Honyaku Star - Search: 政府

政府: 1000 Terms and Phrases

仮政府
provisional government

政府対応
Governmental response

留守政府
Rusu-seifu (government while heads of government are away)
Rusu-naikaku (acting cabinet while heads of government are away)

政府の記録
Government records

政府軍の編制
The organization of the Government Army

日本政府の動き
Actions of the Japanese Government

政府の鉱毒対策
The Government's Measures against the Mining Pollution

政府管掌健康保健
government-run health insurance

新政府軍との戦い
Battle with the New Government

人事問題と留守政府
Personnel affairs and Rusu-seifu

廃藩置県と留守政府
Haihan-chiken (abolition of feudal domains and establishment of prefectures) and Rusu-seifu (government while heads of government are away)

電子政府プロジェクト
E-Gov-Project

植民地政府・・・南洋庁
Colonial government ⋯ Nanyo-cho (Government office of the South Sea Islands)

留守政府の禄制改革議論
Argument on reforms of the stipend system by Rusu-seifu (the government while head officers were away)

転じて政府のことをさす。
In other words, it was a government.

新政府側の強硬論と寛典論
Hard-line and lenient treatment policies administered by the new government

植民地政府・・・朝鮮総督府
Colonial government ⋯ Chosen Sotoku-fu

もしくは政府のことを指す。
It also refers to the government.

次に新政府内での立場であった。
In addition, the position in a new government was also a problem.

明治政府初の外交問題となった。
That incident became the first diplomatic problem for the Meiji government.

閏4月21日、政府参与を辞す。
April 21, leap month: Resigned from the Government Council.
June 11, resigned from the post of sanyo for the government.

- 日本政府、ポツダム宣言受諾。
The Japanese government accepted the Potsdam Declaration.

日本で明治政府の国策の基本を指す。
It is a basic national policy of the Meiji government in Japan.

小林も11日に政府軍の手に落ちた。
The Government army took Kobayashi on the 11th.

政府の主要閣僚の多くは岩倉を支持。
Most of the key Cabinet members supported Iwakura's proposal.

1906年連邦政府、帰化法を改正。
In 1906, the federal government amended the Naturalization Act.

新政府軍に対して善戦した事もあった。
Sometimes they fought well against the new government army.

その後、一部は明治新政府に帰順した。
Afterwards, some soldiers returned to allegiance to the new Meiji government.

新政府は7日徳川慶喜追討令を発した。
On January, 7, the new government issued this statement, 'a decree to search and kill Yoshinobu TOKUGAWA.'

政府紙幣の一種と解されることもある。
It is sometimes interpreted as a kind of paper money issued by a government.

政府は、裁判所に総督と副総督を置いた。
The new government appointed governors and vice governors in local administrative courts.

4月19日、政府但馬府中裁判所総督兼帯。
April 19: Jointly assigned to the post of Tajima-Fuchu Court Director General of the Government.

明治政府に必要な制度改革の素案を作成した。
It created draft of a system reform necessary for Meiji government.

これを追って政府軍は長井包囲網をつくった。
The Government army pursued and surrounded them at Nagai.
Following them, the government forces formed a encirclement around Nagai.
Following them, the Government army put Nagai under siege.

以降、政府・政党の対立は議会に持ち込まれた。
After that, all political conflicts between parties and the government were to be brought to the Diet.

政府軍側の死者は約60名、負傷者約200名。
Of the government forces, about 60 were killed and about 200 were injured.

この復興工事は幕府から明治政府が引き継いだ。
This reconstruction, begun by the shogunate, was later taken over by the Meiji government.

当時の財政難の政府には維持費が出せなかった事。
It was the economic difficulties that the government of the day could not manage the preservation cost of Kosatsu;

そこで、新政府は旧藩の債務を3種類に分割した。
Under such circumstances, the new government divided the debts of former domains into three categories.

政府が渡良瀬川の大改修を行うのは戦後であった。
After the war, finally large repairs along Watarase-gawa River were carried out by the order of the government.

会津戦争：大鳥軍、衝鋒隊、共に新政府軍と戦う。
Aizu War: The Otori army and Shohotai fought against the New government army.

そんな中、江戸城が無血で新政府の管轄に入った。
During the middle of debate on the transference of the capital, the new government acquired Edo-jo Castle bloodlessly.

中央政府から発せられる命令は国司に伝えられる。
Orders from the central government were conveyed to these provincial governors.

日本政府は、韓国の皇室を安全康寧ならしめる事。
The Japanese government shall ensure peace and security of the Imperial family of Korea

これを機に政府による尊攘派切り捨てが本格化した。
Taking this opportunity, the government began in earnest discarding the sonjo party.

（後に親政府議員を結集して国民協会を結成する。）
(They gathered pro-government councilors to form National Association later.)

明治政府に反対する士族は「不平士族」と呼ばれる。
Those who were dissatisfied with the principles of Meiji government were called 'fuhei shizoku' (former samurai with gripes).

そのため明治政府は積極的な移住政策を推し進めた。
Because of this the Meiji government actively promoted the policy of emigration.

しかし、新政府軍に各個撃破されていくことになる。
However, the new government's army destroyed them individually, one by one.

植民地政府・・・関東都督府→関東庁→関東局関東州庁
Colonial government ⋯ Kantototokufu (the Office of the governor-general) => Kwantung Agency => Kwantung Bureau, Kwantung State Office

1884年明治政府、日本人の海外渡航を正式許可。
In 1884, the Meiji Government officially permitted Japanese to go abroad.

律令政府が定めた通貨単位である1文として通用した。
The coin was designated as one Mon, the unit of currency set by the Ritsuryo government (an ancient Japanese government of centralized governance).

しかし、これらの事変後明治政府は軍備拡大を進めた。
However, the Mieji government promoted the buildup of military forces.

だが、これに対してたちまち政府内で反発が噴出した。
However, objections exploded in the government instantly.

この時設置された政府機関のひとつに郵便局があった。
The post office was one of the governmental institutions established at this occasion.

長州側は山口の藩政府の合議制により作戦が指揮された。
The Choshu clan employed collegial system of the administration of the domain to conduct the operations.

清国政府は、以下の上諭を各市府に向けて公布すること。
The Qing government shall issue to all district cities the following Imperial edicts.

朝鮮政府の許可あれば、来日することも問題なしとする。
Japanese people can come to Japan if they have permission from the Korean government.

対して政府が征討の勅を出したのが2月19日であった。
It was on February 19 when the government issued the Imperial edict to defeat the Saigo's army.

他方、帰順した部隊が新政府軍に編入された例もあった。
On the other hand, some troops which returned to allegiance were incorporated into the new government.

反対の中心人物は明治政府の実力者大久保利通であった。
The main person who was against the declaration was Toshimichi OKUBO, a powerful figure of the Meiji Government.

11月24日、参事院議官補となり政府官僚として復帰。
November 24: Became Assistant Gikan (high ranking government official) of the Legislature and returned as a government official.

改元して明治元年10月20日、政府新潟府知事に異動。
October 20: After the name of the era changed to Meiji, reassigned to the Governorship of Niigata Prefecture.

明治政府は同年の廃藩置県の機に藩札回収令を発布した。
The Meiji government issued the Order of Withdrawing Han Bills when Haihan-chiken (abolition of feudal domains and establishment of prefectures) was introduced in 1871.

これに対して政府は報復目的も兼ねた大増税を実施した。
In response to this incident, the government dramatically increased the tax in part as retribution.

なお、この際に以下のような政府首脳間の合意が為された。
On this occasion, the following agreement was made among government leaders.

明治政府の課題として持ち越されることになったのである。
The assignment of the Soudaikinou function of Shoya and Nanushi would be carried over to the Meiji government.

廃藩置県どころか政務は停滞し新政府分裂の危機に至った。
Under such circumstances, the implementation of state affairs was stagnant, let alone haihan-chiken, and the new government faced a crisis of being split in two.

初期議会における薩長政府と民党の対立を示す事件である。
It was an affair that showed the conflict between Satsuma-Choshu government and minto in the early Diet.

日本政府は、韓国の独立及び領土保全を確実に保証する事。
The Japanese government shall certainly guarantee independence of Korea and security of its territories.

戊号券　丁号券の表記を「大日本帝国政府」に変更して発行
Igo-ken Notes: the letters printed on Teigo-ken Notes were changed into 'the Government of the Empire of Japan' to be issued.

第一條韓國政府ハ施政改善ニ關シ統監ノ指導ヲ受クルコト
Article 1 The government of Korea shall follow the directions of the inspector general when it implements the reform of administration.

歳三は、二股口の戦いで新政府軍の進撃に対し徹底防戦する。
Toshizo made every effort to defend against the attacks of the army of the new government in Battle of Futamataguchi.

第五中央政府及地方廳ニ左記ノ通日本人ヲ韓國官吏ニ任命ス
Item 5. Japanese shall be appointed the following positions of government officials of the Korean central government and local authorities.

『明六雑誌』は、特に政府の目の敵にされた訳ではなかった。
'Meiroku Zasshi' was not especially seen as an enemy by the government.

第5条：日本国政府は韓国皇室の安寧と尊厳の維持を保証する。
ARTICLE V: The Government of Japan undertake to maintain the welfare and dignity of the Imperial House of Korea.

その間の12日、参軍山縣有朋は政府軍の延岡攻撃を部署した。
In those days, on the 12th, Sangun Aritomo YAMAGATA made a plan of battle against Nobeoka of the Government army.

しかし、かえって彰義隊の力が増大し、新政府軍の懐疑を招く。
However, the Shogitai troop force increased in power, inviting remarks of skepticism from the new government.

その後、新政府自身が彰義隊の武装解除に当たる旨を布告した。
Later, the new government declared by statement to order the disarmaming of the Shogitai troops.

政府は暗殺犯を刑法上、規定がない「国事犯」として処理した。
The Meiji government processed the assassins as 'political prisoner' which had no regulations under the penal code.

会社発足当初から、政府の補助金も受けて土地の買収を進めた。
Since the time of its foundation, the company proceeded with purchase of the land with financial help from the national government.

第六條韓國政府ハ統監ノ同意ナクシテ外國人ヲ傭聘セサルコト
Article 6 The government of Korea shall not engage any foreigner without the consent of the inspector general.

日本政府が内地以外の統治区域を植民地と呼ぶことは珍しくない。
It is not rare for the Japanese government to refer to territories other than the inland as colonies.

会津戦争のときに会津藩が維新政府に抵抗するためにつくった部隊
A troop of Aizu Domain formed during the Aizu War to resist the restoration government

1875年（明治8年）、明治政府は新京升を公定の升に定めた。
In 1875, the Meiji government designated the new kyomasu as the official masu.

元年者でアメリカ本土渡航を希望する者に明治政府が旅券を発行。
The Meiji Government issued passports to those among the 'first-years' who wished to go to the U..S. mainland.

各県には知藩事に代わって新たに中央政府から県令が派遣された。
Kenrei (prefectural governor) was dispatched by the central government to each prefecture in place of chihanji.

明治政府は1874年6月から交渉を再開するがやはり紛糾した。
In June 1874, the Meiji Government resumed negotiations, which did not come to a conclusion.

5月朝鮮政府、甲午農民戦争（東学党の乱）の鎮圧を清朝に依頼
May: The Korean government requested Qing dynasty to suppress the Donghak Peasant Revolution (the Tonghak Uprising).

1871年の廃藩置県で全国の直轄化が完成した明治政府だった。
The Meiji government became to control the entire nation directly by enacting Haihan-chiken (abolition of feudal domains and establishment of prefectures) in 1871.

そのため、明治政府は太政官札ともども回収されることになった。
That made the Meiji government collect both Minbusho-satsu and Dajokan-satsu.

8月1日、薩軍が佐土原で敗れたので、政府軍は宮崎を占領した。
In August 1, the Government army occupied Miyazaki because Satsu-gun lost at Sadowara.

政府関係者はその検討の際に非即位論が不敬だとは考えなかった。
Government officials did not consider the non-enthronement theory irreverent during discussion.

しかし政府とメディアの対立を等閑視できることもできなかった。
However, it could not ignore the conflict between the government and media.

明治新政府の要職や陸海軍の幹部には薩長出身者が多く占めていた。
A majority of the officers in important posts in the new Meiji Government and the armed forces came from Satcho.

しかし監察機関であるがゆえに政府内での彼らの権限は小さかった。
However, their authority was small because it was an inspection agency.

政府は諸藩に対する改革の指令を布告し、財政状態の報告をさせた。
The government announced implementation of reforms to samurai warriors of every domain, and made them report their financial condition.

開拓判官：島義勇（明治3年（1870年）4月に中央政府に転任）
Chief magistrate: Yoshitake SHIMA (transferred to the central government in April 1870).

7月20日朝鮮政府に対して清軍の撤兵を要求する最後通牒を発令
July 20: The final notice calling for the Korean government to demand the withdrawal of the Qing troops.

第五條日本國政府ハ韓國皇室ノ安寧ト尊嚴ヲ維持スルコトヲ保証ス
ARTICLE V. The Government of Japan undertake to maintain the welfare and dignity of the Imperial House of Corea.

いまだ小国であった日本は政府を挙げてニコライの訪日を接待した。
Japan was still a lesser nation at that time, so Japanese government made all-out efforts to entertain Nicholas.

兵士の戦意、士気の問題は政府軍にとって解決すべき課題であった。
For the government Army, how to raise fighting spirit and morale of the soldiers was a problem to be solved.

新政府軍に4隻（富士・朝陽・翔鶴・観光）を渡すことで妥協した。
Then, Enomoto and all the other former retainers compromised on the hand over of these four ships (Fuji, Choyo, Shokaku, and Kanko) to the new government.

第五條韓國政府ハ統監ノ推薦スル日本人ヲ韓國官吏ニ任命スルコト
Article 5 The government of Korea shall appoint to official positions such Japanese as are recommended by the inspector general.

事実、解放令の後、明治政府は実質的な解放政策を一切行わなかった。
In fact, Meiji Government did not carry out any substantial emancipation policy after Kaiho Rei at all.

1920年 2月、日本政府が「写真花嫁」に対する旅券発行を禁止。
In February 1920, the Japanese government banned issuing passports for 'picture brides.'

翌日には政府と王宮を襲い領議政(首相)と旻氏系高官らを殺害した。
On the following day, the rioters attacked the government and the palace and killed the supreme leader (prime minister) and high ranking officials of the Min family.

また、キリスト教（耶蘇教）は、新政府によって引き続き厳禁された。
On the other hand, the new government maintained prohibition of Christianity.

日本政府からも勲八等の勲位と白色桐葉章、年金36円が与えられた。
The Japanese government also gave them Kun hachito (8th rank of the Order of Merit), the White Paulownia Medal and a pension of 36 yen.

第3条：日本国政府は代表者として韓国皇帝の下に韓国統監府を置く。
ARTICLE III: The government of Japan shall be represented at the Court of His Majesty the Emperor of Korea by a Resident General.

明治2年（1869）4月9日、新政府軍が蝦夷地乙部に上陸を開始。
On April 9, 1869, the army of the new government started to land in Otobe, Ezo.

第一条、慶喜の水戸謹慎に対しては政府副総裁の岩倉具視が反対した。
The conditions of Article Number One; the Vice President in charge of the new government (Seifu Fuku Sosai), Tomomi IWAKURA, was opposed to the confinement of Yoshinobu in Mito.

当時の政府首脳である参議の半数と軍人、官僚約600人が職を辞した。
Half of the Sangi (councillor) that was the government leaders at that time, and about 600 military men and bureaucracies left their services.

このため明治政府と対立、明治３年１０月に早々と免官になってしまう。
For these actions, he went head to head with the Meiji Government and was fired from his post in October 1870.

蝦夷島政府の体裁を整えるため、日本で初めて「公選入札」が行われた。
The first 'public bid' in Japan took place in order to organize Ezo Island Government.

新政府は開拓のための最初の仕事として箱館裁判所に山川調査を命じた。
The first assignment set for Hakodate Court by the new government was to explore mountains and rivers in Ezo to reclaim the land.

明治政府は1868年末、王政復古を伝える書契を朝鮮に渡そうとした。
The Meiji Government tried to hand over a note informing the Korean government about the restoration of imperial rule.

1947年のカスリーン台風以降、政府は渡良瀬川全域に堤防を作った。
After Typhoon Kathleen in 1947, the government built banks all around Watarase-gawa River.

地租改正（ちそかいせい）とは、に明治政府が行った租税制度改革である。
Land-tax reform refers to the tax system reform conducted by the Meiji Government in 1873.

だが、「巨大官庁・大蔵省」誕生に対する政府内の反発は収まらなかった。
However, backlash within the administration against the birth of 'mega-government office, Okura-sho' was not settled.

明治十四年の政変のきっかけとなり、伊藤博文が大隈重信を政府から追放。
The incident triggered the Meiji juyonen no seihen (the political changes of 1881), in which Hirofumi ITO removed Shigenobu OKUMA from his government post.

翌年には明治新政府も京都から東京に移され、日本の事実上の首都となる。
In the following year, all of the functions of the new Meiji government were transferred to Tokyo from Kyoto, paving the way for Tokyo to become the capital city of Japan.

半年も経たない頃から、陸軍は政府に日独伊三国同盟の締結を執拗に要求。
Less than six months later, the Army demanded that the government form an alliance with Germany and Italy.

5月15日に大村益次郎率いる新政府軍が1日で鎮圧した（→上野戦争）。
On May 15th, Masujiro OMURA leading the new government's army, suppressed the Shogitai troops in one day (Please refer to the Battle of Ueno.).

1874年1月12日、板垣らは愛国公党を結成し、反政府運動を始めた。
On January 12, 1874, Itagaki and others established the Aikokukoto Party and began an anti-government movement.

首都とは国中一番のみやこ、帝城、中央政府のある所、首府のことである。
A capital is the no.1 city in a country, the Imperial Palace, the place where the central government is located.

後に中央政府の政策となって一時は財政収入の半分を占めるまでとなった。
Later this became a policy of the central government and once it even occupied a half of the income.

各国公使は、事の次第を本国に告げ、日本政府に繰り返し抗議を行なった。
Ministers from various countries made repeated protests against the Japanese government while reporting what was going on to their countries.

実は、政府は10年もたてばこの運動もおさまるだろうと思っていたという。
In fact, the government was speculating that the movement would wane in 10 years.

神戸事件は大政奉還を経て明治新政府政権となって初めての外交事件である。
Kobe Incident was the first diplomat incident since the Meiji government was established through Taisei Hokan (transfer of power back to the Emperor).

上述の通り、旧水戸藩からは明治初期の新政府には主要な人材が出ていない。
As described above, the Mito Domain did not produce any important official in the new government in the early Meiji period.

日本政府には、列強三か国に対抗する力は無かったため、これを受け入れた。
The Japanese government reluctantly agreed to the intervention, as it had no power to militarily resist the three major European powers.

4月30日、大政奉還の功により、明治政府から勲一等旭日大綬章を受ける。
On April 30, his contributions to Taisei Hokan were recognized and he was awarded Kun-itto Kyokujitsu Daijusho from the Meiji Government.

政府内部でも明治14年（1881年）3月、参議大隈重信が意見書を提出。
Inside the government, Sangi (Councilor) Shigenobu OKUMA submitted a written opinion on the issue in March 1881.

だが下手な手の付け方をすれば、日本中に反政府の武装蜂起が起こりかねない。
However, if they made a bad job of undertaking some action, an armed uprising of antigovernment forces would have occured throughout Japan.

岩倉具視を正使とし、政府のトップや留学生を含む総勢107名で構成された。
It consisted of a total 107 people including the highest ranks of government and students with Tomomi IWAKURA as seishi (senior envoy).

江戸幕府や各藩、明治以降は新政府や各府県、または民間によって招聘された。
Such foreigners were invited to Japan by the Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) and by various regional domains; beginning in the Meiji period, they were invited by the new Meiji government, prefectural offices, or by the private sector.

1月17日、板垣、副島らは政府に対して『民撰議院設立建白書』を提出した。
On January 17, Itagaki and Soejima submitted 'the political statement for democratic representation' to the government.

政府首脳の月俸が数百円の時代、外国人で数百円から千円を越えるものもいた。
During an era in which the top-level ministers in the government were being paid monthly salaries of a few hundred yen, foreigners were being paid a monthly wage that ranged between several hundred yen to over one thousand.

民間では岩崎弥太郎の創始した三菱や三井は政府の保護を受けて政商となった。
In private companies, Mitsubishi, which was founded by Yataro IWASAKI, and Mitsui became businessmen with political ties, under the protection of the government.

その国の政府が正統と認め、対外的に主張し、また教育する自国の政治の流れ。
'Seishi' can also refer to an 'official history' in the sense of the orthodox view of history endorsed by a country's government, the version they promote abroad, or the government's stance on history taught in that country's schools.

交渉の停滞に業を煮やした日本側は砲艦外交を行うことを日本政府に上申した。
The Japanese got angry about the stagnation of negotiations, and they asked the Japanese government to resort to the gunboat diplomacy.

直接的に何の利益も生まない欧州派遣を、最初は渋っていた日本政府であった。
At first, the Japanese Government was reluctant to dispatch fleets to Europe because it would not yield any immediate profit.

両軍の激戦は10数日におよび、29日に竹田は陥落して政府軍の手に落ちた。
Both sides fought fiercely for ten-odd days, and Takeda fell and was seized by the government army on May 29.

中国の朝廷は皇帝を中心とし、丞相などの宦官を含めた中国古来の政府である。
Chinese Imperial Court was the ancient Chinese government which centered on an emperor and involved eunuchs such as Chancellor and the like.

国粋主義者たちは、明治政府が推進する漸進的な条約改正路線を批判していた。
Nationalists were critical of the idea of the Meiji Government promoting step-by-step revisions to the treaties.

やがて、政府内で長い協議の末、10月24日に以下の太政官布告が出された。
In the end, after a long conference within the government, the following edict of Daijokan was put out on October 24.

新政府軍は上野戦争で彰義隊を駆逐して江戸を制圧すると北陸地方へ進軍する。
The army of the new government routed the Shogi-tai in the Battle of Ueno, gained control of Edo, and took the war to the Hokuriku region.

大本営政府連絡会議では松岡外相は三国同盟に基づいてソ連への挟撃を訴えた。
At the liaison conference between the Government and Imperial General Headquarters, Foreign Minister Matsuoka made an appeal for a pincer operation against the Soviet Union based on the tripartite alliance.

鳥羽・伏見敗戦にともなって新政府による徳川征伐軍の襲来が予想されていた。
After the bakufu side lost at the battle of Toba-Fushimi, the bakufu side expected the army conquest of Tokugawa, formed by the new government, was prepared to attack the bakufu side immediately.

この結果、無政府主義者やそれに近い者が社会運動の主流派を占めるに至った。
As a result, anarchists and those close to anarchism became the majority in the socialist movement.

そのため1870年（明治3年）に政府は大友皇子に「弘文天皇」と追諡した。
Therefore the government gave Prince Otomo a posthumous title of Emperor Kobun in 1870.

これらの不平等条約は半世紀にわたりその後の明治政府を悩ませることになる。
These unequal treaties troubled the Meiji Government for a half century.

明治時代以後、政府はタバコ・塩・樟脳・アルコール・あへんに専売制を実施。
After the Meiji period, the government practiced monopolization of tobacco, salt, camphor, alcohol, and opium.

また政府が国地勢を正確に把握していなかったために国土計画も困難であった。
Also, since the government was not in control of the accurate topography of the country, national land planning was not conducted easily either.

これにより朝鮮の自国領土への編入を望む日本政府と、日本世論とは合致した。
With this, the Japanese government wanting to incorporate Korea into its territory, and the Japanese public opinion came to be in agreement.

具体的には、農作物の価格変動リスクを、政府から農民へ転嫁したものといえる。
To be more precise, it can be said that the risk of price fluctuation of agricultural crops was passed on to farmers from the government.

勤皇党のうち、明治政府への強い不満を抱く構成員により、敬神党が結成された。
Members of the Kinno-to party who were deeply dissatisfied with the Meiji Government formed the Keishin-to party.

設置の当初は戊辰戦争の最中で、新潟、佐渡、箱館は新政府の支配の外にあった。
When these local courts were installed, Japan was in the middle of the Boshin War, and Niigata, Sado and Hakodate did not fall under the control of the new government yet.

右証據トシテ下名ハ本國政府ヲリ相當ノ委任ヲ受ケ本協約ニ記名調印スルモノナリ
In faith whereof, the Undersigned duly authorized by their Governments have signed this Agreement and affixed their seals.

その後、薩摩へ帰郷したが、明治4年（1871年）に参議として新政府に復職。
After that, he returned to Satsuma, and resumed office as a councilor of the new government in 1871.

そうすると、政府への強い批判が起こり自由民権運動が一層の盛り上がりを見せた。
Then, criticism towards the government became stronger and the Freedom and People's Rights Movement was pumped up.

政府は版籍奉還後も藩主が藩知事となっているだけで、旧体制と何ら変わらない。
After the return of lands and people to the emperor, the government was still not different from the old regime at all except that the lord of the domain became govenor of the domain.

なおも新政府軍や水戸藩軍と戦い続けたが下総八日市場の戦いで壊滅（松山戦争）。
They kept fighting against the new government army and the army of the Mito Domain, but lost in the battle in Yokaichiba, Shimousa Province (the battle of Matsuyama).

なお同日、各藩の藩札は当日の相場で政府発行の紙幣と交換されることが宣された。
On the same day, it was declared that hansatsu (bills usable only in a particular domain) be exchanged for government bills at the market rate of the day.

政府は、同年閏4月21日に政体書を出して、府藩県三治制を敷くことを布告した。
The new government promulgated the Constitution of 1868 on leap April 21, the same year, and declared the fu-han-ken tripartite governance system.

7月25日に朝鮮政府から大鳥圭介公使に対して、牙山の清国軍撃退が要請される。
On July 25, the Korean government requested Minister Keisuke OTORI to expel the Qing troops in Asan by force

10月には藩行政と家臣の分離を定める藩治職制を設け、政府による藩統制を行う。
In October, the government established a Han self-government policy which specified dissociation of the Han administration and vassals, subsequently, Han was controlled by the government.

人権擁護と税制・財政改革を唱える一方で、日清戦争では積極的に政府支持に回る。
While asserting protection of human rights and taxation and finance reforms, Teikokuzaiseikakushin kai enthusiastically supported the government during the Japanese-Sino War.

従って、内乱が終結した後には直ちに明治政府が通貨改革を行うことを望んでいた。
Therefore, he hoped that the Meiji Government would carry out a currency reform immediately after the civil war ended.

伊藤の建白書は忽ち、新政府内外に広まって伊藤は大きな憎悪を受けることとなる。
Ito's petition spread in and out of the new government quickly so Ito was hated badly.

8月15日、和田峠を中心に布陣し、政府軍に対し、西南戦争最後の大戦を挑んだ。
On August 15, they formed a position based in Wada-toge, and they prepared to have the last big battle of Sainan war against Government army.

いったん新政府軍が接収した後に改めて徳川家に入用の分を下げ渡すことになった。
The new government was to receive everything from the Tokugawa family, then should it become necessary, reissue the weapons and ships to the Tokugawa family.

天正2年（1574年）、京都より追放され、備後鞆の浦に亡命政府（幕府）樹立。
In 1574 he was exiled from Kyoto and built a government in exile (Shogunate) at Tomo no Ura in Bingo Province.

