流通革命だったと評価されている。
- In reality, however, they are now considered the pioneers who brought revolutionary changes to the distribution business by strictly pursuing the concept of streamlining, as seen in the examples of the invention of the double-entry system in bookkeeping by a merchant from Hino, Genzaemon NAKAI, which was at the highest level in the word at that time (according to Eiichi OGURA 'Goshu Nakai-ke chogo no ho' (bookkeeping method of the Nakai family in Omi Province)); the establishment of the system of 'Otoban nakama' by the merchants from Hino, which can said to be an early concept of the contracted hotel; and the expansion of the business by proactively opening branches, which is a similar concept to today's chain stores.
- 現存する日本最古の史書『古事記』の場合、正史である『続日本紀』に記録がないことや写本の伝存状況などから偽書と疑う大和岩雄(『古事記成立考』(1975年)、『古事記偽書説は成り立たないか』(1988年))や大島隼人(『古事記成立論』(1989年)、『古事記撰録方法の発見』(1994年))らがいる。
- In the case of 'Kojiki' (The Records of Ancient Matters), the oldest history book in Japan, since there is no record on the time of its completion in 'Shoku Nihongi' (Chronicle of Japan Continued), which is the official history book, and also based on the fact that it is a handwritten copy, it is suspected as gisho by Iwao YAMATO ('Consideration into the completion of Records of Ancient Matters' (1975), 'Is the view that Records of Ancient Matters is gisho, not established?' (1988), and Hayato OOSHIMA ('Discussion about Records of Ancient Matters establishment' (1989), 'Discovery of anthologizing method of Records of Ancient Matters of Japan' (1994).
- 弥生時代の集落には様々な例があるが、一般的に発見されるものとして、居住施設としての竪穴住居、貯蔵施設としての貯蔵穴や掘立柱建物、ゴミ捨て場や土器の焼成など様々な用途に使われたと考えられる土坑(不定形の穴)、集落の周りを巡らせたり集落内部を区画するように掘られた溝(環濠や区画溝など)の遺構がある。
- There are several examples of settlements in the Yayoi period and common examples of ancient structural remnants are; tateanajukyo (a pit dwelling house) as a dwelling, dug-standing pillar building and storage pit for storage facility, doko (a pit) (non-uniform shaped hole/pit) for various purposes such as garbage pit and firing of earthenware, a ditch surrounding settlement and section in the settlement (a moat and a sectional ditch).
- このため、天武天皇は大陸の礼楽思想を取り入れる意図をもって五節舞を考案したとする見方もある(なお、聖武天皇が元正上皇のために孝謙天皇(孝謙天皇)に五節舞を舞わせた際に、天皇が上皇に対して「天武天皇が天下統治のために礼と楽を整備するために五節舞を考え出された」と述べている(『続日本紀』天平15年5月辛丑条))。
- Based on this interpretation, a number of people assert that Emperor Tenmu invented the Gosechi no mai with the aim of introducing Reiraku philosophy (ancient Chinese philosophy emphasizing propriety and music) (Incidentally, when Emperor Shomu got Empress Koken to dance in a Gosechi no mai for the Retired Empress Gensho, the Emperor said to the Retired Empress, 'Emperor Tenmu invented Gosechi no mai with the intention to govern the nation and in order to make rei (propriety) and raku (music) take root among the people' ('Shoku Nihongi' - June 3, 743)).
- なお、「大輪田」の地名は津泊の意におこるとも理解されており、上記河尻泊の所在した摂津国神崎川の河口にも「千船駅」の地名があるのをはじめ日本列島各地に同様の地名がのこり、そうしたなかで単に「大輪田」といえば概ね務古水門のことをさすのは、この地が古くから最重要港湾として認められていたことを示しているとも考えられる。
- And the place-name 'Owada' is considered to have semantically originated from staying at a ferry and similar place-names remain across Japanese islands like a place-name 'Chibune-eki' which exists in the mouth of Kanzaki-gawa River in Settsu Province in Kawajiri no tomari mentioned above, and among them, simply 'Owada' mostly refers to Muko no minato, which is, they think, because this land was regarded as the most important port (ferry).