そのため朝鮮半島では日韓両国政府が経営する通信事業体が並存する状態になった。
This resulted in the coexistence of two communication entities in Korean Peninsula, each run by the Japanese and Korean governments.

これに対し、政府側は1900年に治安警察法を制定して運動の規制に乗り出した。
In response to such movements, the government started to control social movements by establishing the Security Police Law in 1900.

そして、韓国政府は、その日本の行動を容易ならしめるため、十分便宜を与える事。
The Korean government is responsible for meeting all the needs and requirements of the Japanese government in order to function efficiently in Korea.

実際に、日本の裁判所で日本政府に対する損失補填を求める民事訴訟が起こされた。
In fact, some of them instituted a civil suit in a court in Japan, demanding individual compensation from the Japanese government.

第二條韓國政府ノ法令ノ制定及重要ナル行政上ノ處分ハ豫メ統監ノ承認ヲ經ルコト
Article 2 Korea shall not enact any law or ordinance or carry out any critical administrative measure unless it gets prior approval of the inspector general.

海老原穆により創刊され、大久保利通の太政官政府に対する痛烈な批判を展開した。
Boku EBIHARA launched the newspaper and featured hard-hitting articles against the Dajokan (the Grand Council of State) government led by Toshimichi OKUBO.

留守政府では朝鮮出兵を巡る征韓論が争われ、使節の帰国後に明治6年の政変に至る。
While they were away, Japanese government without them called Rusu-seifu (government while heads of government are away) had a debate over Japan's dispatching of troops to Korea, Seikanron, which led to political changes in 1873 after the delegation returned.

政府内でも批判の声が起こり、特に払下げの規則を作った前大蔵卿の大隈が反対した。
Some people criticized the sale of the properties even within the government, and especially OKUMA, the previous Minister of the Treasury who made a rule for sales of the properties, strongly opposed it.

これにより6月1日朝鮮政府は清の派兵を要請する一方、農民軍への宣撫にあたった。
On June 1, the Korean government asked Qing to dispatch troops and tried to pacify the armed peasants.

それらの主張は尊王攘夷運動と明治初期の薩長藩閥政府にも少なからぬ影響を与えた。
These claims did not by any means have a small influences on the Sonno Joi Movement (the movement advocating reverence for the Emperor and the expulsion of foreigners) and the policies of the government led by Saccho (the Satsuma and Choshu Domains) during the early Meiji period.

これに対して日本政府は遠隔地での兵站確保は困難であるとして陸軍の派遣は断った。
The Japanese Government refused the request for the dispatch of the army saying that it was difficult to maintain military depots in such distant places.

この時の行政区域はその後の国民政府による台湾行政区域決定にも影響を与えている。
The administrative regions established at this time influenced the Nationalist Government when it determined Taiwan administrative regions.

民党は「民力休養・政費節減」を掲げて、超然主義を唱える政府と対決姿勢を示した。
With the slogan 'Recovery of the National Power and Reduction of the Administrative Expenditure,' Minto showed a strong attitude toward the government which advocated the doctrine of detachment.

政府は、通達等で官憲による収容も可能とするとともに、患者の加持祈祷を規制した。
The government permitted the authorities to send patients to Hibyoin and regulated an incantation and a prayer for a patient by notifications.

一方、政府は、鹿児島県士族の反乱がおきるのではと警戒し、年末から1月にかけて、
On the other hand, the government was worried that a rebellion of the warrior class of the prefecture of Kagoshima might occur between the end of that year and January.

後に榎本らは函館市の五稜郭を占拠し、最後まで新政府軍に抵抗した（→箱館戦争）。
Later, Enomoto and other defiant former retainers occupied the Goryokaku (five-sided fortification) in Hakodate City and resisted the new government's army until the end (please refer to the Battle of Hakodate.).

新政府はすでに東海道・東山道・北陸道の三道から江戸を攻撃すべく出撃させていた。
The new government's side had already prepared for the attack upon Edo region from the three main roads, Tokaido Road, Tosando Road and the Hokurikudo Road.

また福澤を除けば、明治以後は官吏として維新政府に仕えていたことも特徴といえる。
In addition, except Fukuzawa, they were characterized by the fact that they worked for the government of restoration as government officials after the Meiji period.

一揆鎮圧に新政府軍の支援を受けた北関東の諸藩は藩論を恭順にまとめることになる。
Later, the domains in the northern Kanto region, which had received the support of the new government in suppressing the uprisings, united in allegiance to the new government.

御用新聞の東京日日新聞までが政府批判を行ったほか、各地で弾劾の演説会が催された。
Even the Tokyo Nichinichi Newspaper, famous for blindly praising the policies of the government, criticized the government and the speeches to criticize the government were given in various places.

明治6年（1873年）に、政府は北方警備と開拓とを兼任させる屯田兵制を開始した。
In 1873, the government started a farmer-soldiersystem in which a farmer-soldier doubled the tasks of northern-territory security and land reclamation.

そして、近代工業や鉄道などの建設を推進する政府は「商人」のようであると糾弾した。
He further denounced the government as something like 'a merchant' since it promoted modern industries and the construction of railways.

政府の財政を窮乏させる原因となったのは、西南戦争による過大な戦費の支出であった。
It was the vast war spending of Seinan War that aggravated the government's finance.

この曲解とは、私学校を政府への反乱を企てる志士を養成する機関だとする見解である。
In other words, the central government took Shigakko for schools for training patriots to rebel against the government.

その後、民党の政府への反発が強まり衆議院で改定案を原案とする予算案が可決された。
After that, minto expressed further strong opposition to the government, and the budget proposal based on the revised proposal was passed in the House of Representatives.

このため、各地の攘夷派は新政府が成立すれば当然攘夷が断行されるものと考えていた。
For this, local anti-foreigner factions thought that anti-foreigner policy will be operated if when the new government realized.

だが、直後に天皇が「病気」を理由に伊藤ら政府要人との謁見を拒む出来事が発生した。
Immediately after his inauguration, however, the Emperor began rejecting audiences with government officials for health reasons.

諸外国の立場もこれ以降、局外中立を保ちながらも、新政府側へ徐々にシフトしていく。
After this incident, all foreign countries maintained their neutrality positions; then they would gradually realign into positions in support of the new government.

日本政府は、その目的を達するため、軍略上必要の地点を臨検収用することができる事。
The Japanese government shall be allowed to expropriate some points of land in Korea, if they are necessary for the Japanese government's strategy in order to achieve their aims.

1874年（明治7年）、幸松は写本の複写本1部を大分県令を通じて明治政府に献本。
Sachimatsu presented a copy of the manuscript to the Meiji government through Oita prefectural law in 1874.

丁号券　鳳凰や龍といったデザインに変更した「大日本帝国政府軍票手票」として発行。
Teigo-ken Notes: the pictures of Chinese phoenix and dragons were printed and it was issued as 'Military Currency by the Government of the Empire of Japan.'

更に、法令などにおいて、政府自身が実は3％が高率であることを認めている部分がある。
Furthermore, in the regulations and so on, the government itself actually admitted that 3％ was a high rate.

大久保利通亡き後、明治政府はいつ立憲体制に移行するかという疑問が持ち上がっていた。
After the death of Toshimichi OKUBO, there was a dispute among the government regarding transitional period to constitutional government system.

8月31日、政府は大隈と民権陣営が結託した上での陰謀と断じて大隈の追放を決定した。
On August 31, the government determined that Okuma and supporters of the Freedom and People's Rights Movement cooperated on the dark plot, and thus decided the banishment of Okuma.

これに対し政府が保安条例の制定や改進党大隈の外相入閣を行うことで運動は沈静化した。
The government quelled this by establishing the Hoan Jorei (regulations for the preservation of law and order) and appointing Okuma of the Constitutional Reform Party as Foreign Minister.

またこれにより、天皇の意思が政府の正式決定に勝るという前例が出来上がってしまった。
In this way, they set a precedent that the emperor's intention surpasses the official decision.

1871年4月には廃藩置県が実行されて幕藩体制は解消、全国の士族は政府が掌握する。
After the government implemented Haihan-chiken (abolition of feudal domains and establishment of prefectures) in April, 1871, the traditional feudal domain system was abolished and feudal lords were controlled by the government.

開拓使の発足当時、中央政府の財政基盤は弱く、北海道の全域を統治する余力はなかった。
When the Hokkaido Development Commission was first inaugurated, the financial base of the central government was weak and could not afford to govern the entire Hokkaido.

また木戸は能力を重視して大隈とともに旧幕臣の郷純造や渋沢栄一らを新政府に登用した。
Also, Kido empahasized the ability of individuals and appointed, along with Okuma, a former retainer of shogun Junzo GO and Eiichi SHIBUSAWA to posts within the new government.

しかし、第一次世界大戦により各国政府とも金本位制を中断し、管理通貨制度に移行する。
But, each nation had discontinued gold standard system due to the aftermath of World WarⅠand shifted to managed currency system.

しかし、池上は刺殺を企む政府が上京途中に危難を加える虞れがあると主張して反対した。
IKEGAMI opposed NAGAYAMA for the reason that the government, which was planning the assassination, might attack the party on their way to Tokyo.

この場合朝廷的体質ではなく明治後の日本の政府のような体質であり朝廷とは呼びづらい。
The character of Manchukuo government was like the one of Japanese government after the Meiji period, and it is hardly called the Imperial Court.

明治4年（1871年）に新政府が新通貨制度の構築のために藩札類の発行状況を調べた。
In 1871, the new government checked the Han-satsu and the like that had been issued, to establish a new currency system.

明治通宝（めいじつうほう）とは明治時代初期に発行された政府紙幣（不換紙幣）である。
Meiji Tsuho are governmental bills (non-convertible paper money) issued at the beginning of the Meiji period.

だから、この事は新政府にとっては、旧弊を温存することにもなりうる諸刃の剣であった。
Therefore, it would have been the assumption of a double-edged sword to the new government, as the new government inherited the feudal system from the former bakufu, since the new government would also incorporate all of the conservative people.

また、江戸城とともに従来の幕府の統治機構である幕藩体制がほぼ明治政府に継承された。
Also, along with the Edo-jo Castle, the new Meiji government took over almost all of the feudal system, which was the characteristic of the bakufu and was the governing structure of the former Tokugawa shogunate.

政府は議会・政党の意思に制約されず行動すべきという主張であるとされる（異説あり）。
It is understood that the theory insists that the government should behave without being restricted by the opinions of the Diet or political parties (there are different theories, too).

そのため、国家財政の安定化を行なって明治新政府の中央集権を確立させる必要があった。
Therefore, they needed to stabilize the state's financial affairs and establish centralization by the new Meiji government.

藩閥の構成員が閣僚の多数を占める内閣 (日本)を、藩閥政府あるいは藩閥内閣という。
The cabinet, most of which members are the constituent members of Hanbatsu, are called Hanbatsu (han-dominated) government.

大成会を中心とした政府（第1次松方内閣）支持の政党・会派に属する95名が結成した。
It was formed by 95 people who belonged to political parties ・ parliamentary groups headed by the Taisei-kai Group which supported the government (the 1st Matsukata cabinet).

当時のインドシナは中国国民政府（蒋介石政権）に対する英米の支援ルートになっていた。
Indochina was then a support route of Britain and the United States to China under the Nationalist (Chiang Kai-sek) Government.

同郡に入った新政府軍が戦乱を理由とした年貢の半減に応じた結果、間もなく鎮圧された。
The new government army, which proceeded into the country, accepted the reduction of nengu (land tax) by half because land tax reduction was the cause of the disturbance, and in time the uprising calmed down.

これを知った民権派が一斉に政府を非難し、東京では学生や壮士によるデモも起こされた。
Members of the Civil-Right group who found out about this unanimously criticized the government, and in Tokyo, students and political activists caused a demonstration.

しかし、金貨の流出と政府不換紙幣の大量発行によって、金貨はほとんど流通しなくなった。
However, gold coins were scarcely circulated, because they outflowed and the government issued huge sum of irredeemable currency.

このため富国強兵を掲げる明治政府は殖産興業に力を入れ、富岡製糸場などを建設していく。
To accomplish this, the Meiji government, which was promoting the message of fukoku kyohei (rich country, strong military), focused on nurturing new industries and stepped up construction of various facilities including the silk mills of Tomioka.

1873年朝鮮政府の実権は閔妃（1851年 - 1895年、高宗の妃）一族に移った。
In 1873 reign of the Korean government transferred to the family of Empress Myeongseong (1851 – 1895), the empress of Gao Zong.

しかし、西郷の新政府への不満はその富国政策とその指導にあたる大隈ら大蔵官僚にあった。
Saigo, however, was dissatisfied with the government's policy of national enrichment and the bureaucrats of Okurasho (Ministry of Treasury), including Okuma, who led this policy.

この見解は、幕府時代の条約を引き継いだという認識に立つ日本政府と異なるものであった。
This view was different from that of the Japanese government which stood on recognition of having took over the treaty of the shogunate era.

李奉昌事件、あるいは桜田門不敬事件とも呼ばれ、また日本政府は李奉昌不敬事件と呼んだ。
This incident was commonly called Lee Bong-chang Incident or Sakuradamon Lese Majesty Incident, while the Japanese government especially called it Lee Bong-chang Lese Majesty Incident.

閏4月21日に新政府は政体書を発して、各地の裁判所を府または県に改編することにした。
On April 21, the new government promulgated the Constitution of 1868 which stipulated a transformation of the local courts into fu or ken (prefecture) administrative unit (fu-han-ken tripartite governance system).

なお、日本政府の強引な開戦工作に対して、明治天皇は以下のように述べ怒りを発していた。
For reference, Emperor Meiji is said to have shown his anger by saying the following.

政府内部やイギリス公使ハリー・パークスやアメリカなどからは出兵への反対意見もあった。
There was opposition to the expedition from within the government as well as from British envoy Harry Parkes and the U.S.

雑徭は、国司の命に従って、国内の土木工事や政府機関での雑用に従事する労役義務である。
The irregular corvee was labor carried out on public works or miscellaneous work at government offices within a province and ordered by the provincial governor.

これら制度の放置は、律令政府に対して財政的かつ人的な負担として重くのしかかっていた。
They remained unaltered though, which placed a heavy burden on the Ritsutyo government both from the viewpoint of finances and human resources.

野州梁田の戦い：古屋佐久左衛門率いる脱走部隊（衝鋒隊）が新政府軍（東山道軍）に大敗。
The battle of Yashu-Yanada: the escaping troops (Shohotai) led by Sakuzaemon FURUYA suffered a severe defeat to the new government army (the Tosando force).

大量の贋貨（政府発行の悪貨を含む）の流通は物価を不安定化させ経済にも悪影響を与えた。
The circulation of great amounts of counterfeit money (including bad money issued by the government) made the prices destabilize and gave a bad influence on the economy.

しかし、周囲の説得に苦慮している間に、4月に政府軍が熊本城に入城したとの情報を得た。
However, in April, they got an information that the government army entered into Kumamoto-jo Castle, while they struggled to persuade their surrounding people.

明治新政府回収の際の引替率は、金札1両は1円、銭札五百文は4銭、百文は8厘であった。
When the new Meiji government collected han bills, one ryo (currency unit only used for gold coins) of kinsatsu was exchanged for 1 yen, 500 mon of zenisatsu for 4 sen, and 100 mon of zenisatsu for 8 ri.

大韓帝国政府と韓国統監府は廃止され、かわって全朝鮮を統治する朝鮮総督府が設置された。
The Korean Empire and Korea Protection Agency were discontinued, and instead, Chosen Sotoku-fu (Governor-General of Korea) was established to rule all of Korea.

慶応3年（1867年）大政奉還の後は譜代筆頭にもかかわらず新政府側に藩論を転向させた。
After Taisei Hokan (transfer of power back to the Emperor) in 1867, Naonori converted the opinion of domain people into the new government side even though he was fudai hitto (head of fudai daimyo.)

政府は当初、検地が農民からの反発を受けることを懸念し、農民からの自己申告主義を採った。
The government initially ordered individual farmers to report details on their land because the government was concerned about farmers' objection on the nationwide land survey.

それでも、箕作は新政府の仕官後の1874年に5年間の歳月をかけてその邦訳を完成させた。
Still, MITSUKURI completed its Japanese translation in 1874, spending five years after serving the new government.

この平等条約締結の礼として、明治政府は1898年に在外公館の用地をメキシコに提供した。
The Meiji Government offered a land for a diplomatic mission to Mexico in reward for the conclusion of the treaty.

これは江戸庶民に親しまれていた大石を顕彰することで、新政府への共感を得る効果があった。
This had an affect on gaining sympathy from a new government by praising Oishi, who was admired by commoners in Edo.

政府は1875年9月7日の太政官布告138号において禄高の金禄化の切り替えを実施した。
The government issued an edict of Daijokan No.138 on September 7, 1875 which enforced a change of a payment method of the stipend into by cash.

明治政府は琉球王国を琉球藩として日本に組み入れ、更に沖縄県として実質的国内化を図った。
The Meiji government incorporated the Ryukyu dynasty into Japan as Ryukyu domain and further changed it to Okinawa prefecture.

開拓使による最初の移民政策は、政府募集の移民を送り込んで定住させるというものであった。
The first immigration policy the Development Commission took was to send immigrants recruited by the government to Hokkaido and made them settled.

琉球内ではそれを不服とし明治政府に様々な嘆願を行い、また清に救援を求める人々もあった。
However, some Ryukyuans opposed to this order and submitted petitions to the Meiji government, or others sought Qing for assistance.

甲午農民戦争の停戦後、朝鮮政府は日清両軍の撤兵を要請したが、どちらも受け入れなかった。
After the Donghak Peasant Revolution the Korean government requested both Japan and Qing to withdraw their troops, but neither accepted.

朝鮮との国交交渉が進展しない明治政府内で武力による開国を迫るいわゆる征韓論が台頭した。
The so-called Seikanron (debate on the subjugation of Korea) supporting military pressure to force Korea to open the country emerged in the Meiji government whose diplomatic talks with Korea did not show any progress.

日本政府は朝鮮を内地と同様の経済水準に引き上げるため、多額の予算を朝鮮半島に投資した。
The Japanese government invested a large amount of budget to the Korean Peninsula in order to increase Korean economy to the same level in the mainland.

しかし、政府軍は15日に熊本鎮台と第1旅団から部隊を選抜して竹田に投入して反撃に出た。
However, on May 15, the government army reinforced the troops in Takeda with the troops selected from Kumamoto Garrison and the 1st brigade, and counterattacked the Satsuma army.

自由党・硬六派ともに政府との政治休戦を宣言したが、硬六派に対する世論の支持が広がった。
Although both the Liberal Party and the Ko Roppa declared a truce with the government, public support for the Ko Roppa increased.

翌、明治2年（1869年）、箱館戦争に敗北し、残された所属艦船は新政府に引き渡された。
In 1869, the following year, they were defeated in Hakodate war, and the remained warships were transferred to the new government.

この事件は、当時の繊維工場の労働環境を調査した政府の報告書「職工事情」にも掲載された。
This incident spurred the publication of the governmental report entitled 'Shokko jijo' (Conditions for Factory Workers), an investigation into the working environment of textile factories of the day.

使節団の出発前に各省大輔以上の政府高官が盟約書（「大臣・参議・大輔盟約書」）を結んだ。
Just before the delegation departed, government officials in higher rank than taifu of each ministry entered into a treaty ('Treaty of ministers, sangi (councilors) and taifu').

1900年に立憲政友会を旗揚げして政府の内側から超然主義を否定する動きに出たのである。
In 1900, he established the Rikken Seiyukai party to start denying transcendentalism within the government.

また、8月には村松藩でも村役人の追放を訴える一揆が起きて藩と新政府軍に鎮圧されている。
In September (表記の変更), another uprising occurred in Muramatsu Domain, demanding the expulsion of village officers, and it was also suppressed by the joint operation of the domain and the new government army.

明治時代に入り、1869年（明治2年）に新政府の監察機関として改めて京都市に設置された。
In the Meiji Period, in 1869 it was newly established in Kyoto City as an inspection agency of the new government.

代官所を占拠した天誅組は「御政府」を称して、五条天領を天朝直轄地と定めた（天誅組の変）。
The Tenchugumi occupied the magistrate's office, calling themselves 'the government' and decided that Gojo tenryo (directly controlled land by bakufu) should be controlled by the Imperial Court (Tenchugumi incident).

秩禄処分（ちつろくしょぶん）は、明治政府が1876年に実施した秩禄給与の全廃政策である。
Chitsuroku-shobun was a policy of complete abolition of hereditary stipend implemented by the Meiji government in 1876.

廃藩置県によって旧藩の債務は旧藩主家からは切り離されて新政府が一括処理することとなった。
After haihan-chiken, domains' debts were separated from the families of former lords and the new government became responsible to repay these debts.

当時、藩と府県（政府直轄地）の管轄区域は入り組んでおりこの府藩県三治制は非効率であった。
As the regions of han and those of prefectures (land directly controlled by the government) became linked to each other at the time, this made fu-han-ken sanchisei inefficient.

西郷は新政府に必要なのは士族を中心とした軍備強化と農本主義的な国家経営であると主張した。
Saigo argued that what was necessary for the new government was a strong military power based on samurai and an agriculture-oriented nation management.

このほか、古河鉱業は1960年に国有林復旧への協力金として政府に約360万円を支払った。
In addition, in 1960, Furukawa Mining paid about 3.6 million yen to the government as cooperation money for national forests restoration.

さらに政府がこの問題で判決を譲ったのは、元老内部の抗争の影響があったためとする説もある。
There is another theory that struggle among Genro (elder statesman) was the reason why the government had to give up the death penalty of Tsuda.

政府内の提案としては、明治3年（1870年）11月に開拓使が行なったものがはじめである。
The first proposal of the government was made by the Hokkaido Development Commissioner in November, 1870.

1893年に入ると紙幣交換基金を設置して、政府紙幣・国立銀行発行紙幣の回収を加速させた。
In 1893, he established the funds for exchange of paper money, which accelerated the collection of the government-issued paper money and the paper money issued by the national bank.

1907年、日仏協約が締結されると、フランスは日本政府に対して留学生の引渡しを要求した。
After the signing of the Japanese-French agreement in 1907, the French government demanded the handover of the students from its Japanese counterpart.

これによって、正式に「開国」を日本（明治政府）の国策とすることが正式に決定したのである。
Accordingly, they officially decided to take 'the opening of Japan' for a national policy of Japan (Meiji government).

日本では平安時代の皇朝十二銭以来久しく途絶えていた中央政府による鋳造貨幣であるとされる。
In Japan, it was considered as the first mintage issued by the central government after many years, since the 'Kocho -Jyunisen' coin (the twelve types of coins minted by the imperial court) was discontinued in the Heian Period.

明治3年に大友皇子即位説が政府公認となったのは、単にそれが当時有力な説だったからである。
The Prince Otomo enthronement theory was approved by the government in 1872 simply because it was a dominant theory at that time.

政府や明六社は時期尚早として反対したが、以後、同様の建白書が続々と提出されることとなる。
At first, the government and the Meiroku-sha (Japan's first academic society) opposed to the petition saying that it was too early, but similar petitions began to be presented one after another after this.

日本政府による推薦者を加えて影響力を確保し、他国への便宜供与を制約しようとの試みである。
It was an effort to secure its clout by adding the persons recommended by the Japanese government, and to restrict facilities offered to the other countries.

1792年8月10日、フランス革命政府は国王ルイ16世 (フランス王)を逮捕し王権を停止。
On August 10, 1792, the French Revolution Government arrested their King Louis XVI (King of France) and suspended his sovereignty.

しかしこのため、慶応4年（1868年）1月に新政府から敵と見なされて領地を召し上げられた。
However, due to this he was regarded as an enemy by the new government, and he had his territory confiscated in January 1868.

1885年 1月、ハワイへの明治政府公認の最初の組織的移民944人が農園労働者として渡航。
In January 1885, the first organized group of emigrants (944 people) recognized by the Meiji Government sailed to Hawaii as agricultural laborers.

慶応4年（1868年）5月に、明治維新政府は銀目廃止の布令を出し、丁銀は流通停止となった。
In May 1868, the Meiji Restoration government officially announced the abolition of Ginme (silver grain) and Chogin circulation ceased.

西郷も現状の政局を打破するために廃藩置県によって政府内の流れを変えることを望んだのである。
In order to break the political stalemate, Saigo also wanted to change the atmosphere of the government by implementing haihan-chiken.

新政府を諸藩と対峙させることによって政権両派の再統一と求心力を回復させようとしたのである。
They intended to reunify both groups recuperate its centripetal force by making the new government face off against the domains.

日本政府が、国民に伝えた宣戦の理由（清国ニ対スル宣戦ノ詔勅）の要旨は次のようなものである。
The Japanese government explained to the people the outline of the cause for the war (Imperial Rescript of war declaration against Qing) as follows;

政府が当時のこれらの対策が不十分であることを認めたのは、前述したとおり1993年であった。
As described above, in 1993, the government acknowledged for the first time that those measures they had taken at that time had not been enough to solve the pollution.

そこで政府は新たに第4旅団（曾我祐準少将）・別働第5旅団（大山巌少将）1個大隊を派遣した。
Then the national government newly sent the 4th brigade (led by Major General Sukenori SOGA and a battalion of the detached 5th brigade (led by Major General Iwao OYAMA).

政府は戦費調達のため不換紙幣を乱発し（→国立銀行 (明治)）、インフレーションが発生した。
To procure the war cost, the government issued lots of inconvertible paper currency (refer to the national bank (in the Meiji period)), causing inflation.

明治維新後、明治政府は財政不足を補うために太政官札・民部省札などの不換紙幣を発行し続けた。
After the Meiji Restoration, the Meiji government continued to issue non-convertible paper money such as Dajokan-satsu (notes of the Great Council of State) or Minbusho-satsu (Civil Department notes) to compensate for the lack of financial resources.

逆に政府側は地主・農民の税負担が軽くなっていることを理由に地租の増徴を計画するようになる。
Contrarily, the government planned to raise the land tax on the grounds that the taxation on landowners and peasants had been reduced.

井上自らが鹿鳴館の主人役を務め、華族・政府高官・外交団を集めて夜会などの行事を日夜開いた。
INOUE himself acted as host to Rokumeikan and held rites and festivals such as an evening party gathering the peerages, high officials of the government, and the diplomacy corps.

明治元年3月14日（1868年4月6日）、五箇条の御誓文により、政府の基本方針が示された。
On April 6, 1868, the basic policies of the government were presented according to the Charter Oath of Five Articles.

島田らは刀を捨てて、同日、大久保の罪五事と、他の政府要人の罪を挙げた斬奸状を手に自首した。
Shimada and others abandoned their swords, and on the same day, they surrendered themselves to the police, handing over their zankanjo which included the five crimes of Okubo and those of other important governmental persons.

政府は一部の激派だけの単独暴動なのか、藩庁が裏で激派を煽動していたりはしなかったか調査した。
The government investigated whether it was a riot caused by just one extremist group, or the government building in the domain stirred the extremist group behind the scenes.

1863年に開成所と改称、幕府瓦解により明治新政府に受け継がれ、のちの東京大学等につながる。
It was renamed Kaiseijo in 1863 and changed hands to the new Meiji government after the fall of the bakufu and led to the University of Tokyo and other institutes later.

第1期から第2期への改築は、律令制度によって政府機関として確立したことに対応するものである。
The renovation from the first period to the second period corresponds to the establishment of the office as a government agency due to the ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code).

長官は大宰帥（だざいのそち）といい従三位相当官、大納言・中納言クラスの政府高官が兼ねていた。
The governor-general was called Dazai no sochi, and high government officials such as Dainagon (Major Counselor) or Chunagon (middle counselor), who were equivalent to Jusanmi (Junior Third Rank) would concurrently serve as well.

明治初頭、日本政府は近代化に必要な都市を築くため、西洋建築の技術を得ようと躍起になっていた。
In the early Meiji period, the Japanese government was making desperate attempts to acquire Western architectural technologies in order to develop the cities required to modernize the country.

明治政府直属の御親兵も、長州藩の一部部隊を元に諸藩の在京の浪人を集めて組織されたものだった。
The Goshinpei (army to convoy the Emperor) under the direct command of the Meiji Government was organized based on a part of the Choshu domain's army with recruited ronin (samurai with no lord) in Kyoto.

禄制改革をはじめとする留守政府の政策に対しては反対意見も存在し、農民一揆なども勃発していた。
Some people were opposed to the policies of Rusu-seifu including reforms of the stipend system, and peasant uprisings occurred in many places.

このため、明治政府の上位官職を薩長土肥で一時期ほぼ独占する状態となり、藩閥政治と揶揄された。
Because of this, the Satchodohi briefly monopolized almost all the higher ranks of government services in the Meiji Government and were referred to as the domain clique government.

明治元年（1868年）12月15日の政府誕生と同時に日本初の「入札（選挙）」がおこなわれた。
On December 15, 1868, the first 'bid (election)' of Japan took place when the New Government was established.

1879年明治政府はいわゆる琉球処分を行い琉球藩を沖縄県とし、琉球王尚泰の東京移住を命じた。
In 1879, the Meiji Government carried out the so-called Ryukyu annexation to abolish the Ryukyu domain and set up Okinawa prefecture and ordered the Ryukyu King Sho Tai to live in Tokyo.

だが、明治政府の基盤が固まっていなかったことによって、太政官札ともども偽札が各地で作られた。
But, counterfeit bills of Minbusho-satsu and Dajokan-satsu were forged in various places because the foundation of the Meiji government was not strengthened enough.

吏党（りとう）とは、明治時代中期の初期帝国議会における明治政府寄りの姿勢を示した政党のこと。
The Rito party was a political party that supported the Meiji government at an early Imperial Diet during the mid-Meiji period.

北清事変以後のロシア帝国の満洲進出に警戒感を抱き、日本政府に対して強硬策を取るように迫った。
The society pressed the government to take forceful measures sensing a danger from Russia which expanded into Manchuria after the Boxer Rebellion.

日本政府はその要求には応じなかったものの、1909年には留学生全員を国外に退去強制している。
Although theJapanese government did not accept the demand, all Vietnamese students were expelled from Japan in 1909.

だが、こうした改革が余りにも急進的であったために、政府内との保守派や地方官との対立を招いた。
However, since these reforms are so radical that conflicts arose with the conservatives in the government and local officials.

百万町歩開墾計画（ひゃくまんちょうぶかいこんけいかく）とは奈良時代に政府が掲げた計画である。
The Hyakuman Chobu Kaikon Keikaku (The million- hectare development plan) was a government scheme during the Nara Period.

唯一の島根県人である浅井は西南戦争に政府軍として参加し、明治10年8月に東京に凱旋していた。
Asai was the only shizoku among the Shimada circle who came from Shimane Prefecture, participating in the Seinan War as a soldier in the government army, making a triumphant return to Tokyo in August 1877.

丙号券　日本銀行の文字を印刷していない紙幣に「大日本帝国政府軍用手票」の文字を印刷して発行。
Heigo-ken Notes; the Japanese bank notes, which were not printed the letters of 'Bank of Japan,' were issued with the letters 'Military Currency by the Government of the Empire of Japan' printed.

これに対して韓国統監であった伊藤をはじめとした日本政府首脳は激昂し、高宗を強制的に排除した。
The Japanese heads of state, including ITO, who was the Inspector General of Korea, were enraged and forced Gojong out of office.

明治政府は1870年に斬首など従来の死刑執行方法に代わり絞首刑にすると太政官布告が出された。
The Meiji Government issued an edict of Dajokan (Grand Council of state) to replace old methods of capital punishment such as decapitation by hanging in 1870.

明治政府の中央集権化など改革を行うに際しての財源確保のため、禄制改革が課題の1つとなっていた。
The Meiji government had to proceed a reform of the stipend system so as to secure enough finances for other reforms such as centralization of power.

武家政権の時代においては、征夷大将軍が主宰する政府（幕府）についても「朝廷」と言うことがある。
In the period of military government, a bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) was sometimes called 'Chotei', too.

また専売制などの導入など一部の内容は日本政府との事前協議及び国会の承認を必要とした内容もある。
Some of the policies such as the introduction of monopoly required a conference with the Japanese government in advance and authorization by the Diet.

また近衛の責任追及も行われるようになり、砲艦に呼び出され軍部と政府の関係について質問があった。
Furthermore, as investigations into Konoe's accountability seemed likely to continue, he was summoned to a gunboat and questioned on the relationship between the government and the military.

夜、本荘に本営を移し、ここでの軍議でもめているうちに、政府軍の正規旅団は本格的に南下し始めた。
At night they moved the heaquarters to Honjo, and while they were bickering about the military meeting, the Seiki-ryodan official brigade of the Government army started to move to south.

以後の戦いは、新政府軍の鎮撫とそれに抵抗する奥羽越列藩同盟という構図で語られることが多くなる。
After the surrender of Edo-jo Castle, historians and other experts often considered the wars which followed to be directly connected with suppression by the new government army and the reaction of the resisting forces of the Ouetsu-reppan alliance.

また、明治維新後は明治政府に対して否定的な部分を持つなど、権力の批判者であることを貫いている。
He was quite critical of authority; after the Meiji Restoration he was sometimes negative against the Meiji government.

また、政府の教育機関であった大学寮においても漢詩・漢文・歴史を教授した紀伝道の地位が上昇した。
The status of studying Chinese poetry, classics, and history, which were called Kidendo, was raised in the Daigaku-ryo, a governmental institution of learning.

1900年には韓国政府は通信院を設置し万国郵便連合（UPU）にも加盟し、国際的郵便網に入った。
In 1900, the Korean government set up 通信院 (Communication Institute) and became a member of the Universal Postal Union (UPU) to join the international postal network.

1888年（明治21年）政府は、長州藩出身の絵師、浮田可成（うきたかせい）に旗の絵を描かせた。
In 1888 the Meiji government ordered Kasei UKITA, a painter of Choshu Domain, to draw the Imperial standards.

しかし、清国政府は革命党の問題に悩まされている最中であり、容易に日本の条件を受け入れなかった。
The Qing government, however, did not readily accept the condition offered by Japan because they were suffered by the problem of Revolutionary Party.

しかし、これを日本政府の公式見解とするかどうかには議論がある(日本の戦争謝罪発言一覧も参照)。
However, there is an argument over whether this can be taken as the Japanese government's official view or not (See the list of Japanese comments on apologies for the war).

それと同時に政府紙幣と国立銀行券の発行停止が言い渡され、国立銀行も現在の銀行へとなっていった。
At the same time, the government announced that government notes and national bank notes would be stopped to issue and national banks became what they are now.

1901年カリフォルニア州とネバダ州各州議会、連邦政府に対し日系人移民を制限する建議書を送る。
In 1901, the assemblies of the States of California and Nevada sent the federal government a proposal that Japanese immigration be restrained.

702年には、大宝令にもとづいた最初の造籍が行われ、国民1人1人が政府に把握されるようになった。
In 702, the first family register was created on the basis of the Taiho Code and each member of the nation had been surveyed by the government.

太政官札（だじょうかんさつ）は、明治政府によって明治元年閏4月から翌2年5月まで発行された紙幣。
Dajokan bills are paper currency issued by the Meiji government from May 1868 until June 1868.

また江戸時代に事実上日本の首都機能を担った江戸という財産が、ほぼ無傷で新政府の傘下に接収された。
The new government seized property, taking Edo, the main Japanese capital for functions during the Edo period, this was done with almost no destruction so, Edo came under the organizational control of the new government.

だが、前述の上平など一部過激派は新政府の近代化政策に反発して横井小楠暗殺事件などを起こしている。
However, the radicals including the above UEHIRA repelled the modernization policy of the new government, which led to the assassination of Shonan YOKOI.

日本側は当初、朝鮮政府による謝罪と遺族への扶助料、犯人の処罰、巨済島または鬱陵島の割譲を要求した。
The Japanese government at first requested that the Korean government make an apology, give grants to the families of the dead, punish the culprits, and cede either Geoje Island or Ulleungdo Island.

政府首脳（閔氏一族）が事大政策を採る中、金玉均らは国王高宗 (朝鮮王)のいわば「一本釣り」を計画。
While the government leaders (the Min family) were serving the Great, Ok-gyun KIM planned to take aim at Gojong-King of Korea only.

台湾出兵（たいわんしゅっぺい）は、1874年（明治7年）に明治政府が行った台湾への軍事出兵である。
The Taiwan expedition refers to the Meiji government's dispatch of military troops to Taiwan in 1874.

朝鮮にも1868年12月に明治政府が樹立するとすぐに書契、すなわち国書を対馬藩の宗氏を介し送った。
Right after the establishment of the Meiji government in December 1866, Japan sent Korea a diplomatic correspondence, that is to say a sovereign's message, through the So clan in Tsushima.

同年設置された政府の水質審議会指定河川から渡良瀬川が除外されたことも運動を大きくする原因になった。
Another cause that led to the fuelling of the movement was that Watarase-gawa River was excluded from the Water Quality Designated Rivers established by the government in the same year.

1899年3月、台湾銀行法が改正され、日本政府は100万元を限度額に台湾銀行株式の取得を認可した。
In March 1899, the Bank of Taiwan Act was amended, and the Japanese government authorized to acquire the shares of Bank of Taiwan with the limit of one million yuan.

政府軍は勝利の原因が、近代的装備、火力、通信手段、指揮能力の違いにあったことを正しく把握していた。
The government army correctly grasped that the factors of its victory were its superior modernized equipment, firepower, means of communication, and command ability.

明治維新を迎え、新政府の政策によって、廃仏毀釈の風潮が生まれ、東大寺の経営はいよいよ苦しくなった。
In the Meiji Restoration, the new government formulated a policy causing an anti-Buddhist movement, which further deteriorated the management of Todai-ji Temple.

しかしながら、この紙幣を発行した旗本の数は明治初年の段階で新政府がその実態を把握した数に過ぎない。
However, the Hatamoto who issued the paper money were only those of the Hatamoto who were actually checked by the new government during the early Meiji period.

宮内貴久の著物によれば、政府から各府県に対して、民族調査を命じ生活細部に影響を及ぼす禁令を敷いた。
According to a literally work of Takahisa MIYAUCHI, the government ordered a detailed survey to each prefecture to see how far the prohibition had influenced the daily life.

このことは、新国家の建設に向けて邁進しつつあった新政府にとっては、大きなメリットになったと言える。
Thus, the new government seemed to enjoy great merit from seizing Edo because the new government was striving to establish the new country.

しかし日本政府はこれを口実として砲艦外交を押し出し、1876年江華島条約（日朝修好条規）が結ばれる。
The Japanese government, using the incident as a pretext for gunboat diplomacy, concluded the Treaty of Ganghwa (Japanese-Korea Treaty of Amity) in 1876.

しかし一方、議員の提案で会議の過半数の賛成をもって、中央政府への建議を行なうこともできた（第7条）。
However, councilors were able to propose to the central government, with an agreement from the majority of the session (Article 7).

日本側代表は理事官外務大丞である宮本小一、朝鮮側代表は講修官議政府堂上の肩書きを持つ趙寅熙であった。
The representatives were the Resident Foreign Minister Okazu MIYAMOTO from Japan and In Hee CHO from Korea, a negotiator on behalf of the Korean government with a title of 講修官議政府堂上.

この大修理には、鼓坂荐海、菅沼英樹両別当の尽力もあって、勧進の許可を政府から受け、計画は進められた。
For this major repair, solicitations for contributions were smoothly permitted by the national government owing to much effort made by the two administrators of the Temple, Senkai KOSAKA (鼓坂荐海) and Hideki SUGANUMA, and then the project proceeded.

だが、これがパークスを怒らせて1月22日と2月21日に改めて政府に事情説明を求める書簡を送っている。
However, this angered Parkes, and he sent a letter to the government on January 22 and 23 seeking an explanation for the circumstance again.

さらにその後には陸軍大将・近衛都督を兼務し、大久保、木戸ら岩倉使節団の外遊中には留守政府を主導した。
And after that, he held the posts of full general and Konoe-totoku (regulator of Konoefu), and he took charge of the Rusu-seifu (a temporary government while the permanent officials are away) when Okubo and Kido went to the official travel of Iwakura Mission.

しかし一部の朝鮮人からすれば外国政府による経営事業体になったため、反日武装勢力の攻撃目標にもなった。
However, it had became a business entity managed by foreign government to some Korean people's point of view, therefore it also became an attack target of anti-Japan armed group.

江戸幕府から政権を引き継いだ明治政府が直面した課題は、貿易による外貨獲得と不平等条約の改正であった。
The Meiji government took over issues from the Edo feudal government such as the acquisition of foreign currencies and revision of unequal treaties.

したがって新政府の改革政策に反対する方針を採ることもしばしばであったため、他の官庁との対立が深まった。
Therefore, as the radicals often opposed the reform policy of the new government, they were increasingly confronted with other agencies in the government.

その後、全員で政府軍の熊本鎮台（熊本城内）を襲撃し、城内にいた兵士らを次々と殺害し、砲兵営を制圧した。
After that, all the members attacked the Kumamoto Chindai Army (in Kumamoto Castle) of the government forces, killed soldiers in the castle one after another, and gained control of the artillery barracks.

このため、欧米列強諸国はこぞって明治政府に対し、キリスト教の容認とともに賤民制廃止を要求したのである。
Therefore Western countries all together demanded Meiji Government to approve Christianity and abolish the class system of lowly people.

尚、明治政府は長野県も2分割（長野県、筑摩県）する方針であったが筑摩県庁の焼失により分割が中止された。
The Meiji Government intended to divide Nagano Prefecture into two (Nagano Prefecture, Chikuma Prefecture), but the plan was cancelled because the prefectural government office of Chikuma was burnt down.

これは、西郷が廃藩置県推進派の木戸と協力して新政府を支える意図があるのかどうかを確かめる目的もあった。
They also intended to confirm whether Saigo intended to support the government in cooperation with Kido, a person who was pushing through haihan-chiken.

政治制度として天皇制を重視した大日本帝国憲法下の日本政府は大逆罪を重罪とし、死刑・極刑をもって臨んだ。
The Japanese government, putting a great importance on the Emperor system to govern the nation under the Constitution of the Empire of Japan, treated high treason as a felony and punished offenders capitally.

京都の新政府は、慶応4年(1868年)4月12日に、皇族の仁和寺宮嘉彰親王を箱館裁判所総督に任命した。
The new government in Kyoto appointed Prince Yoshiakira of Ninnajinomiya the governor of the Hakodate Court on April 12, 1868.

一方、不平等条約の失敗を鑑とした政府は、アジア諸国に対しては、平等以上の立場を確保することを旨とした。
On the other hand, the new government, who reflected on the failing of this treaty, tried to stand on more than equal footing with Asian countries.

樺山総督は6月政府に増援を要請、遼東半島の乃木希典中将(後の第3代台湾総督)率いる第二師団を増派した。
Governor Kabayama requested the government to send reinforcements, and the second division led by Maresuke NOGI (later the third governor in Taiwan) was dispatched from Liaodong Peninsula.

1891年からたびたび田中正造が国会で質問したにもかかわらず、政府は積極的には鉱毒対策を行わなかった。
Although from 1891 Shozo TANAKA frequently raised the issue of the pollution at the Diet, the government did not actively take any anti mining pollution measures.

しかし谷三山の影響から尊王派であった植村氏は、戊辰戦争においては新政府側に与して京都御所の警備につく。
However, in the Boshin War, the Uemura clan, which was advocating reverence for the Emperor by the influence of Sanzan TANI, took the side of the new government and worked as a guard of Kyoto Imperial Palace.

明治8年9月、明治政府は米高によって給する禄を各地方3箇年の平均相場に換算して貨幣で支給した（金禄）。
In September, 1875, the Meiji government supplied cash currency to each region, in the amount equal to 3 years worth of roku-type reward distributed in rice (Kinroku).

薩長藩閥政府の正当性と民党批判を力説し、民党側の強い反発を引き起こして衆議院を解散させる一因となった。
He stressed validity of the Satsuma-Choshu-dominated government and criticism of minto (general term of the political parties such as Liberal Party, Progressive Party and so on which conflicted with a han-dominated government when imperial Diet was inaugurated), which triggered strong backlash from minto and partly contributed to dissolution of the House of Representatives.

一方、政府は鹿児島県士族の反乱を間近しと見て、1月28日に山縣有朋が熊本鎮台に電報で警戒命令を出した。
On the other hand, the government thought the rebellion of the warrior class of prefecture of Kagoshima was near at hand, and Aritomo YAMAGATA issued an order of caution by telegram for Kumamoto Chindai Army on January 28th.

民友社は「平民主義」（平民的欧化主義）を標榜して政府による「欧化主義」を「貴族的欧化主義」と批判した。
Minyu-sha promoted 'democratism' (commoner's Europeanism) and criticized 'Europeanism' by the government as 'aristocratic Europeanism'.

結果、清国政府は3月15日、辰丸釈放、損害賠償、謝罪礼砲、兵器買収など五ヶ条の要求を入れることとなる。
As a result, on March 15, the Qing government accepted Japan's five demands including release of Tatsumaru, compensation for damage, ceremonial fire of bombshells and purchase of arms.

そのため、政権を安定させるには、政府は議会第一党および多数の議席を保有する政党との連携が必要であった。
Such being the case, in order to have a stable administration, the government needed to cooperate with the majority party and other parties with many seats in the parliament.

だが、同時に政府財政が逼迫すると安易な値上げや品質の引き下げなどが行われて、人々を苦しめる事となった。
However, when the income of the government was strained, it easily led to price rise and lowered quality, which caused troubles for common people.

而して此地獄国の当局者は誰ぞと尋るに、事大党政府の官吏にして、其後見の実力を有する者は即ち支那人なり。
If you ask who the authority of the hell land is, it is the officer from the Satedan Party (pro-Chinese) government; and the person who has the power to control him is Chinese.

朝鮮を支配していた当時の日本政府は、法的には朝鮮に対して特別の呼称(植民地、外地など)を付さなかった。
The then Japanese government that ruled Korea did not legally give any special designation (colony, overseas territory, etc.) for Korea.

7月27日の大本営・政府連絡会議で、場合によれば武力を行使しても東南アジアに進出することが決められた。
On July 27 the Imperial General Headquarters-Government Liaison Conference decided that Japan was to advance towards Southeast Asia, if necessary, with military force.

大井憲太郎や内藤魯一など自由党急進派は政府の厳しい弾圧にテロや蜂起も辞さない過激な戦術をも検討していた。
The radicals of the Liberal Party, including Kentaro OI and Roichi NAITO, were forming drastic measures against the government's oppressive measures and ready to go to the length of resorting to violence if necessary.

明治3年2月、明治政府は佐田白茅、森山茂を派遣したが、佐田は朝鮮の状況に憤慨し、帰国後に征韓を建白した。
In March 1870, the Meiji government sent Hakubo SATA and Shigeru MORIYAMA to Korea, but SATA petitioned the government to conquer Korea by military force because he resented the attitude of Korea.

萩の乱（はぎのらん）は、1876年（明治9）に山口県萩市で起こった明治政府に対する士族反乱の一つである。
Hagi-no-ran War (turmoil of dissatisfied warriors at Hagi) was one of Shizoku no hanrans (rebellion by family or person with samurai ancestors) against Meiji government broke out in Hagi City, Yamaguchi Prefecture in 1876.

明治政府は、曲尺の尺の他に鯨尺を布地の計量に限定した計量単位として認め、呉服尺などその他の尺を廃止した。
Other than the kane-jaku, Meiji government allowed the kujira-jaku as the limited use for the measurement unit of a clothing fabric, while other shaku including the gofuku-jaku were abolished.

このため、ドイツ・フランスとともに遼東半島を清に返還することを4月23日日本政府に要求した（三国干渉）。
On April 23, Russia, France, and Germany apply diplomatic pressure on the Japan government for return of the territory to China (Triple intervention) in exchange.

西郷軍が熊本城下に着かないうちにすでに政府側は征討の詔を出し、西郷軍の邀撃（ようげき）に動き出していた。
Before Saigo's army entered the town of Kumamoto Castle, the government had issued an Imperial edict to defeat the army and mobilized troops to intercept it.

こうした工業基盤の有無も、一地方に過ぎない鹿児島と中央政府の力関係を均衡させていた主要因のひとつだった。
The presence of the industrial base was one of the main reasons that Kagoshima, a mere region, was comparable with the central government in power.

地方制度をすべて中央政府の延長にしようとした大区小区制の失敗に対する反省から、一定の地方自治を法定した。
The government legislated certain local autonomy after reconsidering the failure of the daiku-shoku system (a centralized district system that abolished all pre-existing towns, villages and their offices and institutions), which was designed to make all local systems extensions of the central government.

また公式な政府の最高機関である太政官には摂政・関白は大臣兼任であったとしても関与出来ない決まりであった。
Moreover, even if Regent or Kanpaku had a joint appointment as Daijin in Dajokan, the highest body of public government, the law prevented him from getting involved.

このような犠牲を払ってまで守っていた田原坂であったが、20日に、兵の交替の隙を衝かれ、政府軍に奪われた。
They even protected Taharazaka with sacrifices like that, but, during a soldier exchange, the Government army saw an opening and occupied Taharazaka.

両者の対立、殊に硬派の存在は政府に危険視され、結党から1年で治安警察法違反による結社禁止命令が下される。
Conflict between the said two groups, especially the existence of the hard-liners, was regarded as dangerous by the government, and the prohibition order against association was issued on a charge of infringement against the Security Police Law, one year after the establishment of the party.

愛国公党は、天賦人権論に立ち、専制政府を批判して、天皇と臣民一体（君民一体）の政体を作るべきと主張した。
The Aikokukoto Party supported the Tenpu-jinken-ron (theory of natural human rights), criticized autocratic government and insisted on creating a constitution which unifies the Emperor and his subjects (Kunmin ittai).

両国政府は、相互の承認を経ずして後来、本協約の趣意に違反する協約を第三国との間に訂立する事ができない事。
Both countries shall not sign an agreement with a third county if the effect of the agreement is against this treaty, unless a mutual approval between the two countries, Japan and Korea, has been reached.

1874年、板垣退助は民撰議院設立建白書を政府に提出したが、これをめぐって明六社内でも議論が戦わされた。
In 1874 Taisuke ITAGAKI submitted the political statement for democratic representatives to the government, which was also discussed among the members of Meirokusha.

3月10日には岩鼻陣屋も放棄され、羽生陣屋が新政府軍に落とされると、上野・北武蔵の一揆は最高潮に達した。
Iwahana Jinya was abandoned on April 2 (表記の変更), and the uprisings in Kozuke Province and in northern part of Musashi Province reached their peaks when Hanyu Jinya surrendered to the new army.

王政復古 (日本)により成立した明治新政府は富国強兵をスローガンに、積極的に自ら産業を興こす政策を取った。
The new Meiji government, established by the Restoration of Imperial Rule in Japan, adopted a policy to promote industries actively, under the slogan of 'Fukoku-kyohei' (enriching the country and strengthening the military).

これにより、宮中（宮廷）と府中（政府）の別が明定され、行政責任を各省大臣が個別に負う体制の基礎が生まれた。
These steps clarified the separation between the Imperial court and the government, and created the foundation of a governmental system in which each minister took a share of administrative responsibility.

以後、明治政府は殖産興業・士族授産の観点も含めた立場から生糸の増産・輸出政策への関与を強めていく事になる。
After that, the Meiji government became more and more involved in increased production, and export policy of raw silk thread in terms of encouragement of new industry and Shizoku jusan (providing former samurai with employment).

外国人居留地（がいこくじんきょりゅうち）は、政府が外国人の居留及び交易区域として特に定めた一定地域をいう。
The term 'foreign settlement' ('gaikokujin kyoryuchi' in Japanese) refers to one of the demarcated areas of land created by the government that were specifically set aside as places in which foreigners could reside and trade.

1908年日米両政府間で前年から7度に亘り行われた書簡交換により、紳士協定に基づく日本人の移民制限開始。
In 1908, due to the seven exchanges of letters between the Japanese and U.S. governments since the previous year, the limitation of Japanese immigration based on the Gentlemen's Agreement took effect.

明治4年7月14日（1871年8月29日）14時、明治政府は在東京の知藩事を皇居に集めて廃藩置県を命じた。
At 2 pm on August 29, 1871, the Meiji government gathered chihanji at the Imperial palace and ordered the implementation of haihan-chiken.

明治4年（1871年）2月、角田市知事、大参事は、旧白石藩士の窮状を理解し、開拓使に協議のうえ政府に具申。
In February 1871, the prefectural governor and chief councilor of Kakuda City acknowledged the distress that former Shiraishi feudal retainers suffered, and reported the situation to the central government after consultation with the Development Commission.

大久保は6月25日 (旧暦)（8月11日）に政府人事の大幅改造を断行して参議を西郷と木戸の2人に限定した。
Okubo reshuffled the cabinet on August 11 and appointed only Saigo and Kido as sangi.

明治政府は12月に黒田清隆を特命全権大使に任命し軍艦3隻などの艦隊をともなって朝鮮に派遣した(砲艦外交)。
The Meiji Government appointed Kiyotaka KURODA as a plenipotentiary in December and dispatched him to Korea with a fleet including three warships (gunboat diplomacy).

廃藩置県の主目的は年貢を新政府にて取り総める、即ち中央集権を確立して国家財政の安定を目的としたものである。
The main objective of haihan-chiken was to enable the new government to collect nengu (land tax), in other words to establish a centralized administrative system and stabilize state finance.

藩の中には財政事情が悪化し、政府に廃藩を願い出る所も出ていた（池田慶徳、徳川慶勝、細川護久、南部藩など）。
Some domains asked that domains be abolished due to the deteriorating financial conditions (Yoshinori IKEDA, Yoshikatsu TOKUGAWA, Morihisa HOSOKAWA, Nanbu domain etc).

ただし、情報局へ、政府の「統制会社」としての大映の立場をアピールした点は、永田の勘が的中した結果でもある。
However, it can also be interpreted as a result of Nagata's decision to promote Daiei to the Intelligence Bureau in order for it to become a government-consolidated company.

このことから明治政府の対応の速さの背景には電信などの近代的な通信網がすでに張り巡らされていたことがわかる。
The fact shows that the modern communication network including telegraph had already been set up in the background of that prompt reaction of the Meiji government.

その後、国民の反発に押された日本政府の抗議により、再審理がなされ、船長のみに禁錮3ヶ月の刑が言い渡された。
After that, the Japanese government under pressure from a public backlash protested against it, and the case was retried and only the captain was sentenced to three months in prison.