- 元亀3年文書では信玄が信豊に対し装備を朱色で統一することを独占的に認められており、天正2年文書では武田勝頼により信豊の一手衆が黒出立を使用することを許可されており(これは『軍鑑』や『信長公記』長篠合戦時における記述と符号している)、武田軍では一手衆ごとに色彩を含めて兵装の規格化が整えられていたと考えられている。
- In the document in 1572, Shingen confirmed that Nobutoyo would exclusively use Shu-iro (Empire red) for his troop's all equipment, and in the document in 1574, Katsuyori TAKEDA permitted that Nobutoyo's Hitoteshu (a troop consisted of high ranking warriors) would wear a black outfit (this matches with the description on the Battle of Nagashino in 'Gunkan' and 'Shinchoko-ki (Biography of Nobunaga ODA)'), therefore, it is considered that Takeda Army gave a standard of military outfit including color to each Hitoteshu.
- 編者・成立年代について、平安時代末期の保安 (元号)2年(1121年)、3年に書写された最古の写本(現宮内庁書陵部所蔵)が、小槻氏に永く秘蔵されていたことから、小槻氏によって編纂され、本書収録の最も新しい年次の文書が寛治7年正月19日の宣旨であるため、寛治7年から保安2年までの間に成立したと従来考えられてきた。
- Its oldest manuscript (now kept in the Imperial Household Archives) copied in 1121 to 1122, towards the end of the Heian period, was kept secretly by the Ozuki clan for a long time, with the latest document included there concerned with an imperial decree issued on 23 February, 1093, and therefore, it has been considered that the document was completed between 1093 and 1121.
- 松本隆海は、すべてが鉱毒が原因だとはいえないかもしれないが、当時の日本は出生数のほうが多いにもかかわらず、死者数のほうが多いのは、鉱毒に関連があるとしている(実際には、鉱毒が原因で貧困となり、栄養状態が悪化して死亡した者が多く含まれていると考えられるが、田中正造や松本はこれらも鉱毒による死者とすべきだとしている)。
- Ryukai MATSUMOTO says that it may not be said all the deaths were caused by the mining pollution, however, since there were a greater number of deaths than births while there were more births than deaths in Japan at that time, those deaths should be considered to have been caused by the mining pollution (it is considered that in fact among those deaths, many cases were caused by malnutrition, since the people became poor by the mining pollution; however Shozo TANAKA and Matsumoto and others said that those cases should be counted as the victims by the mining pollution).
- 『続日本後紀』嘉祥元年7月丙戌(29日)条(848年8月31日)に平安京内で落雷があり破損した建物の中に弘文院が含まれていること、仁和元年(885年)に菅原道真が弘文院を訪問した時に詠んだとされる漢詩(「秋夜宿弘文院」)が『菅家文章』に残されていることから、少なくても弘文院設置から80年間は存在していたものと考えられている。
- Since the entry for August 31, 848 in 'Shoku Nihon Koki' (Later Chronicle of Japan Continued) contains the description that lightning struck in Heiankyo and damaged some buildings, which included the Kobunin, and since a Chinese poem ('秋夜宿弘文院') supposedly composed by SUGAWARA no Michizane when he visited the Kobunin in 885 was contained in 'Kanke bunso' (an anthology of Chinese-style poetry by SUGAWARA no Michizane) in 885, it was estimated that the Kobunin had existed at least for 80 years after it was founded.
- しかし大津地裁で扱われるべき事件を正常な手続きなしで大審院に移したり(大逆罪の適用を考慮していた為、皇室罪に関する裁判はすべて大審院における一審において判決が下されることから、適用可否判断を含め地裁ではなく大審院に持ち込まれることになった)、裁判に直接関わっていなかった児島が干渉を重ねたことは裁判官の独立等の問題として残った。
- Basically, Tsuda's trial should have been handled by the Otsu District Court, but it was taken over by Daishin-in without taking a formal procedure (Since Tsuda's case could be treated as a high treason, Daishin-in, which handled all crime cases against the Imperial family, was required to judge whether it should be treated as a high treason and if so, rendered a judgment).