明治政府は突然の要求に驚いたが取りあえず外国官副知事の小松清廉（帯刀・薩摩藩家老）に対応をさせようとした。
The Meiji Government was surprised with the sudden demand, but tried to make the vice foreign prefectural governor, Kiyokado KOMATSU (Tatewaki, a chief retainer of Satsuma Domain), deal with the problem for the time being.

明治政府は最後まで体面上悪貨鋳造の事実を認めることを拒否したが、複数の藩が贋貨を鋳造していた事実を認めた。
The Meiji Government refused to admit the fact that they coined bad money until the end for the sake of appearance, but they did admit the fact that several domains had coined counterfeit money.

明治4年（1871年）1月3日、西郷と大久保は池上を伴い「政府改革案」を以て上京するため鹿児島を出帆した。
In January 3, 1871, Saigo and Okubo sailed from Tokyo with Ikegami with a 'draft of reinventing government.'

実際、この日西郷が山岡に提示した7条件も、前月に大久保利通が新政府に提出した意見書にほぼ添うものであった。
In fact, the Seven Conditions which Saigo presented to the Yamaoka on that day were comparable to the opinion documents, which Toshimichi OKUBO submitted to the new government the previous month.

憲法施行に際し、時の黒田清隆首相らは、政府は政党の外に立って政策遂行にあたるべきだと主張した（超然主義）。
In enforcing the Constitution, the then Prime Minister Kiyotaka KURODA and others insisted that the government should execute its policies without being influenced by political parties, which was called Chozen shugi (Transcendentalism).

天誅組は「御政府」の名で近隣から武器兵糧を集め、松の木で大砲十数門をつくったが、その装備は貧弱なものだった。
Tenchu-gumi collected weapons and food from neighborhood in the name of 'the government' and made more than 10 canons with pine wood; however, the equipment was poor.

しかし翌朝になると、政府軍側では兒玉源太郎ら将校が駆けつけ、その指揮下で態勢を立て直し、本格的な反撃を開始。
However, the next morning, officers from the government forces including Gentaro KODAMA rushed to the site, restored combat readiness under their command, and started full-scale counterattacks.

1880年以後、定数は事実上無視されて知事や政府高官経験者が次の役職を得るまでの待機ポストの色合いを強める。
After the year of 1880 the quota was ignored practically, it became a kind of waiting post for a prefectural governor and high officials of the government by getting a new post.

明治4年（1871年）1月に西郷は上京し、薩摩などの維新功労者の新政府登用策の受け入れのみで一旦は了承した。
Saigo came to Tokyo in January 1871, and immediately understood the plan to appoint the persons of Satsuma etc. who rendered meritorious service in the Restoration to Governments posts.

李氏朝鮮との間では国書受け入れを巡って紛争が起こり、1873年政府を二分する論争（いわゆる征韓論）となった。
The government came into conflict with the Joseon Dynasty of Korea about whether or not they accept the sovereign's message, and then 'Seikanron' (the dispute about conquering Korea by military force) occurred in 1873, dividing the Japanese government.

政府は、1895年（開国 (李氏朝鮮)504年）11月15日の詔勅を発布し、太陽暦とともに当制度を採用した。
The government adopted the system, along with the solar calendar, by promulgating the imperial rescript on November 15, 1895 (also can be called the 504th year of 'Kaikoku' [an era name of the Joseon Dynasty, meaning establishment of a country.]).

政府の西南戦争の軍事費は4100万円にのぼり、当時の税収4800万円のほとんどを使い果たすほど莫大になった。
The military expenditures of the government reached a vast amount of \41 million, almost all of the yearly tax revenue of \48 million.

そのためイギリスはマリア・ルスを「奴隷運搬船」と判断しイギリス在日公使は日本政府に対し清国人救助を要請した。
The United Kingdom judged 'Maria Luz' to be a 'slave ship'; consequently, the British Envoy to Japan requested the Japanese government to rescue the Qing people.

1868年に蝦夷共和国が箱館を占領し、1869年ガルトネルは蝦夷島政府との間で99年間の貸借契約を締結した。
In 1868, the Ezo Republic occupied Hakodate and in 1869, a 99-year lease was signed between Gaertner and the Ezo Island government.

明治元年（1868年）2月、王政復古 (日本)により成立した明治新政府の軍防事務局判事加勢として朝臣となる。
In February 1868, Omura was appointed a choshin of Gunbo Jimukyoku Hanji (the 3rd post of the newly created military ministry) in the government of the newly restored to power Emperor Meiji.

同年から翌年にかけて行われた一連の戊辰戦争の中で、新政府側が大きく優勢となる画期となった象徴的な事件である。
Over this time, then through to the next year (1868-1869), the Surrender of Edo-jo Castle turned out to be the essential ground-breaking point in a series of following actions taken during the Boshin Civil War; therefore providing greater advantage to the new government's forces, and effectively establishing the castles fall as a highly significant event in Japanese history.

予、誓ってこの公のために一命を捨てん」との評価を与え、慶喜に新政府の副関白の地位を与えようとしたほどである。
I make a vow to dedicate my life to the Lord. ' Ryoma highly praised Yoshinobu and he even considered giving Yoshinobu a position as Assistant Kanpaku in the New Government.

これにより、私擬憲法が政府に持ち寄られて議論されることはなく、大日本帝国憲法に直接反映されることはなかった。
Because of this, Shigi Kenpo were no longer brought to the government for discussion and thus were not directly reflected in the Constitution of the Empire of Japan.

正確には領収書であり、最終的には、その軍隊が所属する政府によって軍票所持者に対し債務支払いを行う必要がある。
To be precise, it is a receipt; the government of the army has to pay the money to owners of it eventually.

啓蒙の目的の一つは民衆の無気力・権力への卑屈さを克服することにあるが、それらは専制政府によってもたらされる。
One of the aims of enlightenment was to overcome people's spiritless and abjection to power, which were delivered by autocratic government.'

中央政府から指示が届いたのは翌1873年9月であるが、その文章は「スデニ絞罪処刑後蘇生ス、マタ論ズベキナシ。
The reply from the central government was received in September 1873, in the following year, and it said 'Tosaku had already been executed but happened to regain consciousness, so it is not necessary to discuss about any longer'.

弾劾は木戸との全面衝突を望まない西郷や大久保の反対で否決されたものの新政府は西郷派と木戸派に分裂しつつあった。
Although the above impeachment was denied by Saigo and Okubo who didn't want to clash with Kido, the new government was on the verge of being split into the Saigo group and Kido group.

一方、大韓民国政府は日韓併合条約が当初から無効であった（締結時から効力を発していない）という立場を取っている。
On the other hand, the government of the Republic of Korea has taken the position that the Treaty of Japanese Annexation of Korea was invalid from the beginning (it had not come into force since the time of the conclusion).

この時点で前近代的な政治体制である朝廷は終焉を迎えて日本国（あるいは大日本帝国）政府に取って代わったと言える。
At this point, the Japanese Imperial Court as the premodern political system was ended and replaced by the government of Japanese Nation (or the Empire of Japan).

更に贋貨鋳造を行っていたその他の藩からも後日政府によって摘発された場合の後難を恐れて自訴状を出す藩が相次いだ。
Additionally, other domains which were coining counterfeit money successively submitted a jisojo, fearing future problems that would occur in the case that they were exposed by the government later.

その戦闘中に新政府軍は鈴の音を鳴らし、包囲したと思わせる行動をとり、自軍が包囲されたと思った土方軍は動揺した。
During the battle, the army of the new government rang bells to trick the enemy into thinking that they were surrounded; HIJIKATA's army thought that they were surrounded and was upset.

江戸城が無傷で開城したことは半ば予想されたこととはいえ、新政府の主要士族メンバーにとっては拍子抜けでもあった。
Although, many of the shizoku families or persons with samurai ancestors, being main members of the new government, had some sense of Edo-jo Castle being surrendered undamaged, they nevertheless, felt deflated as well.

社格ではないが、護国神社で民立の神社と政府の保護を受けた神社を区別するため、後者を内務大臣指定護国神社とした。
Although it is not shrine ranking, in order to distinguish Gokoku-jinja Shrine (shrine honoring war dead) between local shrines and shrines under government protection, the latter was classified as Gokoku-jinja Shrine designated by the Minister of Home Affairs.

日本政府は開戦直後に朝鮮半島内における軍事行動の制約をなくすため、1904年2月23日に日韓議定書を締結した。
Japan concluded the Japan-Korea Protocol on February 23, 1904 immediately after the start of the war to eliminate restrictions in its military actions in the Korean Peninsula.

（地租改正反対一揆）これをうけて政府は、1月に、地租を100分の3から100分の2.5に減額することを決定した。
(Peasant revolts against the land-tax reform) In response to these revolts, the governments decided to lower the land-tax rate from 3 percent to 2.5 percent.

結局、政府からの処分は、徳島藩側主謀者小倉富三郎・新居水竹ら10人が斬首（のちに藩知事の嘆願陳情で切腹になる）。
Eventually, the punishment from the government was that 10 people, including Tomisaburo OGURA and Suichiku NII, who were the key leaders from the Tokushima Domain, were decapitated (they committed Seppuku [ritual suicide] at the petition to appeal of the governor of the domain, later).

天賦人権論に基づき、基本的人権を保護し民撰議院設立を政府に要求することが当面の政治課題の第一であると謳っている。
They asserted that the first goal of their political challenges at that time were to protect basic human rights based on the theory of Tenpujinken-ron (the theory of the human rights given by the heaven) and to require the government to establish the congress of representatives elected by the commoners.

神風連の乱（しんぷうれんのらん）は、1876年（明治9）に熊本市で起こった明治政府に対する士族反乱の一つである。
The Shimpuren-no-ran War is a revolt by the warrior class against the Meiji Government which took place in Kumamoto City in 1876.

その一方で、同時に旧幕府時代の高札の廃棄も命じているところから、新政府の権威とその支配圏を象徴するものであった。
On the other hand, the notice boards from the Old Shogunate era were ordered to be disposed of at the same time, which symbolized the power and sphere of control of a new government.

一方で、留守政府においては1871年には禄高人別帳が作成されるなど、多元的であった家禄の支給体系の一律化が進む。
On the other hand, Rusu-seifu made a list of stipend recipients in 1871, thus integrating the stipend payment system, which had been multifactorial.

しかし明治維新頃から幕府より離れて新政府側に与し、維新後は高取藩と共に大和国内における御料の取締りを命じられた。
However, from around Meiji Restoration the Shibamura Domain distanced itself from the bakufu and became cooperative with the new government; after the Restoration it was asked by the new government to control the property of the government within Yamato Province together with Takatori Domain.

政府は報告に危機感を抱き、明治3年（1870年）2月13日に樺太の所管を開拓使から分離して樺太開拓使を設置した。
Hearing the report and sensing of danger, the government removed the administration of Sakhalin from the Hokkaido Development Commissioner and established the Sakhalin Development Commissioner on February 13, 1870.

この上申書を契機として、政府は再三、鉄道公債法と私設鉄道買収法を帝国議会に提出したが、いずれも可決されなかった。
Taking this opportunity, the government repeatedly submitted the bill of railway public ponds and acquisition of private railways to the Diet, but every time the bill was not passed.

日本統治初期、台湾の財政は日本本国からの補助に依拠しており、当時の日本政府において大きな財政的負担となっていた。
In the early times of the Japanese rule, the finance of Taiwan was dependent upon a grant from Japan, which situation was a significant financial burden for the government of Japan at that time.

これによって、維新の功労者に対して一定の生活保障と明治政府への引き続きの協力を要請するという意味も含まれていた。
The purpose of these rewards were to guarantee living of those who had distinguished service in the Restoration, as well as to demand continuous assistance to Meiji government.

しかし壬生の戦いに敗走、新政府軍と再度宇都宮で戦った際に足を負傷し、本軍に先立って会津へ護送されることとなった。
However, they lost Battle of Mibu and fled; they fought again with the army of the new government in Utsunomiya during which Toshizo injured his leg; he was escorted to Aizu before the main army arrived in Aizu.

しかし、残りの4つは江戸幕府滅亡の際に寺社奉行から明治政府に引き渡されたものが、国立国会図書館に所蔵されている。
However, the other four editions, which were handed down from Jisha bugyo to the Meiji government at the time of the overthrow of the Edo shogunate, are in the posession of the National Diet Library.

この間に、韓国政府による郵便事業がはじまったあとも日本郵便局の業務は継続されただけでなく範囲も拡大されていった。
During and after the Korean government launched its own postal service, Japan Post Office not only continued its service but also expanded its operation area.

この他に都市ブルジョワ層や貧困層、博徒集団に至るまで当時の政府の方針に批判的な多種多様な立場からの参加も見られた。
In addition to these two groups that led the movement, many people from various social backgrounds, including city bourgeoisie, the poor, and gamblers, who shared the opposition to the government, joined the movement.

2007年1月に、日本政府は、世界遺産登録の前提となる暫定リストに「飛鳥・藤原の宮都とその関連資産群」を登録した。
In January, 2007, Japanese government put Fujiwara-kyo areas on the tentative lists of nominees for UNESCO World Heritage registration, as 'Asuka-Fujiwara: Archaeological sites of Japan's Ancient Capitals and Related Properties.'

開国して5年目の1881年5月、朝鮮国王高宗の后閔妃の一族が実権を握っていた朝鮮政府は、大幅な軍政改革に着手した。
In May 1881, five years after Korea ended its seclusion policy, the government, which was actually controlled by King Gojong's wife Queen Min and her clan members, started substantial military reforms.

これに対し律令政府は、蓄銭叙位令発布と同時に私鋳銭鋳造を厳罰に定め、首謀者は死罪、従犯者は没官、家族は流罪とした。
On the other hand, Ritsuryo government severely punished the minting of Shichusen as soon as Chikusen-joirei was issued; furthermore, the government anounced that ringleaders would be executed, accessories would be confiscated, and their families would be deported.

欧米列強が植民地戦争を繰り広げていた明治時代初期に、「富国強兵」と共に政府が実行した政策の根幹となった思想である。
At the end of the 19th century, when the allied western powers were fighting colonial wars one another, the Japanese government carried out a new policy based on this thought with a slogan 'Fukoku kyohei' (fortifying the country, strengthening the military).

事変後清は袁世凱らが指揮する軍隊を朝鮮に駐留させ、軍隊訓練や政府顧問をおくなど朝鮮の軍事や内政に積極的に関与した。
After the incident, Qing began to get actively involved in the military and internal affairs of Korea by stationing its military force led by YUAN Shiva in Korea for military training and posting an adviser in the government.

明治政府と日本軍が行った最初の海外派兵で、牡丹社事件（ぼたんしゃじけん）、征台の役（せいたいのえき）とも呼ばれる。
It was the first overseas development of troops by the Meiji government and the Japanese army, which also refers to as botansha jiken (Mudan incident) or seitai no eki (Seitai Campaign).

なお、一旦廃止された宮刑は明代に復活し、政府の高官から塩を作る人夫まで、さまざまな階層の男性がこの刑に処せられた。
Once abolished, the penalty of castration was reinstated in the Ming Dynasty and utilized against male criminals among a wide variety of social classes, from high officials in the government to the labourers who produced salt.

ここにおいて、徳川家の納地は「政府之御用途」のため供するという表現となり、慶喜に対する処分的な色彩は全く失われた。
The resolution went as soft as saying that the Tokugawa land shall be returned to the Imperial court as 'for the government use', completely losing the aspect of giving a reprimand to Yoshinobu.

軍票に対する日本政府の支払い義務は、連合国がサンフランシスコ講和条約で請求権を放棄したため、消滅したとされている。
It is considered that Japanese government was released from obligation to pay for its military currency since the Allies exempted Japan from the payment when Japan signed the San Francisco Peace Treaty.

ただし契約自体徳川幕府とイギリス人ブローカーとの間で締結された3年間の労働契約であり、明治政府からは非公認であった。
However, it was in fact a three-year labor contract held between the Tokugawa shogunate and a British broker, and it had no official recognition from the Meiji Government.

日本政府が示威で江華島沖に送った軍艦雲揚 (軍艦)から出た小船に江華島の砲台から発砲、雲揚が「応戦」した事件である。
The incident occurred when a Japanese battleship, the Unyo, sent a small boat to Ganghwa Island as a demonstration of strength by the Japanese government and was attacked by cannon from Ganghwa Island whereupon the battleship 'returned' fire.

明治政府は交渉決裂の場合の清との開戦も決し、9月「和戦を決する権」を与えられた大久保が全権大使として北京で交渉した。
The Meiji Government, with the determination of starting a war with Quing after a breakdown in negotiations, gave Okubo full authority to 'decide on war or peace,' and in September, Okubo had talks in Beijing as a plenipotentiary.

一方で、政府の手厚い保護を受けていたとはいえ、日本鉄道が好調な決算を発表すると、各地で私設鉄道設立ブームが起こった。
Meanwhile, even though Nippon Railway had received a careful protection from the government, the boom to build private railways started across Japan when Nippon Railway announced its positive financial statements.

ただし当時の司法は憲法上はともかく、実際には司法行政や行政裁判の扱いなど完全に政府から独立していたわけではなかった。
According to the constitution, Japanese courts were already independent, but in fact, they were still under the control of the government in respect of judicial administration and trial procedures.

全国一律の戸籍を作るための準備として、政府は明治4年（1871年）に戸籍法（）を制定し、編製の単位として区をおいた。
In preparation for creating a unified national family register system, the government enacted the Family Registration Law in 1871 and set up ku (ward) as an administrative unit.

1月29日、政府は鹿児島県にある陸軍省砲兵属廠にあった武器・弾薬を大阪へ移すために、赤龍丸への搬出を秘密裏に行った。
On January 29, the government secretly carried the arms and ammunition from the arsenal of the Army Ministry in Kagoshima into the ship Sekiryu-maru to transfer them to Osaka.

一方、近代化を進める中央政府は明治9年（1876年）3月8日に廃刀令、同年8月5日に金禄公債証書発行条例を発布した。
On the other hand, for the purpose of promoting modernization, the central government issued Haitorei on March 8, 1876 and Kinrokukosaishoshohakkojorei on August 5 in the same year.

だが、以上3つの総計が約80万石と大藩1つ分の禄高に相当し、財政基盤の弱い明治政府にとっては大きな財政負担となった。
However, total of above three rewards added up to 800,000 koku (144312.00 cubic meters), which was equal to total rokudaka (stipend) of taihan (large scale domain), and it became huge financial burden to Meiji government, which had a weak financial basis.

地租改正事務局（ちそかいせいじむしょく）とは、1875年3月24日－1881年6月30日に明治政府に設置された部局。
The Secretariat of Land-Tax Reform was a bureau established (and functioned) in the Meiji Government from March 24, 1875 to June 30, 1881.

大政奉還以降、龍馬は幕府に対する態度を軟化させ、徳川慶喜を含めた諸侯会議による新政府の設立に傾いていたともいわれる。
Ryoma is said to have softened his attitude toward the Shogunate after Taisei-hokan (the Restoration of the Imperial rule) and have started thinking of establishing a new government constituting congress by the lords of clans including Yoshinobu TOKUGAWA.

7月10日、政府軍が加久藤・飯野に全面攻撃を加えてきたので、支えようとしたが支えきれず、高原麓・野尻方面へ退却した。
On July 10, the Government army attempted an all-out assault on Kakuto and Iino, then they tried to hold that position but they could not, so they withdrew in the direction of Kogen-roku and Nojiri.

ところが、協会内の一部過激派が外国人襲撃事件を起こしたために、日英通商航海条約締結を目前とした政府の態度は硬化する。
However, some radical members of the society attacked foreigners in Japan, causing the government to crack down on the society as the signing of the Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation drew near.

明治政府はやがて酒税の確保に血眼になり、酒屋たちの抵抗も表面化し、大阪酒屋会議事件などさまざまな社会事件に発展した。
Then, the Meiji Government became desperate to secure liquor taxes and resistance from breweries came to the fore, which led to various social incidents such as the Osaka Incident of the Sake Brewers' Conference Movement.

芸娼妓解放令（げいしょうぎかいほうれい）とは、明治政府が1872年に発した遊女の人身売買の規制などを目的とした法令。
The Geishogi Kaiho Rei is a law issued by the Meiji Government in 1872, whose main aim was to control human traffic of prostitutes.

これは政府予算が議会側によって人質に取られて妥協を強いられる事の無いようにという趣旨で井上毅が提案したものであった。
This article was drafted by Kowashi INOUE in order to prevent the administration from having to compromise on political policies in order to have the budget plan approved at the Diet.

1885年、三菱の社長岩崎彌太郎が死去したことを契機に、政府が両者の仲介に乗りだし、共同運輸の社長である伊藤を更迭。
When the president of Mitusbishi, Yataro IWASAKI died in 1885, the government decided to mediate between two companies and replaced the president of Kyodo Unyu, Ito.

河井継之助の命運を尽かせたのは実は新政府軍の兵器ではなく、領民の一揆による抵抗による作戦好機の逸失であったと言える。
In fact, it can be said that the failure of Tsugunosuke KAWAI was not caused by the weapons of the new government army but by the uprising in the territory which made him miss an opportunity to carry out his plan.

これに対して長岡藩では、新政府軍と戦っていた部隊の一部を引き抜いて鎮圧にあたった結果、6月26日にようやく鎮圧した。
In response, Nagaoka Domain called back some of its own military units that were fighting against the new government army, and the domain finally managed to suppress the uprisings on August 14 (表記の変更).

翌、慶応4年（1868年）の鳥羽伏見の戦いでは旧幕府軍として戦ったが離脱、後の戊辰戦争では明治政府に加わって転戦した。
In the Battle of Toba-Fushimi in the next year, 1868, Naonori fought as the army of old bakufu but he seceded, and thereafter, Naonori joined the Meiji Government and moved from place to place to fight in the Boshin Civil War.

西園寺や新内務大臣 (日本)原敬は反政府側から出された戒厳令関係者の処分要求を拒絶して、事件の幕引きを図ったのである。
SAIONJI and the new Minister of Home Affairs (Japan), Takashi HARA refused the anti-governmental side's demand for the punishment of the persons concerned with the martial law, and thus tried to put an end to the incident.

中央政府から派遣される国司には多大な権限を与える一方、地方豪族がその職を占めていた郡司にも一定の権限が認められていた。
Kokushi (provincial governor) dispatched from the central government were given substantial authority, while Gunji (local magistrates) whose position was occupied by powerful local clans were also given a certain level of authority.

しかし、政府発表情報があまりに事実と反していた事から春秋会はさらに抗議を続け、報道禁止令を撤廃させる事に成功している。
However, the information announced by the government was quite far from the truth, therefore, Tokyo Shunju Kai continued to lodge a protest and finally succeeded in abolishment of the injunction.

日本政府が白羽の矢を立てたのは、意外にも鎖国以前にスペイン領フィリピン総督を介して日本と外交実績のあるメキシコだった。
Unexpectedly, Japan chose Mexico with which Japan had had a diplomatic relation before its national isolation with the aid of a governor-general of the Spanish-owned Philippines.

憲政党の第1次大隈内閣、立憲政友会の第4次伊藤内閣に際しては政府提出法案の否決などで倒閣運動の主導的な役目を果たした。
At the time of the first OKUMA Cabinet based on Kensei-to Party and the fourth ITO Cabinet based on Rikkenseiyu-kai Party, they played a leading role in the movement to overthrowthe cabinets by denying bills submitted by the governments.

明治政府は、慶応4年を改めて「明治元年」とするとともに、一世一元の詔で天皇一代につき一元号とする一世一元の制を定めた。
The Meiji government renamed the fourth year of Keio to the first year of Meiji and set up Isse ichigen no sei, or the system of one era name per Emperor, by the imperial rescript.

日本政府は台湾に比して朝鮮を重視して、台湾総督と異なり、韓国統監・朝鮮総督には相当地位の高い政治家・軍人が任用された。
The Japanese government focused on Korea, compared to Taiwan, and quite high ranking politicians and military men were appointed to Kankoku Tokan and Chosen Sotoku, different from Taiwan Sotoku.

後に谷干城の懇話会や民党の立憲改進党などと連携して対外硬路線を採り、政府の超然主義・藩閥政治・条約改正路線を批判した。
Later it supported a hard-line foreign policy collaborating with the Konwa-kai of Tateki TANI and the Constitutional Progressive Party of minto, and criticized government for its policy of transcendentalism, han-dominated politics and treaty revision.

とりあえず、大隈の通貨改革は明治政府の方針、そして国際公約として認められたが、その実現までにはまだ4つの課題があった。
OKUMA's currency reform was recognized as the Meiji Government's policy along with as an international pledge for the moment, but to be realized, there were four problems.

江戸幕府を滅亡させた西郷は、仙台藩（伊達氏）を盟主として樹立された北部政府（奥羽越列藩同盟）との「東北戦争」に臨んだ。
Saigo destroyed the Edo shogunate, and he tried have 'Tohoku War' with North Government, which was established with domain of Sendai (Date clan) as a leader.

一時、薩軍は鹿児島城下の大半を制したが、上陸展開した政府軍が3日に城下の大半を制し、6日には城山包囲態勢を完成させた。
At one time, Satsu-gun occupied most of the land under Shiroyama castle, but the Government army, which landed and deployed thereafter, occupied the area under the castle by the 3rd, and they completed preparations for a siege of Shiroyama on the 6th.

なぜなら、以前より軍事的衝突を回避しようとしていた松平春嶽ら列侯会議派が常に政府の主導権の巻き返しを図ろうとしていた。
There were other factors behind this feeling of deflation within the new governments side; one factor, Shungaku MATSUDAIRA and some other members in the council of the feudal lords' party, made previous efforts for avoiding militaristic conflicts between the two opponents; however, they always attempted to recover from any setbacks, proceeding to regain their initiative.

明治元年（1868年）に銀遣いが新政府により禁止されると、多くの西国他藩と同様に両・分・朱を額面とした金札を発行した。
As the new government prohibited the use of silver coins in 1868, the domain issued kinsatsu with face values in ryo, bu and syu (units of old currency), the same as many domains in Saigoku.

進歩会（のちの一進会）などの改革派は弾圧され（改革派への弾圧を日本政府に依頼することすらあった）、開化は進まなかった。
The reformist groups, such as Shinpo-kai (pro-Japanese political organization in Korea) (later called, Isshin-kai) were oppressed (the Japanese government was sometimes even asked to oppress the reformists), and modernization did not progress.

地方官会議（ちほうかんかいぎ）とは、1874年（明治7年）に設置された、明治政府が招集した府県長官の会議のことである。
Local Administrative Assemblies was the assembly of prefectural governors summoned and established by the Meiji government in 1874.

我が国の皇帝陛下と日本明治天皇に懇願し、我々も一等国民の待遇を享受して、政府と社会を発展させようではないか」と主張した。
We should beg his Imperial Majesty and Meiji Emperor of Japan in order to be able to receive the treatment as Itto Kokumin (First-class people) to develop our government and society.

1878年に愛国社が再興し、1880年の第四回大会で国会期成同盟が結成され、国会開設の請願・建白が政府に多数提出された。
Following the resurgence of the Aikokusha in 1878, the Kokkai Kisei Domei (League for Establishing a National Assembly) was formed at a national convention (the fourth convention) in 1880 and filed a number of petitions for the establishment of the National Diet to the government.

一方、日本政府と国内世論は士族反乱や立憲制確立を巡る議論に注目が移り、かつての征韓派も朝鮮問題への関心を失いつつあった。
Meanwhile, the attention of the Japanese government and domestic public opinion shifted to the issues that related to the Shizoku no hanran (revolt by family or person with samurai ancestors) and establishment of constitutional system, and gradually former Seikan-ha were losing their interest on Korean issues.

米騒動の報道に際し、各種新聞は民衆の行動を好意的に報じると共に、根本的な原因は民衆の要求を無視し続けた政府にあるとした。
Regarding press report of rice riots, each newspaper reported the people's behavior positively and also that the underlying cause was the government since they had continued to ignore people's demands.

天誅組は中山忠光を主将、吉村寅太郎、松本奎堂、藤本鉄石を総裁とする職制を整え、自らを「御政府」または「総裁所」と称した。
Tenchu-gumi put the office organization in order with Tadamitsu NAKAYAMA the commander-in-chief and Torataro YOSHIMURA, Keido MATSUMOTO, and Tesseki FUJIMOTO president; the members called themselves 'the government' or 'presidency.'

明治時代に入って、吉凶付きの暦注は迷信であるとして政府に禁止されたとき、六曜だけは迷信の類ではないと引き続き記載された。
During the Meiji period, rekichu with fortune was regarded as a superstition and banned by the government, but only rokuyo was considered not to be a kind of superstition and continued to be described.

北方開拓を重視する政府の姿勢の表れだが、初めの数年は力不足で、内実が伴いはじめるのは明治4年（1871年）からであった。
It reflected the government's focus on the development of the northern island, but the reclamation of Ezo did not work for the first few years due to the inadequate system and it was not until 1871 that the government effort finally paid off.

戦争は日本に有利に進んでいき、最終的には日本が勝利することになるが、翌1905年に更なる譲歩を韓国政府に迫る事になった。
The war progressed in Japan's favor and Japan won at last, which led Japan to demand further concession to the Korean government in 1905.

江戸は政府の所在地で首都と意識されていたが、幕末に政治の中心となった京都が首都となり、更にそれが東京に移ったとするもの。
The view stating that Edo was regarded as a capital because of its political location, but in the end of the Edo period, Kyoto became the capital because it came to be the center of politics, before the capital moved to Tokyo (Edo) again.

この事件を機に、政府高官の移動の際は、数人の近衛兵らによる護衛が付くようになった（イザベラ・バード『日本旅行記』より）。
After this incident, the Meiji government ordered that imperial guards would escort and guard governmental high officials when the high officials were on the move ('Unbeaten Tracks in Japan' by Isabella BIRD).

一般的には、大日本帝国憲法発布後、帝国議会開設から大正時代初期頃までにおいて、藩閥・官僚から成る政府が採った立場を指す。
In Japan, in general, transcendentalism is often referred to a political position taken by the government consisting of han (domain) cliques and bureaucrats during the period between the establishment of the Imperial Diet followed by the issuance of Constitution of the Empire of Japan and the beginning of the Taisho period.

が、自由民権運動が高まると、それを苦々しく思っていた薩長藩閥政府はメディア統制を試み、さきの二つの条例を出したのである。
However, after the Freedom and People's Rights Movement became active, the government of Saccho (Satsuma Domain and Choshu Domain) which was feeling the bitterness tried to control media and promulgated the above two regulations.

だが、律令政府は「化外」の民との対立の際には蝦夷征伐というかたちで軍事力を行使して、その勢力圏を北へと広げることになる。
Under the pretext of fighting social outcasts the Ritsuryo-seifu Government used military power to conquer Emishi and expand its power to the north.

更に当時における日本大使館以て征韓を政府に決行させようとしていたとも言われる（これは西郷が板垣に宛てた書簡からうかがえる。
In addition, it is said that they tried to get the government to implement subjugation of the Korea with Japanese Embassy at that time (this can be seen in a letter written by Saigo for Itagaki).

江戸時代後期の1867年に15代将軍の徳川慶喜が大政奉還を行い幕府が解体され、王政復古 (日本)により明治政府が成立する。
The 15th shogun, Yoshinobu TOKUGAWA carried out Taisei Hokan (the policy of returning power to the emperor) in 1867, and Bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) was overthrown, and then the Meiji government was established in compliance with the Restoration of Imperial Rule.

明治に入り、政府は折衷尺を公式の曲尺として採用し、メートル原器の33分の10の長さ（すなわち10/33メートル）と定めた。
In Meiji period, the government adopted the setchu-jaku as the official kane-jaku which was defined that 1 shaku was equivalent to 10 over 33 of the meter standard (that is, 10 over 33 meters).

別府晋介と辺見は問罪の師を起こすべしと主張したが、永山弥一郎は西郷・桐野・篠原の三将が上京して政府を詰問すべしと主張した。
Shinsuke BEPPU and HENMI said that they should raise the army, whereas Yaichiro NAGAYAMA said that the three leaders SAIGO, KIRINO, and SHINOHARA should go to Tokyo to raise the matter with the government.

という構成となっており、政府運営の基礎となる公文書・法令の規定のみならず、それを扱う官人の服務規程や訴訟手続などをも含む。
Thus, the law Kushiki-ryo was made up of the above mentioned Articles, which covered not only rules and regulations on official documents and laws and ordinances that underpinned the management of then government, but also service regulations for government officials in charge of the said rules and regulations, as well as judicial procedures.

ただし、本来は自由民権運動を継承する民党側からの蔑称であり、政府・マスコミ及び当事者達は温和派（おんわは）と呼称していた。
The term was originally a derogatory term used by the Minto party who supported the Movement for Liberty and People's Rights, and at the time they, and the media, called themselves 'Onwaha.'

北部政府の盟主、仙台藩らの降伏後、明治2年（1869年）、函館市五稜郭で幕府残党勢力の榎本軍も降伏し、戊辰戦争は終結した。
After the surrender of Northern Alliance leader, Sendai Domain, the remaining shogunate forces, led by Takeaki ENOMOTO, also surrendered at Goryokaku fortress in Hakodate City, bringing an end to the Boshin War in 1869.

24日、村田は都城で政府軍六箇旅団と激戦をしたが、兵力の差は如何ともしがたく、これも大敗して、宮崎へ退いた（都城の戦い）。
On the 24th, Murata had a fierce battle with Rokka-ryodan brigade of the Government army, but the difference in soldiers therebetween was difficult to overcome, then they also suffered a crushing defeat in the battle and withdrew to Miyazaki (the Battle of Miyakonojo).

古くは奈良時代の律令制導入の際より日本の官制において用いられた用語であり、今日の政府や国家機関等においても使用されている。
Ninkan is a term which was formerly used in the Japanese government-regulated organisations since the implementation of the Ritsuryo system in the Nara era and is still used today in the government and state institutions.

1871年の廃藩置県後に整った新しい官制で、薩長土肥の出身者が参議や各省の卿の大部分を独占したため、藩閥政府が形成された。
Under newly-organized governmental system after Haihan-chiken (abolition of feudal domains and establishment of prefectures) in 1871, most of the councilors and chiefs of the ministries were occupied by the people from Sacchodohi, and the domain-clique government was organized.

その後政府の強硬姿勢は、頃まで続いたが、税収の見込みがつくようになると徐々に緩和されていき、に耕地宅地の改正作業が完了した。
The hardline stance of the government continued through 1878; but the strict stance was gradually eased as the government was able to have the prospect of receiving revenue from tax and the work of reformation of arable land and the residential land was completed in 1880.

4月11日、海江田信義、木梨精一郎、水野彦三郎、渡辺清の4人が新政府代表として大手門より入城し、江戸城の引渡しを終了させた。
On May 3, Nobuyoshi KAIEDA, Seiichiro KINASHI, Hikosaburo MIZUNO and Kiyoshi WATANABE entered into Edo-jo castle from Ote-mon Gate (Main Gate) as representatives of the new government and completed the surrender of Edo-jo castle.

かくして迎えた第2議会では、民党が前内閣が約束した「政費節減」の公約を果たさずに海軍予算の拡張を行おうとする政府を批判した。
In the second Diet held in such situation, minto criticized the government, because they tried to increase the budget for navy without achieving the pledge of the previous government 'Government cost-cutting'.

（後の調書によれば、彼は新政府転覆を企てる元米沢藩藩士、木下三左衛門の指示を受けたとあるが、この人物については不明である。）
(According to a statement taken later, KAWASAKI followed the instruction of Sanzaemon KINOSHITA, a former feudal retainer of Yonezawa Domain who was conspiring to topple the new government, but no precise information about him was found.)

明治新政府に不満を持つ旧会津藩藩士渡辺悌輔らが、大河津分水掘削工事の負担に苦しむ農民等を糾合し、新潟県庁の襲撃を図った事件。
It was the incident in which Teisuke WATANABE, a former feudal retainer of Aizu Domain, and others, being dissatisfied with the Meiji government, rallied peasants who were suffering from the burdens of excavation work of Ookozu-Bunsui Canal, and attempted to attack Niigata Prefectural Office.

新政府にとって、最大の目標は欧米列強に追いつくことであり、そのためにも旧幕府時代に締結された不平等条約の改正が急務とされた。
The biggest goal for the new government was to catch up with powerful western countries, and for this reason, they had to solve the problem of the unequal treaty signed in the Shogunate era as soon as possible.

明治2年6月17日 (旧暦)（1869年7月25日）、274大名に版籍奉還が行われ土地と人民は明治政府の所轄する所となった。
After hanseki-hokan (return of lands and people to the emperor) was ordered to 247 daimyo (feudal lords) on July 25, 1869, the Meiji government became the ruler of the lands and people.

1940年、政府はこの事業に予算をつけるが、第二次世界大戦のため、あまり大規模な改修は行われなかったらしいという推測もある。
In 1940, the government approved the budget for the project, however, it is considered that they could not carry out large repairs because it was during World War II.

これに対して政府は第2回衆議院議員総選挙の際に大規模な選挙干渉を行って民党の壊滅を計画するも、逆に大敗北を招く結果となった。
On the other hand, the government planned to destroy Minto by interfering in the second general election of the members of the House of Representatives in 1892 on a large scale but ironically led to its own defeat.

北関東の戦い：大鳥圭介率いる脱走部隊（伝習隊など）が、小山・宇都宮城、今市、藤原など各地で新政府軍と戦う(宇都宮城の戦い)。
The battles of Kita Kanto (Northern Kanto): the escaping troops (Denshutai etc.) led by Keisuke OTORI fought against the New government army in various places such as Utsunomiya Castle in Oyama, Imaichi, Fujiwara (the Battle of Utsunomiya Castle).

特に政府が頼りにしていた薩摩藩・土佐藩が自前の贋貨を大量に自己の領民に流通させている可能性があることもその危惧を高めていた。
Particularly since the Satsuma and Tosa Domains which the government depended on, might have been circulating large amounts of counterfeit money to their people, it further raised its uneasiness.

江戸幕府のキリスト教禁止政策をひきついだ明治政府の手によって村民たちは流罪とされたが、このことは諸外国の激しい非難を受けた。
The Meiji Government followed the Edo bakufu's policy to ban Christianity and banished the villagers, which provoked strong criticism from foreign countries.

官営模範工場（かんえいもはんこうじょう）は、明治政府が殖産興業の政策のため、率先して新しい産業を興すべく創設した工場である。
Government-run model factories were set up by the Meiji Government for the promotion of new industries.

「故に我輩は朝鮮の滅亡、其期遠からざるを察して、一応は政府のために之を弔し、顧みて其国民の為には之を賀せんと欲する者なり。」
Therefore, thinking that the destruction of Korea is not far away, for the government I will show remorse, but for the people, I feel like celebrating.'

彼らは律令政府に従っていたものの、外側の夷俘と呼ばれる従来通りのまま未だに排除された状況にある蝦夷と通じる可能性も存在した。
Though they followed Ritsuryo-seifu Government, it is possible that they had contacts with other Emishi, called Ifu, who were still excluded as barbarians.

このことが自由民権運動や初期帝国議会における激しい政府批判を招き、また地租に替わる財源として酒造税の相次ぐ増税の一因となった。
This deletion of the provision invited Jiyu Minken Undo (Movement for Liberty and People's Right) and fierce criticisms against the government in the initial Imperial Diet; in addition, it became a cause of a series of tax increase of brewery tax as the financial resource to replace land-tax.

このようなことを根拠に、政府は関東州には憲法の効力が及ばず、天皇は帝国議会の協賛を要せず立法権を行使できるという見解を採った。
Based on the fact, the government adopted the standpoint that the Constitution was not legally in force in the Kwantung Leased Territory and the Emperor was able to exercise the legislative power without the consent of the Imperial Diet.

蜂起の目的は、暴力行為を行わず（下記「軍律」参照）、高利貸や役所の帳簿を滅失し、租税の軽減等につき政府に請願することであった。
The purpose of the uprising was to make an petition for the abrogation of account books to usurers and public offices and tax reduction to the government without taking violent actions (see Martial Law below).

民権運動の盛り上がりに対し、政府は讒謗律、新聞紙条例の公布（1875年）、集会条例（1880年）など言論弾圧の法令で対抗した。
As the movement intensified, the government issued a series of laws and regulations, including the Zamboritsu (Defamation Law), the Shinbunshi Jorei (Press Regulations) in 1875, and the Shukai Jorei (Assembly Regulations) in 1880, that suppressed free speech.

殖産興業（しょくさんこうぎょう）とは、明治政府が西洋諸国に対抗し、産業、資本主義育成により国家の近代化を推進した諸政策を指す。
Shokusan-kogyo is the policies in which the Meiji government accelerated modernization of the nation by encouraging industry and nurturing capitalism in order to compete with Western countries.

正式名称は不明だが当時の法令を収集した政府刊行の法令全書の目録には、「穢多非人ノ称ヲ廃シ身分職業共平民同様トス」と書かれいる。
In the catalogue of a complete works book of laws published by the Government whose formal title is not known, it is stated that 'names of Eta and Hinin are to be abolished and their status and trades are to be the same as Heimin (commoner)'.

（その証拠として、奥羽越列藩同盟加盟藩では、五榜の掲示は立てられないから新政府との開戦と同時に破棄されている事が挙げられる。)
(As proof of it, it can be mentioned that Gobo no keiji were destroyed in the domains of Ouetsu-reppan alliance as soon as they opened war with the new government.)

国内に対する正式な表明は翌年5月28日 (旧暦)（1869年7月7日）に行われた新政府の上局会議における決定によるものである。
The formal domestic announcement was a decision made at the conference of a law-making body in the new government on July 7, 1869.

信州明科爆裂弾事件後、数百人の社会主義者・無政府主義者の逮捕・検挙が始まり、検察は26人を明治天皇暗殺計画容疑として起訴した。
Since the Shinshu Akashina Bomb Incident, several hundred socialists and anarchists were arrested, and prosecutors indicted 26 people for plotting to kill the Emperor Meiji.

これに対して明治政府は1877年1月に地租を3％から2.5％に引き下げる決定をしたものの、地租改正事業の中止には応じなかった。
In response to the movement, the Meiji Government decided to reduce the land-tax rate from 3% to 2.5% but rejected the requests for the cancellation of land-tax reform project.

箱館政府が樹立され、榎本らが祝杯を交わしているときも歳三は一人沈黙を保ち、「今は騒ぎ浮かれる時ではない」と言っていたと伝わる。
When ENOMOTO and others were drinking to celebrate the establishment of the Hakodate government Toshizo alone remained silent and said 'this is not the time for jubilation.'

明治政府による偏重した欧化主義政策を批判する立場から「国粋主義」を標榜し、1888年4月に雑誌『日本人 (雑誌)』を創刊した。
Seikyo-sha founded a magazine, 'Nihonjin (The Japanese)', in April 1888 to promote nationalism in defiance of the Meiji government's policy that overemphasized on Europeanism.

他方、2月8日に日本政府は韓国の戦時局外中立宣言を無視する形で、日本軍を仁川広域市へ上陸させ、その後漢城へ進駐し、締結された。
On the other hand, the Japanese government ignored the Korean proclamation of neutrality by extending the Japanese troops to Incheon City; finally the troops got stationed in Hanseong and then the treaty was signed.

騒動後、服部は廃寺や合併の方針を改めたが廃藩置県後、誕生した額田県は、明治政府の方針によって寺院の廃・合併は強行に実施された。
After the riot, although Hattori revised the policy of the abolished and merger of temples, it was implemented forcibly in Nukata Prefecture where it was created after the Haihan-chiken (abolition of feudal domains and establishment of prefectures) due to the policy of the Meiji Government.

これに対して政府は同年12月に保安条例を発布して片岡を逮捕したほか多数の運動家を追放・逮捕してこの運動は挫折を余儀なくされた。
Against these activity, the government promulgated hoan jorei (regulations for the preservation of law and order) in December 1887 and arrested Kataoka, as well as exiled and arrested many other activists, and thus this campaign had no choice but to be collapsed.

大隈重信は政府内にあって、大隈財政（西南戦争後の財政赤字を外債によって克服しようと考えていた）を巡って松方正義らと対立していた。
Among the government, Shigenobu OKUMA was opposed to Masayoshi MATSUKATA, regarding his financial policy (After the Seinan War, OKUMA aimed to overcome financial deficit by foreign debt).

だが、大隈の密奏も岩倉・井上毅の意見書も他の政府首脳には詳細が明かされなかったために、伊藤がこの事情を知ったのは6月末であった。
However, because the details of the secret proposal made by Okuma and the written opinions by Iwakura and Inoue were not disclosed to government leaders, Ito finally came to know the situation at the end of June.

しかし、の天皇機関説事件で美濃部ら立憲学派が排撃され、同年に政府が発表した国体明徴声明では天皇主権を中心とした解釈が公定された。
However, in the emperor-as-organ theory incident, constitutional school sect, led by Minobe, was driven out and interpretation focusing on imperial sovereignty was set in the statement of the fundamental character of the nation which was announced by the government in the same year.

墾田永年私財法の施行により、富豪や大寺院などが私有耕地を拡大していったため、政府として一旦、墾田を禁止したものと考えられている。
It is believed that in its capacity as a government, cultivation of new land was once prohibited, for the wealthy and large temples increased their own cultivated lands by the enforcement of the Konden Einen Shizai Law.

その後、福澤は、請願書の案文制作や、当時の権令（県令）柴原和や政府の高官の西郷従道などに書簡を送付し、教示するなどして支援した。
After that, FUKUZAWA had supported the movement, making a draft of a petition, or sending letters enlightening the matter to the vice governor (prefectural governor) at that time Yawara SHIBAHARA and a senior government official Tsugumichi SAIGO and others.

しかし宴饗の儀における日本大使の大礼服着用と、同大使が宴饗大庁門を通過することについて、東莱政府が承認しないなどのため紛糾した。
However the Torai government did not permit Japanese taishi (commander-in-chief) to put on the taireifuku (court dress, full-dress uniform) and pass the main gate when he participated in the dinner party.

政府は江戸時代からの庄屋、名主、年寄、大庄屋等を廃止した（荘屋名主年寄等ヲ廃シ戸長副戸長ト改称シ給料並ニ諸入用割合ヲ定ム（））。
The government abolished existing administrator systems, such as shoya and nanushi (both village headmen), dai-shoya (big village headmen) and toshiyori (administrators), which was established in the Edo Period.

当時の明治政府では、朝鮮出兵を巡る征韓論などで対立があり、樺山資紀や鹿児島県参事の大山綱良ら薩摩藩藩閥は台湾出兵を建言していた。
At that time, the Meiji Government was divided over ideas such as Seikanron, a proposal to subjugate Korea, in which Satsuma domain clique including Sukenori KABAYAMA and Kagoshima Prefectural councilor Tsunayoshi OYAMA were suggesting that Japan dispatch troops to Taiwan.

このため、戦後も彼らを如何にして新政府につなぎとめるかが課題となり、参戦諸藩や個々の部隊・個人の功労者に対する恩賞が検討された。
When it became an issue how to anchor them to the new government even after the battles, rewards for the domains, troop and individuals who respectively contributed to the battles were considered.

賞典禄（しょうてんろく）は、明治維新に功労のあった公卿、大名および士族に対して、政府から家禄の他に賞与として与えられた禄である。
Shotenroku was a premium which the government gave as a bonus in addition to a hereditary stipend to court nobles, Japanese feudal lords and members of the warrior class who contributed a great deal to Meiji Restoration.

この時期の政府がこの路線を貫徹させようとすれば、誰が指導者であったとしても結果的に士族反乱や農民一揆は避けられなかったと言える。
As the government at this time stayed this course, any leaders could not avoid Shizoku no hanran (revolt by family or person with samurai ancestors) and peasant uprisings consequently.

散髪脱刀令（さんぱつだっとうれい）とは、明治4年8月9日 (旧暦)（1871年9月23日）に明治政府によって出された太政官布告。
Zanpatsu Datto Rei is an edict of the Grand Council of State submitted by Meiji government in September 23, 1871.

当時明治政府を牛耳っていた薩長閥に対し、土佐出身者が挽回を図るべく、土佐出身の維新の功労者として、坂本龍馬を持ち上げたのである。
They praised Tosa-native Ryoma as a person of merit who realized the Meiji Restoration to regain Tosa-native's power against the Satsuma-Choshu clique who dominated then Meiji Government.

いっぽう、3月13日（1868年4月5日）午後には新政府の代表を横浜へ赴任させるよう要請すべくラットラー号を大阪へ派遣している。
On the other hand, on March 13th (April 5, 1868 in new calendar), Parkes demanded of the new government the assignment of a governmental representative to Yokohama, then Parkes dispatched the ship HMS Rattler to Osaka.

下地の亡骸は、派出所警官が引き上げ、県が嘆願して政府から下賜された埋葬料25円、遺族扶助料90円をもって那覇の寺院に改葬された。
Shimoji's corpse was taken by the officers of the police station, and was reburied in the temple in Naha with the burial fee, 25 yen and the survivor's benefit, 90 yen, which was given by the government due to the request of Okinawa Prefecture.

また、政府高官間の政争の産物である「大蔵省分割問題」も影を落としていた（内務省_(日本)設置による測量機構と税額算定機構の分離）。
In addition, the problem of 'dividing the Ministry of Finance' cast a shadow into the land-tax reform; that is, the organization responsible for the land survey and the organization responsible for calculating amount of tax were separated owing to the establishing of the Ministry of Home Affairs; this split was the product of the political dispute.

中でも日清戦争、日露戦争の勝利により世界的に影響力を強めつつあった大日本帝国に注目・接近し、日本政府・日本軍の特別の庇護を受けた。
They especially paid attention to and approached to Empire of Japan which was increasing the influencial power in the world after the victory of Sino-Japanese War and Russo-Japanese War, and they came under the patronage of Japanese Government and Japanese Army.

なお免官となった古賀は翌1872年、愛宕通旭らとともに新政府転覆のための挙兵を企てた（二卿事件）ことをもって梟首に処せられている。
In addition, dismissed Koga with Michiteru OTAGI were sentenced to exposure of their severed heads in 1872 on the charge of the attempt to topple the government (Nikyo Jiken [The Incidents triggered by two court nobles]).

岩倉使節団派遣中に留守政府は重大な改革を行わないという盟約に反し、国内が急激な改革で混乱していたことは大久保らの態度を硬化させた。
Contrary to the compact that promised the Rusu-seifu (government while heads of government are away) wouldn't conduct major reform while dispatching Iwakura Mission, the internal confusion caused by the drastic reform hardened OKUBO and other opponent's attitudes.

地方豪族についても、702年（大宝 2）、諸国国造の氏姓を政府に登録することによって、中央豪族と同様の対応がなされたものとされる。
It is said that in 702 the same treatment with the powerful clans in the capital was made for the powerful local clans by letting the powerful local clans to register the clan name and hereditary title of Kuni no Miyatsuko in the various provinces to the government.

政府が定めた価値が地金の価値に比べて非常に高かったため、発行当初から、民間で勝手に発行された私鋳銭の横行や貨幣価値の下落が起きた。
The value of the coin determined by the government was significantly higher than the value of the bullion; therefore, the rampacy of Shichusen issued by civilians without permission from the government and declining of the currency value occurred.

江戸時代後期に開国し、王政復古 (日本)により成立した明治政府は四民平等政策のもと、大名、武士階級を廃止して華族、士族を創設する。
Meiji government, which was established through Restoration of Imperial Rule (Japan) after Japan opened herself to the world at the late Edo period, abolished daimyo (Japanese feudal lord) and samurai hierarchy and set up the peerage and shizoku under the policy of equity of all people.

以後1873年徴兵令公布、1876年廃刀令、秩禄処分に至る過程で士族反乱が相次ぎ明治政府はこうした不満を海外に向ける必要もあった。
Revolts by Shizoku occurred one after another during a process that ended in the promulgation of a Conscription Ordinance in 1873 and a decree banning the wearing of swords in 1867, and Chitsuroku-shobun (Abolition Measure of Hereditary Stipend), and the Meiji government needed to turned their attention to the outside of Japan.

これは草梁倭館は、朝鮮政府が対馬藩の為に建て使用を認めた施設だったこと、対馬藩は日本と朝鮮の間の交渉窓口の立場にあったからである。
This is because Choryang-dong Wakan was built by the Korean government as the facility for the Tsushima clan, the Tsushima clan was in a position of the window to negotiate between Japan and Korea, therefore Japan did the above acts.

慶喜が新政府に対して恭順を行うと、江戸城など旧幕臣の間では恭順派と抗戦派が対立し、会津藩内では武装恭順が大方の重臣の意見であった。
When Yoshinobu swore allegiance to the new government, there were loyalist and resistance factions among Edo-jo Castle and the old shogunate vassals, with the majority of the Aizu-han clan lords favoring armed allegiance.

このような中で、桂は議会を解散して政友会と国民党などの勢力を削ぐために、政府干渉による総選挙を行なうことで変事に対応しようとした。
Under the circumstances, KATSURA, with an attempt to undermine the capability of the Seiyukai Party and the Kokumin-to Party, tried to respond to the incident by dissolving the Diet and calling a general election with the government's interference.

明治時代の初め、1870年（明治3年）7月23日に、政府は大友帝、廃帝、九条廃帝にそれぞれ弘文天皇、淳仁天皇、仲恭天皇と追諡した。
On July 23, 1870, the young Meiji government gave posthumous titles of Emperor Kobun, Emperor Junnin, and Emperor Chukyo to Otomo Tei, Dethroned Emperor (Awaji) and Dethroned Emperor Kujo, respectively.

参議・大隈重信は、政府内で国会の早期開設を唱えていたが、1881年に起こった明治十四年の政変で、参議・伊藤博文らによって罷免された。
Sangi (councillor) Shigenobu OKUMA, who had been supporting for the prompt establishment of the National Diet, was relieved of his post by Sangi Hirobumi ITO and others in the 1881 Political Crisis.

これは琉球の帰属問題で日本に有利に働き、明治政府は翌1875年琉球にたいし清との冊封・朝貢関係の廃止と明治年号の使用などを命令した。
This put Japan in an advantageous position on the issue of the possession of Ryukyu and in the following year, 1875, the Meiji government ordered Ryukyu to abolish its sakuho and tribute relationship with Qing and use the era name of Meiji.

しかしイギリスやアメリカの反対意見と局外中立の表明および征韓論にも反対していた参議木戸孝允の反対と辞任により政府は派遣中止を決める。
However, the government decided not to dispatch the troops, because Britain and the US expressed oppositions against it and the government remained rather neutral, and because Sangi Takayoshi KIDO expressed his opinion against Seikanron and resigned in opposition to the dispatch.