- また、1990年代後半からは主に考古学的側面から、卓淳(昌原)・安羅(咸安)などの諸地域の研究が推進される一方で、1983年に慶尚南道の松鶴洞一号墳(墳丘長66メートル)が前方後円墳であるとして紹介されて以来相次いだ朝鮮半島南西部での前方後円墳の発見これまでのところ全羅南道に11基、全羅北道に2基の前方後円墳が確認されている。
- And, from the late 1990s, studies of Tokujun (卓淳, in Changwon), Alla (in Haman) and other regions were promoted mainly from the archeological aspect and since the Songhakdong No. 1 tomb in Gyeongsangnam-do (66 meters in length) was announced as a large keyhole-shaped tomb mound in 1983, the same type of tombs have been unearthed one after another in the southwest part of the Korean Peninsula, totaling eleven in South Jeolla Province and two in North Jeolla Province so far.
- 大日本帝国憲法第5条 天皇は帝国議会の協賛を以て立法権を行ふ、大日本帝国憲法第64条 第1項 国家の歳出歳入は毎年予算を以て帝国議会の協賛を経へしにより、軍の編成・維持のための予算は議会が決定する物であるが、統帥部は、軍事に関する情報を内閣に通さず天皇に報告(帷幄上奏)できたため、国務大臣(内閣)が関わる必要がないと言う考えが大勢を占めた。
- The constitution of the Empire of Japan the Article 5 said that the Emperor acts the legislative power with a support of Imperial Diet, and the Article 64, Provision 1 said that the state annual expenditure and revenue was committed by a support of Imperial Diet with annual budget, so that the budget for the organization and maintenance of the army should have been decided by Imperial Diet, however, as Supreme Command Staff could make comments on military affairs to the Emperor with full responsibility of the results without confirmation of the Cabinet, (Iaku-joso) the idea that the Minister of State (Cabinet) would not be necessary for the process occupied in general.
- ところが、宮中行事などの衰退によって大饗が開かれることがなくなった上、相次ぐ戦乱や五摂家の成立による短期間での藤氏長者の交替などによって朱器台盤は散逸してしまったらしく、延文6年(康安元年/1361年)に近衛道嗣が藤氏長者に就任した際には「朱器渡りの儀」が行われていないために、その以前の段階で朱器台盤は既に存在していなかったと考えられている。
- But grand banquets ceased to be held due to the decline of court functions, and in addition, Shuki-daiban seem to have been scattered and lost due to successive conflicts and changes of Toshi choja within a short period of time caused by the formation of Gosekke (five top Fujiwara families whose members were eligible for the positions of Sessho [regent] and Kanpaku), and when Michitsugu KONOE assumed the post of Toshi choja in 1361, 'Shuki watari no gi' no longer took place, which suggests that Shuki-daiban had already been lost before that time.
- 大和民族とは、日本列島に住んできた人類で構成される民族で、そこでは縄文時代から日本列島に住んできた人々(いわゆる縄文人)と、縄文末期から弥生時代にユーラシア大陸から渡来した人々(いわゆる弥生人)が中心となって形成したヤマト王権が、日本列島各地に散在していた様々な人的集団を勢力下に置き、同化したことにより大和民族が成立していったと考えられている。
- The Yamato race consists of people living in the Japanese archipelago, where the race was formed as the Yamato sovereignty (the ancient Japan sovereignty), composed mainly of people living in the Japanese archipelago since the end of the Jomon Period (Jomon man) and people from the Eurasian Continent (Yayoi people) between the late Jomon period and the Yayoi period, controlling various groups of people which had spread across the Japanese archipelago and assimilating them.
- このように、商人は「お上」の命に唯々諾々と従う存在であるのだから、政治的基盤が未だ脆弱で「お上」としての権威を十分に持っているとは言えない明治政府が慌てて貨幣改革を行うことによって、万が一命令が行き渡らずに「お上」(=明治政府)に対する「万民の信」の無さと無力ぶりを内外に示すことになっては政権の崩壊につながると考え、通貨改革を不要不急のことと捉えていた。
- Like it says above, merchants were people who obediently followed the Okami (political authorities)'s orders, so OKUBO thought that if the Meiji Government, which was still feeble and did not have enough authority as the 'Okami' (political authorities) reformed the currency in a flurry, by doing so if in the worst case scenario, the orders did not get across, this would reveal the lack of 'people's trust' in the 'Okami' (political authorities) (Meiji Government) and their powerlessness to their own country and foreign countries, which would lead to the collapse of the government, therefore he considered the monetary reform was nonessential and nonurgent.