こうなると外交交渉の経験が少なく、国際慣習を知らない明治政府はどうしようもなく、事件はその後3年間も放置されることとなってしまった。
That floored the Meiji Government, which had little experience of diplomatic negotiations and no knowledge of international customs, and the case was left untouched for the subsequent three years.

また、地方では新政府の方針に従い県庁主導で従来の生活文化や民俗風習の排除が行われ、文明開化政策の影響で縮小や途絶した民俗風習も多い。
Yet still, the Prefectural offices in local regions led the exclusion of a traditional culture and customs upon the policy of the new Meiji government, therefore there are many traditions and customs curtailed and vanished under the civilization process.

民部省札（みんぶしょうさつ）は、明治2年11月15日_(旧暦)（1869年）から翌年にかけて明治政府の民部省によって発行された紙幣。
Minbusho-satsu is a bank note issued by the Minbusho (Ministry of Popular Affairs) of the Meiji government from November 15, 1869 to the next year.

明治政府が戊辰戦争に多額の費用を要し、殖産興業の資金が不足したので、参与兼会計事務掛三岡八郎（由利公正）の建議によって、発行された。
Dajokan bills were issued based on the proposal of Hachiro MITSUOKA (also known as Kimimasa YURI), who was a Sanyo (government consultant) and accountant, in order to compensate for the lack of funds caused by the Boshin War (civil war) and to support the Meiji government in implementing its policy of promoting new industries.

これは、多くの西日本諸藩などと同様に、明治新政府により銀貨幣の通用が停止されたのちに金・銭単位通貨として発行された紙幣と推測される。
This was assumed the paper money was issued as currency of gold or sen unit as well as many clans in western Japan did after Meiji new government stopped the circulation of silver currency.

集会を主催した反政府の政党が群集を煽ったのではないか、という見方もあるが、一方、余りの群集の興奮ぶりに収拾出来なくなったとの説もある。
Some people say the anti-governmental political party which organized the rally might have agitated the people, but the other people say that people were too much excited to be controled any longer.

そして、それは千島樺太交換条約の締結によって、政府内に残留した征韓派は今度こそ朝鮮遣使を実現するようにという意見を上げ始めたのである。
And due to the conclusion of the Chishima-Karafuto Kokan Joyaku (the Treaty of Saint Petersburg), Seikan-ha who remained in the government started raising their voice to make an envoy's dispatch to Korea come true this time.

清国政府は、列国が有用と認める通商及び航海条約の修正ならびに、通商上の関係を便利にするための通商条項の内容の変更について今後検討する。
The Qing government shall hereafter review revisions of commerce and navigation treaties which the Powers consider useful and amendments of the contents of commerce clauses to improve commercial relationship.

だが三国干渉、続く乙未事変と露館播遷によって日本の朝鮮半島への影響力はむしろ低下し、戦時中の政府と民党の協調関係は次第に崩れていった。
However, the Triple Intervention, followed by Itsubi Incident and Rokan Hansen (Korea royal refuge at the Russian legation), rather weakened Japan's influence on the Korean Peninsula, and cooperative relationship between the government and minto during the war was gradually disrupted.

長和は当初は佐幕派であったが、次第に新政府側に傾いてゆき、明治天皇が東京へ行幸するときには天皇の奉送や京都守衛などで功績を挙げている。
Nagakazu who was on Sabaku-ha (supporters of the Shogun) at the beginning gradually leant toward the new government side, and when Emperor Meiji visited Tokyo, he rendered distinguished service in sending off the Emperor and in guarding Kyoto.

10月には幕末に諸外国と結ばれた不平等条約の改正（条約改正）などを目的とした岩倉使節団が派遣され、留守政府において禄制改革は行われた。
In October, the Iwakura Mission was dispatched for the purpose of revising unequal treaties which Japan had signed with foreign countries at the end of the Edo period, and the reform of stipend was implemented by Rusu-seifu.

当時の国際慣習を知らない明治政府は、この出兵の際に清国への通達をせず、また清国内に権益を持つ列強に対しての通達・根回しを行わなかった。
The Meiji Government with no knowledge of international customs at that time not only hadn't notified Qing before dispatching troops but neither informed the great powers with interests in Qing nor laid the groundwork.

琉球王国は江戸時代には日本（薩摩藩）と中国大陸の清の間で両属関係にあり、日本で明治政府が成立すると、帰属を巡る政治問題が起こっていた。
The Ryukyu Kingdom belonged to both Japan (the Satsuma domain) and Qing on the Chinese continent during the Edo period and the territorial dispute became a political issue after the establishment of the Meiji government in Japan.

版籍奉還（はんせきほうかん）とは、明治2年6月17日（1869年7月25日）に日本の明治政府により行われた中央集権化事業の1つである。
The return of lands and people to the Emperor is one of the centralization enterprises undertaken by the Meiji government in Japan which was established on July 25, 1869.

この条約により、高級官吏の任免権を韓国統監が掌握すること（第4条）、韓国政府の官吏に日本人を登用できること（第5条）などが定められた。
In addition to that, this new treaty gave the Japanese Resident-General the right to appoint and dismiss high-ranking officials (Article 4) and stipulated that all high-ranking officials appointed to the Korean government must be Japanese (Article 5).

秋月の乱（あきづきのらん）は、1876年（明治9年）に福岡県秋月（現・福岡県朝倉市秋月）で起こった明治政府に対する士族反乱の一つである。
The Akizuki-no-ran War is a revolt by the warrior class against the Meiji Government which took place in Akizuki, Fukuoka Prefecture (currently Akizuki, Asakura City, Fukuoka Prefecture) in 1876.

しかし、1917年のロシア革命でロシア帝国が滅亡すると、協約はソビエト連邦政府によって破棄され、日本は中国権益の危機を迎えることとなる。
But Japan came to face a crisis over her interests in China when the Russian Empire fell due to the Russian Revolution in 1917 and the Agreement was cancelled by the soviet Union government.

しかし、東北での戦線が新政府軍勝利の形で沈静化すると、敗走した一行は天狗党が政権を握った水戸藩へ舞い戻り水戸城を奇襲した（弘道館戦争）。
However, when the new government army won and the battles in the Tohoku region calmed down, the shoseito members who had left the Mito Domain went back to the Mito Domain, which was governed by the Tenguto, and attacked the Mito-jo Castle (the battle of Kodokan school).

処刑を免れた橋詰愛平ら9人は、土佐の渡川（四万十川）以西の入田へ配流され庄屋宇賀佑之進預けとなり、その後明治新政府の恩赦により帰郷した。
The nine retainers including Aihei HASHIZUME who were spared their lives were sent to Irita, the west of Watari-gawa River (Shimanto-gawa River) of Tosa, and put under the charge of a village headman, Yunoshin UGA, and later returned to Tosa with a pardon from the new Meiji government.

第2条：日本国政府は韓国が他国と結んでいる条約を実行する立場となるため、韓国は今後日本の仲介無しに他国と条約や約束を交わしてはならない。
ARTICLE II: The Government of Japan undertake to see to the execution of the treaties actually existing between Korea and other Powers, and the Government of Korea engage not to conclude hereafter any act or engagement except through the medium of the Government of Japan.

第二回修信使の見聞、日本政府との交渉、そして『朝鮮策略』の持参によって、朝鮮の対外政策は欧米に対する開国政策へと舵をきり始めるのである。
Through the experiences of the second training delegates, negotiations with the Japanese government, and bringing back 'A stratagem for Korea,' the diplomatic policy of Korea changed to the policy of opening of the country to Europe and the United States.

また、地方から租税として集められた貨幣や地金を公式の通貨に換金して政府に納入するジャフハズ（jahbadh）と呼ばれる御用業者もあった。
Money dealers called 'jahbadh' changed the currencies and bullions collected in various places as taxes into the official currencies, which they delivered to the government.

1879年3月10日、明治天皇が「勤倹の聖旨」を公布して政府の財政路線を批判し、続いて元田に「教学聖旨」を執筆させて教育政策を批判した。
On March 10, 1879, the Emperor Meiji published 'Imperial Thoughts on Diligence and Thriftiness' to criticize the government's financial policy and also ordered Motoda to write 'Imperial Thoughts on Education' to criticize its education policy.

国民政府側から特使を南京に送って欲しいとの電報が届くと、近衛は杉山元陸相に確認を取り、宮崎龍介を特使として上海に派遣することを決定した。
Upon receiving a telegraph from the Nationalist Government requesting a special envoy be sent to Nanjing, Konoe consulted with Minister of the Army Hajime SUGIYAMA and approved the dispatching of Ryusuke MIYASAKI to Shanghai.

しかし、1月14日に和平交渉の打切りを閣議決定し、1月16日に「爾後國民政府ヲ對手トセズ」の声明を国内外に発表し、講和の機会を閉ざした。
However, the termination of peace negotiations was approved in the cabinet meeting on January 14, and on January 16, a proclamation to 'ignore after-the-fact Nationalist Government' was announced both inside and outside the nation, ending any opportunities for peace.

陸軍はアメリカの回答をもって日米交渉も事実上終わりと判断し、参謀本部（陸軍管轄）は政府に対し、外交期限を10月15日とするよう要求した。
The Army viewed this response as the effective end to negotiations between Japan and the United States, and the Staff Headquarters (under the army's jurisdiction) demanded that the deadline for foreign diplomacy be set to October 15.

政府は自由党を刺激するのを避けるために植木の容疑は不問として、檄文に署名した島根県の小原鉄臣ら酒造業者5名のみを不応為罪で禁錮刑とした。
In an attempt to avoid stimulating the Liberal Party, the government sentenced only Tetsuomi KOHARA and four other brewers from Shimane Prefecture who signed the manifesto to imprisonment for fuoizai (a minor offense), without charging Ueki with anything.

中央集権制における地方政治は、各地に設置された役所やそこに勤める官吏が、中央政府から委譲された一定の権限を行使することによって行われる。
Under the centralized authoritarian rule, each local government office and the officials working there executed the authority devolved from the central government to run the local government.

これにより、一進会は併合直後の1910年9月12日に日本政府によって解散を命じられ、解散費用15万円を与えられ、同年9月25日に解散した。
Due to this, Isshinkai was ordered to dismiss by Japanese Government on September 12, 1910 just after the annexation, and with 150 thousand yen given as a dissolution allowance, it dismissed on September 25 of the same year.

明治政府は抵抗した旧幕臣らとの戊辰戦争における戦費などで発足直後から財政難で全国3000万石のうち800万石を確保できているのみであった。
The Meiji government suffered from a financial problem from the beginning due to a cost of the Boshin War which they fought against former retainers of shogun, and they could secure a right of owning land of only 800 koku (Japanese unit of volume, and 1 koku was defined as enough rice quantity to feed one person for one year) out of Japan's entire land, 3,000 koku.

越後長岡藩（北越戦争参照）・会津（会津戦争参照）・秋田（秋田戦争参照）などで激しい戦闘がおこなわれたが、いずれも新政府軍の勝利に終わった。
Many hard battles were fought in the Echigo-Nagaoka domain (Hokuetsu War), Aizu (Aizu War), Akita (Akita War), and other parts of Japan, but the armed force of the new government won all of them.

朝鮮政府は日清両軍の撤兵要求を回答、7月23日未明に陸軍第五師団の二個大隊が漢城の電信線を切断して朝鮮王宮を3時間にわたり攻撃・占領する。
The Korean government responded that it wanted both Japanese and Qing troops to withdraw, and early on July 23, two battalions of the fifth Army Division cut the telegraph wire in Hanseong and occupied the Korean Palace after a three hour attack.

田中正造の直訴後、学生が相次いで団体で足尾見学に向かうなど、世論の盛り上がりにあわてた政府は、1902年に第二次鉱毒調査委員会を設置した。
After Shozo TANAKA made direct appeals to the government, popular opinion changed in the residents' favor as many groups of college students visited Ashio one after another, and the government, realizing it could become a threat, hastily set up the second Research Committee of the Mining Pollution in 1902.

明治維新によって、幕府も含めて旧来の朝廷機構は事実上廃止されて（王政復古の大号令）、新しく生まれ変わった行政組織である明治政府が成立した。
The old Imperial Court system including the bakuhu was virtually abolished by the Meiji Restoration (the Decree for the Restoration of Imperial Rule), and the Meiji Government was established as a newly born political system.

様々な制限があったとしても、各地の府県会が自由民権運動派の政府攻撃の拠点となったことは、府県会自治が空虚な器でなかったことを意味している。
Even though there were various limitations, the fact that the prefectural assemblies all over the country became the bases for the Jiyu Minken Undo sects to criticize and attack the government means that the autonomy of prefectural assemblies was not a hollow gesture.

日清戦争中は政治休戦を支持して臨時軍事費の支出に賛同したが、戦争終結後に日英通商航海条約締結と三国干渉受諾を批判して政府と対決色を強めた。
During the Sino-Japanese War, it backed political ceasefire and agreed with spending the extra military expenditures, but it took a more clearly adversarial stand against the government, criticizing the signing of the Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation and the accepting of the Triple Intervention after the end of the war.

だが、当時、国民は紙幣に不慣れで、また政府の信用が強固でなかったため、流通は困難で、紙幣100両をもって正金40両に交換するほどであった。
However, since the Japanese people were not used to paper currency at the time and the new Meiji government had not yet gained public trust, the circulation of these bills was seriously restricted, and 100 ryo of Dajokan bills was often exchanged for 40 ryo of hard currency.

アメリカでの日本の経済活動がすべてアメリカ政府の管理下に置かれ、そして日本の南部仏印の進駐を確認した上で、石油の対日輸出が全面禁止された。
Japanese assets in the United States were placed entirely under the administration of the U.S. Government, and after Japan's advancement into southern French Indochina was confirmed, there was a total ban on the export of oil to Japan.

1908年（明治41）12月18日、東洋拓殖株式会社法（東拓法）を根拠法として、大韓帝国政府と日韓民間資本の共同出資などにより設立された。
On December 18, 1908, it was jointly established by the government of the Korean Empire and the private capital of Japan and Korea based on Toyo Takushoku Kabushiki Gaisha Law (Totaku Law).

竹添進一郎在朝鮮公使など日本側の協力のもと、放火は失敗するものの概ね計画は順調に進み、閔泳翊ら閔氏一族を殺害、開化派が新政府樹立を宣言した。
Since the plan generally went smoothly in cooperation with Japan, headed by the Japanese ambassador to Korea Shinichiro TAKEZOE, in spite of the failure of the fire-setting, the Progressive Party killed the Min family including Yeong-ik MIN and stated the establishment of a new government.

院庁は、白河院～後鳥羽院の院政最盛期を経て、室町時代前期に院政が実質を持たなくなるまで、朝廷（中央政府）の重要な政務機関として機能し続けた。
After the height of Insei from the Retired Emperor Shirakawa to the Retired Emperor Gotoba, In no cho continued to function as an important political institution of the Imperial Court (central government) until Insei lost substance in the early Muromachi period.

この時点では、朝廷は諸外国に対して徳川幕府から明治政府への政権移譲を宣言しておらず、伊藤俊輔（後の伊藤博文）が折衝に当たるも決裂するに至る。
At that time the Imperial Court had not declared to the foreign countries the handover of political power from the TOKUGAWA bakufu to the Meiji Government, and Shunsuke ITO (later Hirobumi ITO) held talks with them but the negotiation broke down.

それでも政府は世論の支持と元老・内大臣の了承を背景に、帝国議会・枢密院 (日本)を押し切って同年(1930年）10月2日に批准を完了させる。
Even so, the government broke down the opposition of the Imperial Diet and the Privy Council (Japan) with a support of the public opinion and the acknowledgement of Genro (elder statesman) and the Minister of the Interior, completed the ratification in October 2, 1930.

一方、鹿児島から帰京した川村中将から西郷軍の問罪出兵の報を得た政府は2月19日、鹿児島県逆徒征討の詔を発し、正式に西郷軍への出兵を決定した。
On the other hand, Vice Admiral KAWAMURA returned from Kagoshima to Tokyo and reported to the government that Saigo's army was approaching to censure the government; and on February 19, the government issued an Imperial edict to defeat the rebels of Kagoshima and formally decided to dispatch troops against Saigo's army.

版籍奉還は次の廃藩置県までの過渡的措置であるが、当時藩に対する明治政府の権力は脆弱で、諸藩への命令も強制力のない太政官達で行うしかなかった。
The return of lands and people to the Emperor is a transitory measure until Haihan-chiken, but the Meiji government's authority over the han was weak at the time so orders to each han had to be made by Dajokan tasshi (proclamation by the Grand Council of State) which did not have binding power.

実際、徳川慶喜に対する処分にはそれほど強硬ではなかった木戸孝允も、大久保利通に対して会津藩を討伐しなくては新政府は成り立たないと述べている。
In fact, Takayoshi KIDO, who had not demonstrated a strong opinion regarding the severe punishment of Yoshinobu TOKUGAWA, told Toshimichi OKUBO that the new government could not be established without defeating the Aizu Domain.

明治政府の外交を柔弱と非難して、「条約励行・自主外交・対清強硬」を掲げて対等条約締結以外の一切の条約改正の拒否、内地雑居反対論などを掲げた。
The Dai Nihon Kyokai condemned the Meiji government's diplomacy as weak-kneed, and under the slogans of 'the rigorous enforcement of the treaties,' 'an autonomous foreign policy,' and 'a hard-line stance against Qing,' it primarily advocated the refusal of all treaty revisions except for the conclusion of treaties on equal terms and opposition to mixed residence of foreigners and Japanese in Japan.

だが、憲法において議会に予算議定権および立法権が認められている以上、現実には政府が議会の多数党を無視して政権運営にあたることは困難であった。
However, under the circumstances where the Constitution approved of parliament's power to decide a national budget and also to legislate, practically, it was difficult to ignore the opinions of the majority party while running the government.

それが（一揆当事者の意図とは関係なく）長州征伐から戊辰戦争にかけての薩長（新政府）優位の流れを間接的に生み出す役目を果たしたことは否めない。
It cannot be denied that this disorder indirectly helped the Satsuma and Choshu Domains (which constituted the new government) gain momentum to establish their dominance over Japan during the period from the Choshu Expedition to the Boshin Civil War (regardless of the intention of the uprising participants).

協定文では、両国は韓国の国内政治への干渉を差し控え、かつ韓国政府の依頼で軍事または財政顧問を送る前に、互いに事前承認を求めることで合意した。
The agreement stated that both nations had to withhold from interfering with the national politics of the Republic of Korea and seek each other's pre-approval before sending the military and financial advisers requested by the Korean government.

秩父事件（ちちぶじけん）は、1884年（明治17年）10月31日から11月9日にかけて、埼玉県秩父郡の農民が政府に対して起こした武装蜂起事件。
The Chichibu Incident was an armed uprising that peasants in Chichibu County, Saitama Prefecture made against the government from October 31 to November 9, 1884.

1869年には大久保利通、木戸孝允（桂小五郎）らの主導で版籍奉還が行われ、家禄は政府から支給される形となり、禄制は大蔵省が管轄することとなる。
After Hanseki-hokan (the reform of returning lands and people to the emperor) was implemented under the leadership of Toshimichi OKUBO and Takayoshi KIDO (Kogoro KATSURA) in 1869, the government became a distributor of Karoku, and the stipend system was controlled by the Ministry of Finance.

地方制度としての裁判所（さいばんしょ）は、明治元年（1868年）に、京都の新政府が諸藩に属さない直轄地を治めるために設けた地方行政機関である。
A local court was established in 1868 as a local administrative organ by the new government in Kyoto for it to govern areas which did not belong to any feudal domains.

征韓論派の下野の後政府は内務卿大久保利通の主導のもと1874年台湾蕃地事務長官に大隈重信、同都督に陸軍中将西郷従道を任命して出兵準備をさせた。
After resignation of supporters of Seikanron, the government led by Toshimichi OKUBO, Secretary of Interior, appointed Shigenobu OKUMA as chief secretary of Taiwan Banchi and Tsugumichi SAIGO, lieutenant general (army), as Totoku governor general of Taiwan in 1874 to prepare for the dispatch of troops.

台湾総督府をはじめとする他の外地政庁と異なり、朝鮮総督府は大韓帝国政府の機構を殆どそのまま継承したため、最初から多くの朝鮮人官僚を抱えていた。
Different from government offices in other overseas territories such as Taiwan Sotoku-fu, Chosen Sotoku-fu took over the most structures of the Korean Empire government as it had been, so it had numbers of Korean bureaucrats from the beginning.

第1条：日本国政府は今後外務省により韓国の外交を監理指揮するため、日本の外交代表者と領事は外国にいる韓国人とその利益を保護しなくてはならない。
ARTICLE I: The Government of Japan, through the Department of Foreign Affairs, will hereafter have control and direction of the external relations and affairs of Korea, and the diplomatic and consular representatives of Japan will have the charge of the subjects and interests of Korea in foreign countries.

そもそも爵位の基準は版籍奉還の時点の現石が基準であり、「安政の大獄の恨みで新政府に冷遇され、伯爵に落とされた」などというのは全くの俗説である。
It was typical of the Peerage Law, which calculated value on what was received from a particular territory at the time of the Hanseki-houkan (the return of lands and people to the emperor), although it was still popularly believed that the Ii family were treated poorly by the new government and demoted to hakushaku due to the code of Ansei no Taigoku (suppression of extremists by the Shogunate).

これは、戦争によって増大した対外支払のために金貨の政府への集中が必要となり、金の輸出を禁止、通貨の金兌換を停止せざるをえなくなったからである。
The government needed to collect gold coins to pay the increased external payment due to the war, and as a result, the government had to lay an embargo on the export of gold and suspend currency conversion to gold.

律令編纂に中心的な役割を果たした藤原不比等は、その後、大納言・右大臣へ昇進し、政府の中枢において最大の権力者となり、藤原氏繁栄の基盤を作った。
FUJIWARA no Fuhito, who played a key role in compiling the Ritsuryo, was promoted to Dainagon (Major Counselor of State) and then to Udaijin (Minister of the Right), becoming the most influential person in the political center and laying the foundations for the prosperity of the Fujiwara clan.

そのため、大久保は五箇条の御誓文の精神に則って新政府内の各機関による「公議輿論」の合意を経ることでその正当性を打ち立てる計画であったのである。
Therefore, Okubo planned to justify by getting an agreement of `kogiyoron' by each organization in the new government on a spirit of Five Charter Oath.

第三国の侵害により若しは内乱のため、韓国の皇室の安寧或いは領土の保全に危険ある場合は、日本政府は、速やに臨機必要の措置を取らなければならない。
When the peace and security of the Imperial family of Korea is endangered due to invasion by a third country or to a domestic civil war, the Japanese government have the obligation to respond to the emergency immediately, and to arrange an efficient solution to the problem.

沢と井上から「中心人物の処刑と一般信徒の流罪」という厳罰の提案を受けた政府では4月25日（5月17日）に大阪で御前会議を開いてこれを討議した。
Following a proposal of severe punishment of 'execution for leading figures and deportation for other general Christians' made by Sawa and Inoue, the government held a conference in the presence of the emperor in Osaka on May 17 to discuss the proposed punishment.

アメリカがハワイとフィリピンを得たことは、清国における積極的な経済政策と結び付いて、当時の日本政府にとって、ますます脅威として捉えられていた。
The Japanese government at that time felt increasingly threatened by gaining of Hawaii and the Philippines by the United States since it led to the aggressive economic policies in Qing.

また、1884年に大蔵卿松方正義の建議によって日本銀行・横浜正金銀行、続いて1887年には日本郵船の政府保有株式を次々と皇室に献上されている。
With a proposal from Masayoshi MATSUKATA, the Bank of Japan and Yokohama Specie Bank presented their state-owned shares to the Imperial family in 1884, as did Nippon Yusen Kabushiki Kaisha in 1887.

この結果、二十歳以上の男子の3%～4%くらいしか徴兵できなかった（もともと政府の財政難により、成人男子全員を徴兵することは到底無理ではあった）。
As a result, only about 3 to 4% of the male aged 20 and over were drafted (though it was never possible to draft all adult males due to the government's financial difficulty).

公務人（公議人）は、政府各官から各1名、付属の諸学校より覚1名、府県代表は無く、各藩より1名が代表として送られ、19部門に分かれて審議を行った。
Komu-nin (kogi-nin) were selected one each representing government, each school in affiliation with governments, each domain, no one representing prefectures, and counseled in 19 departments.

当時の明治政府にとって解放令とは、「四民平等」理念による身分解放ではなく、「地租徴収」実施のためだけに出された形だけの身分解放に他ならなかった。
Kaiho Rei for Meiji Government at that time was not abolition of the class system based on the philosophy of 'shimin byodo' but only a formal abolition of the class system enacted just to proceed 'chiso choshu (collection of land tax)'.

さきに1871年琉球船が難破し台湾南部へ漂着した際、先住民による琉球島民殺害事件が発生していたが明治政府はそれを解決できないまま数年が経過した。
Before that, the Meiji government did not resolve the incident of suicide of Ryukyu sailors whose ship had been wrecked and cast up on the coast of southern Taiwan in 1871, and several years had passed.

5月29日近衛師団の台湾北部への上陸後唐総督らは台湾を脱出し、清仏戦争の英雄劉永福が民主国政府により大将軍に任じられて台北陥落後の抵抗を担った。
On May 29, when the Imperial Guards landed in the northern part of Taiwan, Governor Tang and other leaders escaped from the island, but the government of the Republic of Formosa appointed Liu Yongfu, a hero in Sino-French War, as commander in chief and took the responsibility for resistance after the fall of Taipei.

そのおそらく最初のものは、徳川氏の遺臣を移して北方警備と開墾に従事させようとする榎本武揚の考えで、彼はこの計画を掲げて新政府と箱館戦争を戦った。
The idea might be first suggested by Takeaki ENOMOTO: He thought of moving surviving retainers of the Tokugawa Clan to Hokkaido and letting them undertake the guard and reclamation of the northern territory, and holding up this plan, fought the Battle of Hakodate against the new government.

明治新政府が推進した殖産興業や富国強兵・脱亜入欧などの一連の政策の推進や西洋建築（→西洋館・擬洋風建築）、散髪、洋装、洋食などの奨励がみられる。
The new Meiji government promoted the policies of industrial development, wealth and military strength of Japan, leaving Asia and entering Europe, while the government also promoted the adaptation of Western culture and customs, such as Western-style architecture, (=>Western style building and pseudo Western style architecture) short-cut hair removing the topknot of a man, Western style clothing, and Western style food and cooking.

こうして金融が安定すると、松方は1885年5月9日に日本銀行より兌換紙幣を発行させて、翌年より政府発行紙幣・国立銀行発行紙幣との交換が行われた。
Thus, financial stability was achieved, and then Matsukata had the Bank of Japan issue convertible paper money on May 9, 1885, which replaced the government-issued paper money and the paper money issued by the national bank starting in the following year.

京都にあった新政府において、三条実美・岩倉具視・大久保利通・西郷隆盛・広沢真臣らが居並ぶ中で伊藤は建白書を提出し、後藤象二郎が内容を読み上げた。
In the new government in Kyoto, Ito submitted the petition and Shojiro GOTO read out the contents while Sanetomi SANJO, Tomomi IWAKURA, Toshimichi OKUBO, Takamori SAIGO, Saneomi HIRASAWA were sitting there.