- さて、先の検勘の際に強引な日程を組んだ背景には、外国との関係の都合上贋貨と正貨の等価交換をやむなく認めたものの、実際に全ての贋貨を同じように正貨と等価で引き換えた場合には明治政府の財政が破綻するのは目に見えていたからであり、その額をなるべく抑制したいという明治政府と貿易関係の維持のために政府の崩壊に至る事態は避けたいと考える外国公使との思惑の一致があったからである。
- Now, the main reason behind the scheduling of such a tight agenda for the authenticity testing was that, while the exchange of equivalent amounts of counterfeit for specie was accepted as unavoidable given the government's relationship with foreign countries, it was clear that if all the counterfeit money was exchanged for specie of an equivalent price, the Meiji Government would face financial ruin, so the Meiji Government wanted to keep this amount to a minimum; at the same time, the foreign ministers of Japan's trading partners wanted to avoid a situation in which the government might collapse so as to ensure that they could maintain their trade relationships with the Meiji Government, so the motives of both sides coincided.
- この結果、土地は天皇のものであり、臣民は天皇または領主からその使用を許されているに過ぎないと考える公地公民制思想(王土王民説)や封建領主による領主権や村などの地域共同体による共同保有といった封建制度的な土地保有形態が完全に崩壊し、土地にも保有者個人の所有権が存在する事が初めて法的に認められることになり、土地が個人の財産として流通や担保の対象として扱われるようになった。
- As a result, the idea in that all land was under the sole ownership of the emperor and individuals were merely borrowing the land from the emperor or the idea in that feudal lords had the land ownership or the idea of cooperative ownership by local communities such as villages were completely collapsed; private land ownership by individuals was recognized legally for the first time in Japan; and land came to be treated as the objects of circulation or collateral as the property of individuals.
- 中世イスラム世界では、9世紀にイブンホルダーズベが記した「諸道と諸国の書(英名:The Book of Routes and Kingdoms)」や中世に成立した「千夜一夜物語(アラビアンナイト)」などに、中国やインドの東方にある国として「ワークワーク(waqwaq)」という地名が記されており、これは日本のことで「倭国(Wa-qwaq)」のことであると考えられている。
- In the Medieval Muslim world, 'The Book of Routes and Kingdoms' written by Ibn Khurdadhbin during the ninth century and the 'Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights)' described the place name of 'waqwaq,' located to the east of China and India, which is believed to have been 'Wakoku (Wa-qwaq)' designating Japan.
- また、旧薩摩藩士の心情として、鹿児島属廠の火薬・弾丸・武器・製造機械類は藩士が醵出した金で造ったり購入したりしたもので、一朝事があって必要な場合、藩士やその子孫が使用するものであると考えられていた事もあり、私学校徒は中央政府が泥棒のように薩摩の財産を搬出した事に怒るとともに、当然予想される衝突に備えて武器・弾薬を入手するために、夜、草牟田火薬庫を襲って弾丸・武器類を奪取した。
- Since all the gunpowder, bullets, arms, and making machinery in the Kagoshima arsenal had been constructed or purchased with the money contributed by the then retainers of the Satsuma Domain, the former retainers took it for granted that these things were to be used by the retainers and their descendants in an emergency; therefore, because the Shigakko students got angry with the central government for carrying the domain's property out from there like a thief and for the purpose of being prepared with arms and ammunition for a possible conflict with the central government, they made a night attack on the powder house at Somuta and seized bullets and arms.