興宣大院君派の扇動によって政権を担当していた閔妃一族の政府高官や、日本人軍事顧問、日本公使館員らが殺害され、日本公使館が襲撃を受けた事件である。
In this incident, with the abetment by Heungseon Daewongun group, government high officials of Queen Min's family members who were in charge of administration, killed Japanese military advisors and Japanese legations were killed and the Japanese Legation was raided.

折りしも、後藤象二郎による大同団結運動が盛り上がっている最中であり、片岡の他に尾崎行雄や星亨もこれにこうじて民権派の団結と政府批判を呼びかけた。
Just then, the campaign to unite for a common purpose by Shojiro GOTO was gathering stream, while Yukio OZAKI and Toru HOSHI, as well as KATAOKA, called for unity of the Civil-Right group and to criticize the government in accordance with the campaign.

松山藩は騒動の首謀者を死罪にするため、中央政府に御仕置伺い書を提出したが、良民にたいし危害を加えたわけではないとして徒刑（懲役）の処罰となった。
Matsuyama domain submitted a letter to the central government to condemn the leader of the riot to death, however the leader was sentenced to penal servitude because he didn't harm law-abiding people.

一旦解体したはずの大同団結運動が今度は板垣退助を擁して再燃し、政府内からも山縣有朋や後藤象二郎、伊藤博文、井上馨らが妥協案に反対する意志を示した。
The Great Merger Movement that had once fallen apart was rekindled, this time involving Taisuke ITAGAKI, and even the insiders of the government such as Aritomo YAMAGATA, Shojiro GOTO, Hirobumi ITO, Kaoru INOUE and so on showed their will against the compromise plan.

大宝律令（701年）によって、九州の大宰府は政府機関として確立したが、他の大宰は廃止され、一般的に「大宰府」と言えば九州のそれを指すと考えてよい。
By Taiho Ritsuryo (701), Dazai-fu in Kyushu was established as a government agency, but other Dazai were abolished, so it is correct to think that 'Dazai-fu' in general refers to the one in Kyushu.

（なお新政府は朝敵となった江戸幕府による債務はその発生時期を問わずに一切の債務引受を拒絶したため、別枠処理された外国債分を除いて全て無効とされた）
(The new government didn't inherit the debts of Edo bakufu, which became the Emperor's enemy, regardless of the time, and such debts were declared void except for foreign debts).

樺太は江戸幕府がロシア政府と結んだ日露和親条約で日露混住の地とされ、王政復古 (日本)の後は箱館裁判所と箱館府の支配を経て、開拓使の管轄となった。
Sakhalin, where the Japanese and the Russians lived under the treaty between the Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan signed between Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) and the Russian government, was initially controlled by Hakodate District Court and Hakodate-fu after the Restoration of (Japanese) Imperial Rule, and later, by the Hokkaido Development Commissioner.

これは開戦の名義を立てるために朝鮮政府の閔氏一族を追放し、大院君を再び担ぎだして政権を樹立して日本に清軍の朝鮮からの撃退を要請させるためであった。
The purpose was to obtain justification for opening a war by pushing the Ming family out of the Korean government to get Daewongun to again hold power and request that Japan drive back the Qing army from Korea.

安政6年（1859年）に江戸幕府は洋銀を金三分と同価値と看做す規定を定め、慶応4年2月20日（1868年）に明治政府もこれを追認する規定を出した。
In 1859, the Edo bakufu feudal government set an regulation that one Spanish dollar should be equivalent to sanbu-kin gold coins, and on February 20, 1868, the Meiji government also established a rule following this.

新政府は7日に慶喜追討令を出し、9日に有栖川宮熾仁親王を東征大総督（征討大総督）に任じ、東海・東山・北陸三道の軍を指揮させ、東国経略に乗り出した。
The new government issued the decree to find and kill Yoshinobu on the 7th, and on the 9th, Imperial Prince Taruhito, Arisugawa-no-miya was appointed to Tosei-daitokufu, and was allowed to take command of Tokai, Higashiyama and the Three Roads of Hokuriku to work for Togoku-keiryaku (the government of the eastern countries).

1904年（明治37年）1月21日、韓国政府は日露交戦の折には戦時局外中立をすると宣言、清をはじめイギリス、フランス、ドイツなどがこれを承認した。
The Korean government proclaimed that they would stand outside and keep neutrality against the war between Japan and Russia on January 21, 1904 and the Korean proclamation was approved by other foreign countries, such as Qing (now China), Britain, France and Germany.

明治維新後、政府は幕府や諸藩の造船所や鉱山などの事業を引き継ぐとともに、工部省などが官営模範工場を新たに開設し、日本の近代化、資本主義化を図った。
After Meiji Restoration, the government took over bakufu's (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) and feudal clans' businesses such as dockyards and mines, and Kobusho (the Ministry of Industry) and other institutes established government-run factories to modernize Japan and make the transition to capitalism.

1881年5月、高知県の酒造業者300名が政府に対して造酒税の引下げ嘆願を提出するとともに、地元出身の自由民権運動の指導者植木枝盛に助力を求めた。
In May 1881, 300 brewers from Kochi Prefecture presented the government with a petition for the reduction of sake brewing tax and at the same time sought cooperation from Emori UEKI who was the leader of the Freedom and People's Rights Movement and was also from Kochi.

これに先立ち、一進会は1905年11月5日に「外交権を日本政府に委任し日本の指導保護を受け、朝鮮の独立、安定を維持せよ」という宣言書を発表している。
On November 5, 1905 before that, Isshinkai had announced their declaration that they transferred their diplomatic right to Japanese Government to go under the Japanese instruction and protection, for the purpose of maintaining Korea's independence and stability.

1873年の征韓論政変により下野した板垣退助は1874年、後藤象二郎、江藤新平、副島種臣らと愛国公党を結成、民撰議院設立建白書を政府左院に提出した。
In 1874, Taisuke ITAGAKI, together with Shojiro GOTO, Shinpei ETO, Taneomi SOEJIMA and others, who left the government when it refused to allow an invasion of Korea in the preceding year, founded the Aikokuto Party and submitted a petition to the Council of the Left of the government calling for the establishment of an elected national assembly.

1874年の民撰議院設立建白書以降、藩閥政府による政治に対して、議会の開設、地租の軽減、不平等条約の改正、言論と集会の自由の保障などの要求を掲げた。
The movement began when a petition for the establishment of an elected national assembly was filed in 1874 calling for a Diet, the land-tax reductions, the revision of the unequal treaties, and freedom of speech and assembly in opposition to the han clique-dominated government.

そのため海軍の黎明期にはオランダ人が指導の中心となったが、明治新政府に替わってからはイギリス人を顧問に据えることでイギリスに習った海軍運営となった。
As a consequence, in the early days of the Japanese Navy it was primarily Dutchmen who led the way; with the birth of the new Meiji government, however, Englishmen were employed as advisers, and as such, the administration of the Navy followed the British model.

ただし、この「開国和親」表明は外交団に対するものであり、新政府内にも未だ攘夷を支持する者もいることから、国内に対してはその事実を明確にはしなかった。
However, the announcement of 'opening of a country to the world and amity' was made only to the foreign diplomats, and still there were some supporters of Joi within the new government, so that the fact was not disclosed domestically.

このことは、旧幕臣の腐敗こそが江戸幕府の滅亡の原因で維新のために尽力した薩長土肥の若い人材こそが政府に必要であると考える大久保には理解できなかった。
Okubo couldn't understand Kido's decision because he thought that the corruption among the retainers of the shogun was the cause of the Edo bakufu's fall and young people of Satsuma, Choshu, Tosa and Hizen who strived to bring about the Meiji Restoration should be utilized for the new government.

9月24日、午前4時、政府軍が城山を総攻撃したとき、西郷・桐野・桂久武・村田・池上・別府・辺見十郎太ら将士40余名は洞前に整列し、岩崎口に進撃した。
On September 21 at 4 p.m., the Government army carried out an all-out attack, about 40 commanders include Saigo, Kirino, Hisatake KATSURA, Ikeda, Ikegami, Beppu and Jurouta HENMI lined up in front of the cove and attacked Iwasaki-guchi.

政府軍一部の植木進出を聞き、午後3時に村田三介・伊東直二の小隊が植木に派遣され、夕刻、伊東隊の岩切正九郎が乃木希典率いる第14連隊の軍旗を分捕った。
He heard that part of the Governmental army had gone to Ueki, then the platoon of Sansuke MURATA and Naoji ITO was sent to Ueki, and they captured the army flag of the fourteenth regiment, which was lead by Shokuro IWAKIRI and Maresuke NOGI of the army of Ito.

17日と21の両日、掘与八郎が延岡方面にいた薩兵約1000名を率いて高原麓を奪い返すために政府軍と激戦をしたが、これも勝てず、庄内、谷頭へ退却した。
Hachiro HORIYO, who was in the direction of Nobeoka, had fierce battle with the Government army with one thousand Satsu soldiers to retake Kogen-roku on the 17th and 21st, but they lost again and withdrew to Shonai and Tanigashira.

同委員会では関西経済連合会などと連携して3年後を目処に「古典の日」を国の制定する記念日とすることを目指して政府や国会議員に働きかけることにしている。
Cooperating with the Kansai Economic Federation and other organizations, the committee is to make approaches to the government and members of the Diet, aiming at setting up 'Classics Day' as a nationally-enacted commemoration day by three years from now.

明治4年（1871年）に明治政府が藩札の発行状況を調べたところ、全国の藩の約8割に当たる244藩、14の代官所、9の旗本領が紙幣の発行を行っていた。
When the Meiji government researched the issue status of han bills in 1871, they found that 244 domains (80 percent of all domains), 14 magistrate's offices, and 9 hatamoto issued han bills.

これによって長岡藩の兵力が減少したのみならず、人夫動員も困難となり河井継之助の長岡城奪還計画は大幅に遅れて、結果的に新政府軍に有利に働くことになる。
However, the reduced military power of the domain due to this operation made it difficult for the domain to mobilize even its labor force and the plan to recover Nagaoka-jo Castle lead by Tsugunosuke KAWAI was largely delayed, which consequently worked favorably to the new government.

税率を地価に対する一定率とすることにより、従前のように農作物の豊凶により税収が変動することなく、政府は安定した収入を確保することができるようになった。
By specifying a certain tax rate for land price, tax revenue did not fluctuate by the crop yields of agricultural crops like before and the government could secure stable tax revenue.

このため政府は、、に内務省及び大蔵省の両省間に地租改正事務局を設置し、これを中心として改租を強力に進めるよう方針転換した（明治8年太政官達第38号）。
For this reason, the government founded the Land Tax Bureau between the Ministry of Home Affairs and the Ministry of Finace in1875 and changed its policy to moving agressively for advancing the land-tax reform centering on the newly created Land Tax Reform Bureau (No. 32 of the Transmittal of Dajokan [Grand Council of State] of 1875).

刑罰（財産法）としての過料は明治2年（1869年）に明治政府が定めた『新律綱領』によって一旦廃止されて旧律令法の贖銅制度に基づく罰金制度に変更された。
Karyo as a penal punishment (punishment by seizing assets) was abolished once by 'Shinritsu Koryo' (Outline of the New Criminal Code) issued by the Meiji government in 1869 and changed to a penal fine system based on the Shokudo system of the old Ritsuryo law.

古代日本政府による最初の律令法に位置づけられるが、原本は現存せず、存在を裏付ける史料にとぼしいことから、存在説と非存在説の間で激しい論争が続いている。
This is the first Ritsuryo code by the ancient Japanese government but because there is neither the original book remaining nor historical sources which confirm the existence of the code, there have been fierce debates about its existence.

しかし4年後の1884年（明治14年）、日本政府は「区町村会法」を改訂し、規則制定権を区町村会から取り上げたため、町村会議員選挙から女性は排除された。
Yet four year later, in 1884, the Japanese government revised the 'Local Government Assembly Law' and stripped away the right to establish regulations from the local government, whereupon women were again barred from participating in local government assembly elections.

まだ戦争の帰趨が覚束なかった2月末、政府は鹿児島の人心を収攬し、薩軍の本拠地を衝くために旧藩の国父であった島津久光に議官柳原前光を勅使として派遣した。
Towards the end of February when it was still uncertain which side would win the war, the national government sent Gikan (councilor of Chamber of Elders or Senate) Sakimitsu YANAGIWARA as an Imperial messenger to Hisamitsu SHIMAZU, who was called the father of his country in the former fief, to win the general public in Kagoshima over to the government side in attacking the base of the Satsuma army.

西郷軍の士気が高かったのは西郷隆盛が総大将であったからだと考え明治政府は、天皇を大日本帝国陸軍・海軍の大元帥に就かせて軍の士気高揚を図るようになった。
Reasoning that the supreme commander Takamori SAIGO raised the fighting spirit of Saigo's army, the national government in the Meiji period appointed Emperor to the commander-in-chief of the Imperial Army and Navy to raise the morale of the armies.

この事を反省して、旧式ではあっても継戦能力に優れた前装銃が各地に分散保管されている状況を危険視した政府は、西南戦争後の明治11年からこれらを回収した。
So as not to repeat that mistake, the government started to withdraw the muzzle loaders, which were an older model but superior in the ability to continue war and stored in various places throughout the nation, in 1878 after the end of the Seinan War.

彼らは自分達こそが国民・民衆の代表であるとする意識から、「民党」という言葉を用い、反対勢力を政府官吏と癒着した勢力と看做して「吏党」と呼んで卑下した。
They used the word 'minto' to call themselves with the consciousness that they were the real representatives of the people, and they regarded their opponents as the group having a cozy relationship with the government officials and despised the group by calling it 'rito' (literally, the parties of the government officials, it is the discriminatory term used by the members and supporters of minto).

また、伊藤を明治政府の中心的人物として重んじるようになり、立憲政友会結党の際に意見の相違はあったものの、両者の間に強い信頼関係を形成することになった。
The both sides established a strong mutual trust, respecting Ito as the leading figure of the Meiji government, despite their differences in opinion about the launch of Rikken seiyukai (a political party organized by Hirobumi ITO).

これらの条項は辛亥革命以後も北洋政府・奉天軍閥などに継承されたが、満洲某重大事件後に奉天軍閥を継いだ張学良が同条約を否認して併行鉄道の建設を推進した。
Although these protocols had remained in force even after the Xinhai Revolution, with the Beiyang government and the Mukden military clique in power, Chang Hsueh-liang, who succeeded in the Mukden military clique after 'the Manchuria incident' (assassination of Zhang Zuolin, the Manchurian warlord, by the Japanese Army), ignored the treaty obligations and promoted the construction of railroads parallel to the South Manchuria Railway.

が、1875年（明治8年）、政府の讒謗律（ざんぼうりつ）・新聞紙条例が施行されたことで機関誌の発行は43号で中絶・廃刊に追い込まれ事実上解散となった。
However, due to the Zanboritsu (Libel Law) and the Shinbunshi Jorei (Press Ordinance) put into effect by the government in 1875, the bulletin was forced to suspend and cease publication after the forty-third issue, and the society was, in effect, dissolved.

岩倉が軽傷と知ってひとまず安心するが、不平士族による政府高官の襲撃という事態を重く見た大久保は、ただちに警視庁大警視川路利良に早急な犯人捜索を命じた。
Okubo was relieved to hear Iwakura's injury was slight one, but as he was strongly concerned about the fact the assault was made to a high government official by the Fuheishizoku, he told Toshiyoshi KAWAJI, the Daikeishi (top of the police) to search for the criminals.

1905年10月、日本政府は韓国保護権の確立の方針を閣議決定し、翌11月には伊藤博文を特使として派遣し、11月28日に第二次日韓協約の締結が強行された。
In October 1905, Japanese Government made a cabinet decision on the policy to build the protection right for Korea, and in November, Hirobumi ITO was sent as a special envoy, and on November 28, the Eulsa Treaty was forced to be concluded.

これは、改革掛には渋沢や前島密など郷士や農民などから幕臣を経て明治政府に仕官した者が多く、早くから人権の確立や四民平等の必要性を自覚していた層であった。
It so happened because most of those in charge of revision took service with Meiji Government through being goshi (country samurais) or farmers like SHIBUSAWA and Hisoka MAEJIMA and they were of the stratum who were aware of the necessity of the establishment of human rights and the equality of all people early.

12月9日、王政復古 (日本)が下され、従来の将軍・摂政・関白などの職が廃止され、天皇親政を基本とし、総裁・議定・参与からなる新政府の樹立が宣言された。
On December 9, the Restoration of the Imperial Rule (Japan) was declared, revoking traditional titles including Shogun, Sessho, and Kanpaku, and the new government, based on direct rule by the emperor, consisting of Sosai (President), Gijo and Sanyo (Councilor), was declared to be established.

第一條日本國政府ハ在東京外務省ニ由リ今後韓國ノ外國ニ對スル關係及事務ヲ監理指揮スヘク日本國ノ外交代表者及領事ハ外國ニ於ケル韓國ノ臣民及利益ヲ保護スヘシ
ARTICLE I. The Government of Japan, through the Department of Foreign Affairs at Tokyo, will hereafter have control and direction of the external relations and affairs of Corea, and the diplomatic and consular representatives of Japan will have the charge of the subjects and interests of Corea in foreign countries.

国民政府により台湾の資源を収奪した植民地時代として否定的な評価が行われるが、鉄道に関して確実に戦後の台湾経済の発展に大きな影響を与えた遺産となっている。
The National Government made a negative evaluation on Japan's colonial rule as depriving Taiwanese of their resources, but the railways are undoubtedly the heritage that contributed greatly to post-war economic development in Taiwan.

一方、私学校設立以来、政府は彼らの威を恐れ、早期の対策を行ってこなかったが、私学校党による県政の掌握が進むにつれて、私学校に対する曲解も本格化してきた。
On the other hand, when Shigakko was founded, the central government had failed in taking prompt action for fear of the schools' influence; however, as the Shigakko faction became powerful in the prefectural government, the central government began to put a false color on Shigakko.

廃藩置県後、明治政府は旧藩の債務を整理したが、その際7413万両のうち3486万両分しか認めず、認めた分も長期の公債による分割支払いとした（藩債処分）。
After the Haihan-chiken (abolition of feudal domains and establishment of prefectures) the Meiji Government dealt with the disposal of debt of domains, but the government only accepted 3,486 ryo (currency denomination at that period) out of 7,413 ryo, and the approved debt were decided to be repaid by long period of installment plan with public bond (this was called Hansai Shobun, the Policy to Measure Debts of Feudal Clans).

明治14年の政変によって政府を追放された大隈が新党結成を構想し、1882年3月14日に新党の趣意書を発表して4月16日に東京の明治会堂で結党式を開催した。
Okuma, who was expelled from the government due to a political upheaval that happened in 1881, got an idea to form a new political party, and he held a ceremony of inauguration at the Meiji Kokaido meeting hall in Tokyo on April 16, after announcing the intent to launch a new party on March 14.

明治維新後に対馬府中藩を介して朝鮮に対して新政府発足の通告と国交を望む交渉を行うが、日本の外交文書が江戸時代の形式と異なることを理由に朝鮮側に拒否された。
After the Meiji Restoration, the Meiji government noticed Korea to establish a new government and negotiated to have diplomatic relations, but Korea rejected them because the format of diplomatic papers was different from the one of Edo period.

一方で士族反乱に参加した士族の大半は金禄公債証書発行以前から政府を批判しており、また決起の趣旨に秩禄処分が挙げられているケースが少ない事も指摘されている。
However, some people insists that most of the former warriors who joined the revolts had criticized the government since before the issuance of the public bond, and their reason for joining the revolts was not Chitsuroku-shobun.

慶応3年12月9日 (旧暦)（1868年1月3日）に勃発した王政復古 (日本)のクーデターは事実上の中央政府が江戸幕府から朝廷へ移っただけに過ぎなかった。
Osei-fukko (Restoration of Imperial Rule) declared on January 3, 1868 was a coup through which the actual power of central government was shifted from the Edo bakufu to the Imperial Court.

世論においてはロシアとの戦争も辞さずという強硬な意見も出たが、当時の日本には列強諸国と戦えるだけの力は無く、政府内では伊藤博文ら戦争回避派が主流を占めた。
Although Japanese public opinon was strongly in favor of declarling war on Russia, Japan still did not have the strength to fight a great power such as Russia, and a faction opposing war prevailed in the government.

そこで政府は事件を所轄する裁判官に対して旧刑法116条に規定する天皇や皇族に対して危害を与えたものに適用すべき大逆罪によって死刑を適用するよう働きかけた。
Therefore, the Japanese government applied pressure to the Court to try Tsuda under Article 116 of the Criminal Code, which demanded death penalty for acts against the Emperor, or members of the Imperial family.

明治政府は有栖川宮熾仁親王を鹿児島県逆徒征討総督（総司令官）に任じ、実質的総司令官になる参軍（副司令官）には山縣有朋陸軍中将と川村純義海軍中将を任命した。
The Meiji government appointed Imperial Prince Arisugawanomiya Taruhito to Governor-General on Suppression of the rebellion of Kagoshima Prefecture (supreme commander), and appointed Lieutenant General of the Imperial Army Aritomo YAMAGATA and Vice Admiral of the Imperial Navy Sumiyoshi KAWAMURA to Sangun (seconds-in-command), which were to be the virtual supreme commanders.

明治政府は金本位制度の確立を民間に任せることとし、1872年に国立銀行条例（民間資本で発券銀行を設立し兌換紙幣の発行を義務付けるというもの。）を制定した。
The Meiji Government left an establishment of the gold standard system to the private sector, and enacted a regulation of national bank in 1872, (to establish issue banks with private capital, and oblige them to issue convertible currency).

江戸幕府の崩壊とともに成立した明治政府は、これまで尊皇攘夷を掲げて様々な行動を起こしてきた朝廷や薩摩藩・長州藩などの攘夷派志士が中心となって結成していた。
The members of the Meiji government which was established by the collapse of the Edo Shogunate were patriot of joi (principle of excluding foreigners) group of Imperial court, Satsuma-han, Choshu-han which supported anti-foreigner policy.

上記大山巖の言い分も、まだ西郷に対する反感を持つ政治家も多かった時代、明治政府の官位による正装をさせるわけにはいかなかった事情が背景にあったと考えられる。
In the opinion of Iwao OYAMA above, at a time when there were many politicians who opposed Saigo's opinions, it can be imagined that, based on his rank in the Meiji Government it was not necessary to make put him in full dress according to the circumstances surrounding the situation.

人吉に残った村田新八は、6月17日、小林に拠り、振武隊、破竹隊、行進隊、佐土原隊の約1000名を指揮し、1ヶ月近く政府軍と川内川を挟んで小戦を繰り返した。
On June 17, Shinpachi MURATA who stayed at Hitoyoshi supported Kobayashi, and he directed Shinbutai Army, Hachiku-tai troop, and the march convoy, which was about one thousand of soldiers, and they repeatedly skirmished with the Government army across Sendai-gawa River about for a month.

秋月側は死者17名を出し（政府軍の死者2名）江川村栗河内（現・朝倉市大字江川字栗河内）へ退却、10月31日に秋月党は解散し、磯、宮崎、土岐ら七士は自刃した。
With a death toll of 17 on the Akizuki side (two deaths in the government forces), the Akizuki-to party retreated to Kurikochi, Egawa Village (currently, Aza Kurikochi, Oaza Egawa, Asakura City) and was disbanded on October 31 and seven men including Iso, Miyazaki and Toki committed suicide.

解放令（かいほうれい）とは、明治4年8月28日 (旧暦)（1871年10月12日）に明治政府が行った穢多非人等の身分の廃止などの旨を記した太政官布告である。
Kaiho Rei (Emancipation Edict) is the edict of Dajokan (The Grand Council of State) that mainly announced the abolition of the social status system like Eta (a status of group who were the lowest rank of Japan's Edo-period caste system and usually involved in handling human bodies or animal carcasses) and Hinin (a status of group who were the lowest rank of Japan's Edo-period caste system and often ex-convicts or vagrants) made by the Meiji Government on October 12, 1871.

それでもこの路線は明治政府に政権が移っても継続され、1873年（明治6年）に「生糸製造取締規則」が公布されて生糸の出荷には必ず印紙を貼る事が義務付けられた。
Nevertheless, this policy was continued even after the establishment of the Meiji government, and in 1873 the government proclaimed the regulation for controlling the production of raw silk thread, putting producers under an obligation to affix a revenue stamp in the shipment of raw silk thread.

薩長土肥（さっちょうどひ）は、幕末期、「雄藩」と呼ばれ、かつ、明治維新を推進して明治政府の主要官職に人材を供給した薩摩藩、長州藩、土佐藩、肥前藩4藩の総称。
The Satchodohi was a generic name of 4 Domains, Satsuma, Choshu, Tosa and Hizen, which were called 'Yuhan (powerful domain)' in the late Edo Period, implemented the Meiji Restoration and supplied people for major government service in the Meiji Government.

留守政府の元で徴兵令（海陸警備ノ制）・学制（教令率育ノ道）・司法改革（審理刑罰ノ法）・地租改正（理財会計ノ方）といった新しい制度が行われていくことになった。
Various new systems were implemented by rusu-seifu, including Conscription Ordinance (kairiku keibi no sei), education system (kyoiku sotsuiku no michi), judicial reform (shinri keibatsu no ho) and land tax reform (rizai kaikei no ho).

蝦夷共和国（えぞきょうわこく）は、明治元年12月（1869年1月）に成立し、蝦夷地（北海道）に短期間存在した佐幕派の政権である蝦夷島政府に対する俗称である。
The Ezo republic that was built in January 1869 was a familiar name of the Ezo Island Government, a political power belonging to Sabaku-ha which existed for a short time in Ezochi (inhabited area of Ainu) (Hokkaido).

経済産業分野では、富国強兵・殖産興業のスローガンの下、富岡製糸場を初めとする官営工場が作られるなど、政府主導の産業育成が始まり、西洋式工業技術が導入された。
In economic and industrial areas, the government began leading industrial development, and Western industrial technology was adopted, such as the establishment of government-owned factories including Tomioka Silk Mill under the slogans 'Fukoku Kyohei' (enriching the country and strengthing the military) and 'Shokusan Kogyo' (encouraging building of new industries).

結果的に、李氏朝鮮外交に翻弄された日本政府は、遂に痺れを切らし、小艦を釜山に派遣し東莱府館員を艦上に招待し発砲演習を見せつけることにより、局面打開を図った。
The Japanese government was at the mercy of the Joseon Dynasty's diplomacy and they lost their patience at last, so they made a breakthrough; dispatched a small warship to Pusan and invited the members of Toraifu on board to show the shooting exercises.

釜山の倭館は朝鮮側が日本、特に対馬藩の使節や商人を饗応するために設けた施設であったが、明治政府は対馬藩から外交権を取り上げ、朝鮮との交渉に乗り出そうとした。
The Japanese consular office in Busan was established by Korea to entertain Japanese envoys and merchants especially from the Tsushima domain, but the Meiji government tried to deprive the Tsushima domain of the diplomatic rights and start direct negotiations with Korea.

政府は、赤字財政健全化のため、生産活動をせずに俸禄を受けている特権階級の士族の廃止を目的に四民平等を謳い、1873年に徴兵制、1876年に秩禄処分を行った。
To rebuild the deficit-ridden finance into a more sound one, the national government introduced a conscription system in 1873 and Chitsuroku-shobun (an abolition measure of hereditary stipend) in 1876, appealing equality of all people in order to abolish the warrior class, a privileged class the persons in which could receive salary without being engaged in any productive activity.