- なお、統帥権独立の考えが生まれた源流としては、当時の指導者が、政治家が統帥権をも握ることにより幕府政治が再興される可能性をおそれたこと、それといささか矛盾するが、元勲・藩閥が政治・軍事両面を掌握していたことから、後世に統帥権独立をめぐって起きたような問題が顕在化しなかったこと、南北朝時代 (日本)に楠木正成が軍事に無知な公家によって作戦を退けられて湊川で戦死し、南朝 (日本)の衰退につながった逸話が広く知られていたことなどがあげられる。
- The idea of the independence of the supreme command came originally from the facts that the leaders at that time were afraid of the revival of the government by the shogunate if statesmen acquired the supreme command, despite the contradiction to that, as the statesmen who contributed in Meiji Restoration and domain cliques had control over the both politics and military, the problems that occurred later due to the independence of the supreme command did not come to the surface, the anecdote of Masashige KUSUNOKI who died at Minatogawa River because his strategy of the war was denied by the ignorant court nobles in the Northern and Southern Court Period (Japan), and it led to the decline of the Southern Court (Japan).
- 巻1では、日本に儒教が伝来したと当時考えられていた神功皇后期から、徐福・王仁・聖徳太子・粟田真人・吉備真備・菅原道真・義堂周信ら、古代から室町時代における五山文化興隆期を扱い、巻2では、五山文化から薩摩国の儒教文化を興隆させた桂庵玄樹の登場までを扱い、巻3では薩南学派の発展に尽した島津忠良や南浦文之の活躍や江戸時代初期の儒学を扱い、巻4では薩南学派の総本山とされた正龍寺 (指宿市)の歴史や元禄・享保以後の薩摩藩の儒教史を扱っているが未完である。
- Volume 1 deals with the history of Confucianism in Japan from the ancient times to the prosperity stage of Gozan Bunka (culture of the Five Official Temples between the end of the Kamakura Period and the Muromachi Period) such as the age of Empress Jingu which was thought in the author's day to be the time when Confucianism was introduced to Japan, then Jofuku, Wani (Wang In), Prince Shotoku, AWATA no Mahito, KIBI no Makibi, SUGAWARA no Michizane and Shushin Gido, Volume 2 deals with the period from Gozan Bunka to the appearance of Genju KEIAN who brought prosperity to the culture of Confucianism in Satsuma domain, Volume 3 deals with the activity of Tadayoshi SHIMAZU and Bunshi NANPO who tried to develop Satsunangaku school (school of Neo-Confucianism in Satsuma) and Confucianism in early Edo period, and Volume 4 deals with the history of Shoryu-ji Temple (in current Ibusuki City) which was the center of Satsunangaku school and the history of Confucianism in Satsuma domain after the Genroku and the Kyoho Era, but this volume is unfinished.
- また、イネの伝来ルートについても従来は朝鮮ルートが有力視されていたが、遼東半島や朝鮮北部での水耕田跡が近代まで見つからないこと、朝鮮半島での確認された炭化米が紀元前2000年が最古であり畑作米の確認しか取れない点、極東アジアにおける温帯ジャポニカ種(水稲)/熱帯ジャポニカ種(陸稲)の遺伝分析において、朝鮮半島を含む中国東北部から当該遺伝子の存在が確認されないことなどの複数の証左から、水稲は大陸からの直接伝来ルート(対馬暖流ルート・東南アジアから南方伝来ルート等)による伝来である学説が有力視されつつある(従来の説とは逆に水稲は日本から朝鮮半島へ伝わった可能性も考えられている)。
- Furthermore, although the Korean route was traditionally regarded as a likely introduction route for rice, the theory stating that rice-paddy plants were introduced through the direct introduction route from the continent (Tsushima Warm Current route/Southern introduction route from South East Asia) is now regarded as very likely from the several facts that remains of rice-paddy fields were not discovered in the Liaodong Peninsula and northern Korea until sites of modern times, the oldest carbonated rice found in the Korean Peninsula only goes back to 2000 B.C., the only a rice plants grown in a dry field were confirmed from that time, and genetic analysis of temperate Japonica rice (a rice-paddy plant)/tropical Japonica rice (a rice plant grown in a dry field) in Far East Asia shows no evidence of concerned genes from Korean Peninsula nor from North East China (Contrary to traditional theory, there is a possibility that rice-paddy plants had been introduced into Korean Peninsula from Japan.)