まず宣伝によって事前に、学術人類館に漢民族の展示が予定されていることを知った在日留学生や清国在神戸領事館員から抗議をうけて、日本政府はその展示を取りやめた。
First of all, the students staying in Japan and the Qing consulate officials in Kobe who found out in advance by advertisements that the people of the Han race were to be displayed at Gakujutsu-Jinrui Pavilion protested against it, and the Japanese government cancelled the exhibition in response.

慶応4年1月3日鳥羽・伏見の戦いに始まる戊辰戦争が勃発し、歳三は墨染事件で負傷した局長近藤勇の代わりに新選組を率いて戦うが、新政府軍の銃撃戦の前に敗北する。
On January, 13th, 4th year of Keio, Boshin War started with the Battle of Toba Fushimi; in place of Isami KONDO, who was wounded in Sumizome Incident, Toshizo lead Shinsen-gumi and fought as a deputy of commander but was defeated against the army of the new government in gun fighting.

そのような混乱の中、神仏分離で劣勢に立たされていた仏教勢力、特に明治維新に際して倒幕運動を支援した浄土真宗は巧みな政治工作によって教部省を政府に樹立させた。
In such confusion, the Buddhist group that had been put in the inferior position under the movement of separation of Buddhism and Shintoism, especially the Jodo Shinshu sect that had supported the movement to overthrow the shogunate, promoted ingenious political maneuvers and successfully persuaded the government to establish Kyobusho.

薩長土は、戊辰戦争の頃から、倒幕運動には不熱心だったが藩政改革が進んでおり開明的だった「雄藩」の肥前を仲間とみなし、肥前藩にも明治維新政府に人材を供給させた。
The Hizen Domain, which had been indifferent to the movement of overthrowing the Tokugawa shogunate since the Boshin War but had made progress in Domain duty reforms, was one of 'Yuhan,' so the Satchodo considered the Hizen Domain as their collaborator and let it supply its people for the Meiji Restoration government.

貞篤は水戸藩松平氏の出身で、天誅組の乱鎮圧などに貢献するなどはじめ佐幕派であったが、慶応4年（1868年）の戊辰戦争では新政府に協力して京都守備を務めている。
Sadaatsu was from the Matsudaira family of the Mito Domain, and while he first supported Sabaku-ha (supporters of the Shogun side) by contributing to the suppression of the Tenchu-gumi Incident, he helped the new government in the Boshin War in 1868 and defended Kyoto.

そして、奇兵隊1個中隊を宮崎に、奇兵隊2中隊を美々津に、奇兵隊3中隊を細島に、奇兵隊3個中隊を延岡に配置して、政府軍がまだ進出していない日向を支配下に置いた。
Then, the Satsuma army deployed a company of Kiheitai in Miyazaki, the 2nd company of Kiheitai in Mimitsu, the 3rd company of Kiheitai in Hososhima, and three companies of Kiheitai in Nobeoka and occupied Hyuga where the government army had not advanced yet.

だが、そのためには紙幣消却を進める為の財源捻出のために大幅な緊縮予算とデフレーションの発生を覚悟しなければならず、伊藤博文ら政府首脳や明治天皇に同意を求めた。
To do this, however, Matsukata had to prepare himself for a drastically austere budget to come up with the finances needed for moving forward with the incineration of paper money and for a possible outbreak of deflation, for which he sought the approval of the senior government officials including Hirobumi ITO and the Emperor Meiji.

そして、留守政府の施策中において、使節団出発以前に構想されていなかった唯一の政策が使節団メンバーとの対立を引き起こした「西郷隆盛の遣韓問題」であったのである。
And among policies made by Rusu-seifu, the only one that had not been worked over before the delegation's departure was 'Kenkan (sending an ambassador to Korea) issue of Takamori SAIGO,' which resulted in confrontation between the delegation members and Resu-seifu.

当時、“薩摩藩の後ろ盾”となっていたイギリスは日本との貿易に支障が出ることを恐れて“江戸総攻撃に反対”していたため、「江戸無血開城」は新政府の既定方針だった。
At that time, England was 'against the all-out assault of Edo' because they were 'a supporter of the domain of Satsuma' and was afraid of trading trouble with Japan, thus, the 'bloodless surrender of Edo Castle' became the fixed plan of the new government.

政商（せいしょう）とは、政治家や政府高官との結びつきを利用して経済活動上の特権的利益を得たり、政策を自己の利益に有利な方向に誘導した事業家、企業のことを指す。
Seisho (Political Merchants) refers to businessmen and companies who obtain exclusive economic benefits and guide certain policies to serve their own interests by taking advantage of their connections with politicians and high-ranking government officials.

政府のメディア規制を前にして官僚兼啓蒙者は啓蒙者たり続けられるのかという問題は、明六社同人間の温度差を浮き彫りにし、雑誌の行く末をめぐって対立することになる。
The problem whether a bureaucracy who was an illuminator at the same time could continue to be an illuminator despite the governmental regulations against media showed clearly the difference among Dojin of Meirokusha and led to a conflict over the future of bulletin.

1898年（明治31年）6月、明治政府は、日本最初の政党内閣として憲政党による隈板内閣（首相：大隈重信、内務大臣 (日本)：板垣退助、ともに首班）を成立させた。
In June, 1898, the Meiji Government established the Waihan Cabinet (Prime Minister: Shigenobu OKUMA, the Minister of Dometic Affairs (Japan): Taisuke ITAGAKI, both were shuhan [chairman of their respective parties]) organized by Kenseito (a political party in the Meiji period in Japan) as the first party cabinet in Japan.

明治維新とともに法令が一変して、手続が追いつかない事（また、長く掲げる事を目的とした高札の「固定性」も漸進的に法令を改正していく新政府の方針にそぐわなかった）。
The slow procedure of setting up Kosatsu could not follow the complete changes in the general acts and laws promoted by the Meiji Restoration; (the stationary nature of Kosatsu system for long-term posting of notes in public also did not meet the policy of the new Meiji government who wanted to drastically change and restore the general laws)

1月15日 (旧暦)（2月8日）、急遽、開国和親を朝廷より宣言した上で明治新政府への政権移譲を表明、東久世通禧（ひがしくぜみちとみ）を代表として交渉を開始した。
On February 8, the Imperial Court was rushed into declaring the opening of a country to the world and amity, and announcing the handover of the political power to the Meiji Government, and then resumed the negotiation with Michitomi HIGASHIKUZE as its representative.

しかしながら、政府財政の窮乏により鉄道をすべて官設官営で建設運営することはかなわず、やむなく民営鉄道に幹線鉄道建設の一部を委ねざるを得ないことになってしまった。
However, with the financial drought, the government was not able to build and administer all the railways, and the government ended up being obliged to leave a part of building main railways to private railway companies.

このため政府は、紙幣と正金とのあいだに差価をたてて打歩をとることを禁じ、租税および諸上納に金札をもちいるべきことを命じ、諸藩に石高貸付を命じるなど方法を講じた。
To overcome these difficulties, the government forbade gaining profits from the difference in value between the bills and hard currency and ordered that payments of taxes and tributes be made in Dajokan bills and that domains redeem these bills for hard currency.

奇しくもこの年に大久保が暗殺され、筆頭参議となった大隈は大久保の後を受けて内務卿となった伊藤博文とともに、右大臣岩倉具視を擁しながら政府を運営することになった。
By a curious coincidence, Okubo was assassinated in the same year, which led Okuma, who became the head Councilor, to run the government in cooperation with Hirobumi ITO, who succeeded the post of Secretary of Interior from Okubo, with Tomomi IWAKURA as the Minister of the Right.

次弟は戊辰戦争（北越戦争）で戦死した西郷吉二郎（隆廣）、三弟は明治政府の重鎮西郷従道（通称は信吾、号は竜庵）、四弟は西南戦争で戦死した西郷小兵衛（隆雄、隆武）。
His second brother was Kichijito SAIGO who died in the Boshin War (Hokuetsu War), his third brother was Tugumichi SAIGO, who was a central figure in the Meji government, (known as Shingo, go is Ryuan) and his fourth brother was Kohei (Takakatsu, Takatake) SAIGO who died in the Seinan War.

西郷隆盛が士族兵制論者か徴兵制支持者なのか、当時の政府関係者ですら意見が分かれており、谷干城や鳥尾小弥太は前者を、平田東助は後者であったとする見解を採っている。
Takamori SAIGO was a supporter of a military system having a warrior class or conscription, and even government officials were divided on this issue, some adopted the former opinion, like Tateki TANI and Koyata TORIO, and others like Tosuke HIRATA had the latter opinion.

一方、日本では、第1次西園寺内閣が様々な国内事情を抱え、帝国議会、軍部、財界の圧力にさらされており、この局面を挽回しようと南清艦隊を動かして清国政府を威嚇した。
On the other hand, the first Saionji Cabinet in Japan, which was suffered by various domestic circumstances and under pressure from the Imperial Diet, the military and the financial world, mobilized the Southern-Qing Fleet and threatened the Qing government with the intention of recovering from the difficult position.

この圧力に対抗するため、陸奥、出羽及び越後の諸藩により奥羽越列藩同盟（北部政府）が結成され、輪王寺宮公現法親王（のちの北白川宮能久親王）が擁立された（東武皇帝）。
To address this move, an alliance was formed among clans in Mutsu, Dewa, and Echigo (in the north-eastern region of Japan), supporting Cloistered Imperial Prince Rinojinomiya Kogen, later Imperial Prince Kitashirakawanomiya Yoshihisa (also known as Tobu Emperor).

即ち、明治元年（1868年）以後の債務については公債を交付しその元金を3年間据え置いた上で年4%の利息を付けて25年賦にて新政府が責任をもって返済する（新公債）。
As for the debts made after 1868, the government issued bonds with an annual interest of four percent and promised to redeem them by annual installments of 25 years after a three year grace period (shin-kosai (new bond)).

その中で力を持ちすぎた者が中央政府である朝廷に謀反人と見なされ、中央から派遣された軍隊（実際には、これも武士たちである）によって討たれる事件が起こるようになった。
Some of these samurai had so much power that they got killed by the army dispatched by the central government, the Imperial Court (but actually the army consisted of other samurai) for the charge of muhon.

明治政府のお雇い外国人ギュスターヴ・エミール・ボアソナードは、事件を処理するために派遣される使節への訓令について、以下を決して朝鮮に譲歩すべきではないと具申した。
Gustave Emile BOISSONADE, a foreign specialist in the Meiji government, gave an instruction to the envoy who would be dispatched to dispose the incident that they should not concede Korea the following points.

伊豆木小笠原氏の紙幣は、発行が明治2年（1869年）であり、同時期に全国的に発行された諸藩札と同様、明治新政府が発行した太政官札にやや似た様式の札面となっている。
The Izuki-Ogasawara clan's paper money issued in 1869 has its surface format style slightly resembling the Daijokan-satsu paper money issued by the Meiji new government, as well as the Han-satsu issued by clans in the same period throughout Japan.

これによって各国の公使や商人達に明治政府の本気ぶりを見せるとともに海外に流出した贋二分金を日本に再度持ち込ませて検勘を受けさせる時間的余裕を与えなかったのである。
Through this, the Meiji Government showed the ministers and merchants from other countries that they were serious, along with not giving them time to bring back counterfeit nibukin which spilled abroad to Japan again to have it go through the authenticity test.

口供書は『薩南血涙史』に掲載）、6日に私学校本校で大評議が開かれ、政府問罪のために大軍を率いて上京することに決したので、翌7日に県令大山綱良に上京の決意を告げた。
The deposition was reported in 'Satsunan Ketsurui (bitter tears) shi (the history of Satsunan, the south part of Satsuma)' and a large conference was held in the main school of Shigakko on the 6th, and he decided to go to Kyoto with big army to inquire about the crimes to the government the next day (on the 7th), then he announced his decision to go to Kyoto to the Kenrei, Tsunayoshi OYAMA.

また、江戸開城は一連の戊辰戦争の流れの中で、それまで日本の支配者であった徳川家が、新時代の支配者たるべき明治新政府に対して完全降伏するという象徴的な事件であった。
Additionally, the surrender of Edo-jo Castle was a historically symbolic incident during the continuous lines of the Boshin Civil War; the Tokugawa family completely surrendered to the New Meiji government which would assert the political control into the new age.

明治初年に政府は銀通貨の通用を停止したため、それ以降、新貨幣制度が開始され藩札の発行が禁止される明治4年までに発行された藩札は、金単位あるいは銭単位の額面である。
Since the government banned the circulation of silver coins in 1868, han bills were only issued with values in gold or copper until 1871, when han bills were eventually taken out of circulation due to the arrival of the new currency system.

だが、土地の賦課の是非は大名などの領主の権限と考えられていたこと、従来の検地に代わる大規模な測量の必要性があることから、政府内でも賛否両論があってまとまらなかった。
However, this proposal was not put into practice because there were arguments for and against within the government; the main reasons for the opposition lied in that at that time it was believed that the authority to impose land tax or not lied in the feudal lords such as daimyo and that it was necessary to conduct a large scale land survey replacing the existing nationwide land survey before getting into the land-tax reform.

設置に際しては、維新後、開国政策を進める新政府にとってもてあまし気味の存在となっていた過激尊皇攘夷派の不平分子らの懐柔を目的に、彼らを多く採用したいきさつがあった。
When it was established, the agency employed many radical discontented elements in the party of Sonno Joi (advocating respecting the Emperor and excluding of foreigners) in order to conciliate them, who had been beyond control of the new government that were advancing the policy of 'opening the country.'

明治政府は、陸奥国から4国を分立させ、出羽国を2国に分割し、北海道 (令制)に11国を新設し、さらに琉球国を置いて85国としたが、国単位での行政機関を置かなかった。
The Meiji government separated 4 provinces from Mutsu Province, divided Dewa Province into 2 provinces, newly established 11 provinces in Hokkaido and established Ryukyu Province to set up 85 provinces in total, but it did not found administrative organs in every province.

容保は幕府派の重鎮と見られて敵視され、戊辰戦争では奥羽越列藩同盟の中心として新政府軍に抗戦して会津戦争を行い篭城し、降伏勧告に応じて佐川官兵衛らに降伏を呼びかける。
Katamori was thought to be a man of influence of the shogunate's supporters and regarded with hostility; he resisted the army of the new government as a leader of the Ouetsu Reppan Domei in the Boshin War, fought at the Battle of Aizu, and according to the Advice of Capitulation, called on Kanbee SAGAWA to capitulate.

当時の日本では、歴史学界内部に限れば冷静な議論が可能であったが、一歩外に出れば学問の自由は存在せず、政府、政治家、神道家、新聞が、学者の不敬を格好の攻撃材料とした。
In Japan in those days, calm discussions were possible only within the academic circle of history, but there was no academic freedom outside the circle, and the government, politicians, shintoists and newspapers attacked the impiety of scholars.

これに対し美濃部達吉は、著書『憲法講話』において上記植民地の見解をふまえ「凡て殖民地には憲法は施行せられないと解するのが正当な解釈である」として政府の解釈を否定した。
On the other hand, with regard to the above assumption about colonies, Tatsukichi MINOBE denied the interpretation of the government, stating that it was legitimate to interpret that the Constitution should not be enforced to all colonies,' in his book 'the Lecture of the Constitution.'

日本政府は、花房公使を全権委員として、高島鞆之助陸軍少将及び仁礼景範海軍少将の指揮する、軍艦4隻、歩兵第11連隊の1個歩兵大隊及び海軍陸戦隊を伴わせ、朝鮮に派遣する。
The Japanese government appointed Minister HANABUSA as a plenipotentiary and dispatched him to Korea with four warships, an infantry battalion belonging to the 11th Regiment of Infantry and a naval landing party under the command of Army Major General Tomonosuke TAKASHIMA and Rear Admiral Kagenori NIRE.

こうした動きに対し、桂首相は明治天皇の諒闇中（服喪期間）であるから政争を中止するように諭した大正天皇の詔勅（優詔）を受けてこれを乱発し、政府批判を封じた（優詔政策）。
Against this movement, Prime Minister Katsura frequently abused 'Shochoku' (imperial edict) of Emperor Taisho, which was originally issued by the Emperor to stop the political disputes, respecting the period for mourning of former Emperor Meiji (Imperial Edict Tactics), and tried to silence the people's criticism of the government.

後藤象二郎と陸奥宗光が戦争中に板垣あるいは木戸孝允を司令官とした旧土佐藩を中心とした西郷隆盛討伐の義勇軍を持ちかけて一旦は明治政府の方針とされた（4月15日に中止）。
During the civil wars, Shojiro GOTO and Munemitsu MUTSU approached Taisuke ITAGAKI and Takayoshi KIDO with a proposal to organize and command a voluntary army consisting of ex-Tosa domain retainers to suppress Takamori SAIGO and for a while it was the policy of the Meiji Government but was revoked on April 15.

川俣事件は、1900年2月13日、群馬県邑楽郡佐貫村川俣（現明和町 (群馬県)）で、足尾鉱毒事件に関して、政府に請願するために出かける途中の農民と警官が衝突した事件。
The Kawamata Incident was a struggle that took place on February 13, 1900 in Kawamata, Sanuki Village, Oura County, Gunma Prefecture (the present Meiwa Town, Gunma Prefecture) between police and peasants who were marching to Tokyo to protest to the Meiji government against the Ashio Copper Mine Mineral Pollution Incident.

当時においては既に実効性を喪失していると判断した政府は、内閣及び総理府関係法令の整理に関する法律（昭和29年法律第203号）の本則第4号により本法を廃止することとした。
Considering that Haitorei had already lost its effectiveness at that time, the government decided to abolish this act by the article No.4 of the law on organizing regulations relevant to the Cabinet and the Prime Minister's Office (the 203rd law in 1954).

日本政府は治外法権（領事裁判権）、関税自主権の問題解決の足がかりとして、アジア以外の国の1つとまず対等条約を結び、それを前例として欧米諸国と再交渉することを考えていた。
The Japanese government was hoping to renegotiate the unequal treaties with the Western countries and solve the issues concerning extraterritoriality (consular jurisdiction) and tariff autonomy by concluding the first equal treaty with a non-Asian country as a precedent.

五榜の掲示（ごぼうのけいじ）とは、慶応4年3月15日 (旧暦)（1868年4月7日）に立てられた五つの高札のことであり、明治政府が出した民衆に対する最初の禁止令である。
Gobo no keiji were five street bulletin boards erected on April 7, 1868 and the first public prohibitions published by the Meiji government.

時の大審院（現在の最高裁判所）院長の児島惟謙は法治国家として法は遵守されなければならないとする立場から、「刑法に外国皇族に関する規定はない」として政府の圧力に反発した。
The chief justice of Daishin-in (the predecessor of the Supreme Court of Japan), Korekata KOJIMA insisted that Japan was liable for compliance with the law as a law-abiding country, and said 'there was no penal code for criminal cases against foreign imperial families' to resist the pressure of the government.

士族を中心にした西郷軍に、徴兵を主体とした政府軍が勝利したことで、士族出身の兵士も農民出身の兵士も戦闘力に違いはないことが実証され、徴兵制による国民皆兵体制が定着した。
The fact that the government army, mostly composed of conscripted soldiers, won the war against Saigo's army, mainly consisted of persons in the warrior class, verified that the fighting ability of soldiers from the warrior class and that of those from farmers were not different; accordingly, a system of general conscription was established.

当初日本政府はイギリスに新紙幣を発注する予定であったが、ドイツからドンドルフ・ナウマン社による「エルヘート凸版」による印刷の方が偽造防止に効果があるとの売込みがあった。
At first, the Japanese government had planned to order the new bills from the U.K., but the firm of Dondorf and Normann from Germany persuaded the government saying their ''relief printing'' was effective to prevent counterfeiting.

政府は、各府藩県の管轄区域を交換、整理統合して支配の合理化を図ろうとしたが、廃藩置県までに実現したのは部分的なものにとどまり、管轄区域の錯綜はほとんど解消されなかった。
Although the national government tried to rationalize their control by exchanging and consolidating jurisdictions of fu, han and ken areas, only a part of such reform was realized until Haihan-chiken, leaving almost no confusion of jurisdiction eliminated.

ただし、藩として正式に立藩したのは明治元年（1868年）7月14日、新政府の計らいによって1万石の大名として諸侯に列したものであり、いわば「維新立藩」によるものであった。
However, it was founded officially on August 31, 1868 as the so-called 'domain founded by Meiji Restoration' at the discretion of the new government to grant the clan a status of daimyo (Japanese feudal lord) with the crop yield of 10,000 koku (an unit of assessed crop yields of the land [1 koku: about 180 liter], which was also used to express the size of the land).

激動の幕末期において一時は牽引役として活躍した水戸藩も、ついにはこれといった才覚ある人物もいない状態となり、明治になってみれば新政府に1人の要人を出すこともできなかった。
The Mito Domain, which once played an important role during the upturn of the end of the Edo period, no longer had any talented person and could not produce any senior officials in the Meiji Government.

7月16日条約改正交渉の結果、領事裁判権を廃止する日英通商航海条約調印を経て、20日大鳥公使は朝鮮政府に清軍の撤退と朝清間の条約廃棄を3日間の期限で回答するよう通告した。
After the Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation was signed on July 16 as the result of negotiation over treaty revisions to do away with consular jurisdiction right, Minister Oshima gave notice to the Korean government requesting the withdrawal of Qing troops and the denunciation of Sino-Korean treaties with a response demanded within three days.

渋沢栄一に加えて井上馨や加藤高明、高橋是清も反対論を唱えて衆議院を説得しようとしたために政府は彼らの説得に苦慮したが、同年3月16日に賛成243・反対109で可決された。
With not only Eichi SHIBUSAWA but also Kaoru INOUE, Takaaki KATO, and Korekiyo TAKAHASHI opposing the bill and trying to persuade the Diet, the government had trouble dissuading them, but on March 16 in the same year, the bill was approved with 243 in favor and 109 opposed.

これに対して日英通商航海条約の締結を間近に控えた第2次伊藤内閣は警戒感を強め、また衆議院第1党の自由党も条約改正に関しては政府の漸進主義に賛同していたために反発を強めた。
The second Ito cabinet became wary of the situation with the signing of the Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation near at hand, and the Liberal Party, which was the first party of the House of Representatives, strengthened the opposition from supporting the government's idea of step-by-step revisions to the treaty.

これに対し政府内部では、山縣有朋らの取締強化の要求に抗することができなくなり、1907年2月、西園寺内閣による「安寧秩序妨害」を理由とした結社禁止命令に伴い解散となった。
Meanwhile, the government could no longer resist the demand, presented by Aritomo Yamagata and others, for the government to crack down on socialism; consequently, the Saionji Cabinet issued a mandate of banning the Nihon Shakaito for the 'disturbance of peace and order,' and thus the socialist party was dissolved in February, 1907.

また、廃藩置県や地租改正を行えば、数百年に及び封建制及び土地支配のあり方が破壊されてしまうものであり、武士・農民層に反政府行動に向かわせる可能性が高い性格の改革であった。
In addition, since accomplishing Haihan-chiken and land-tax reform meant to destroy hundreds-year-long feudalism and the way the lands should be ruled, there was a high possibility in pursuing those reforms that samurai and peasants might have rebelled against the government.

大日本協会は立憲改進党にも協力を呼びかけて、政府及びこれと連携を強めつつあった自由党_(日本)自由党 (日本 1890-1898)に対する包囲網（対外硬六派）を形成した。
The Dai Nihon Kyokai called for cooperation from the Rikken Kaishinto (Constitutional Progressive Party) to build a coalition (taigaiko roppa [six parties advocating a hard-line foreign policy: the Dai Nihon Kyokai, the Toyo Jiyuto, the Kokumin Kyokai, the Policy Affairs Research Council, the Domei Kurabu and the Rikken Kaishinto]) against the government, the Jiyuto (Liberal Party [Japan: 1890-1898]), which was strengthening its partnerships with the government.

民権派の一部にはそれに対抗する形で'「真に善美なる国会」を開設するには、圧制政府を実力で転覆することもやむなし'という考えから急進化する者も出始め、各地で対立が起きていた。
Some minken (democratic rights) activists, against the suppression of the government, began to change into radicals urged by an idea that they could not avoid use of force in overthrowing the repressive government in order to establish a 'truly superb Diet', which caused confrontations to occur in various places.

一方、新政府では、今後の施政の指標を定める必要から、福岡孝弟（土佐藩士）、由利公正（越前藩士）らが起草した原案を長州藩の木戸孝允が修正し、「五箇条の御誓文」として発布した。
Meanwhile, the new government published 'Charter Oath of Five Articles,' drafted by Takachika FUKUOKA (a feudal retainer of Tosa) and Kosei YURI (a feudal retainer of Echizen), and amended by Koin KIDO of Choshu, as they needed to set the guidelines of the administration.

また、江戸城は徳川氏の征夷大将軍の居城であり、江戸は幕府の政庁が置かれる行政府の所在地であると同時に、自身も天領を支配する領主である徳川氏（徳川将軍家）の城下町でもあった。
The Edo Castle was the residence of successive Tokugawa shoguns, or Seii taishogun (literally, 'the great general who pacifies barbarians'), and the city of Edo was both the site of bakufu administrative organs and the personal castle town of the Tokugawa Clan that ruled over the shogunal domain.

この事件が朝鮮政府に与えた衝撃は大きく、変革を拒否する鎖国攘夷勢力の反対をおさえて日本との国交回復を検討することになり、翌1876年に日朝修好条規（江華条約）が締結された。
This incident brought such a terrible shock to the Korean government that they had to consider the recovery of the diplomatic relations with Japan by surmounting all objections by the supporters of expulsion of foreigners, and concluded the Japanese-Korea Treaty of Amity (the Treaty of Ganghwa) in 1876.

鳥羽・伏見の戦いに勝利した新政府は、徳川家追討とともに新たな行政制度を整える必要から三職の下に七科を設置、のちに三職八局制となる（詳細は近代日本の官制明治時代初期を参照）。
After the victory in the Battle of Toba and Fushimi, the new government set up seven departments under the three offices, which were later organized into the Three Offices Eight Bureaus system besides tracking down and killing Tokugawa Family (for more details, refer to Government Organization in Modern Japan, Early Meiji Period).

明治政府により、大日本帝国になってはドイツ帝国の軍制を取り入れた大日本帝国陸軍とイギリスを規範とした大日本帝国海軍の二つの軍隊が編成され、軍事技術や練兵が近代化へ向かった。
After the Meiji Government established itself as the Empire of Japan, two military forces; Imperial Japanese Army (IJA), which introduced the military system of the German Empire, Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN), which modeled on the British Empire, were organized, and thus, military technology and military drills were modernized.

この反乱は、秩禄処分や廃刀令により、明治政府への不満を暴発させた一部士族による反乱の嚆矢となる事件で、この事件に呼応して秋月の乱、萩の乱が発生し、翌年の西南戦争へとつながる。
This rebellion was an incident to start revolts by some members of the warrior class who burst their dissatisfaction against the Meiji Government because of the abolition measure of hereditary stipend and the law banning the wearing of swords, and in response to this incident, the Akizuki-no-ran War and the Hagi-no-ran War occurred, resulting in the Nansei War of the following year.

この戦いで薩長側が掲げた錦の御旗に動揺した幕府軍は大敗したばかりでなく「朝敵」としての汚名を受ける事になり、崩壊が時間の問題であった新政府を結果的には救ってしまう事になった。
The Shogunate army, unnerved by the Imperial standards used by the Satsuma forces, not only suffered a crushing defeat but were also labeled as the Emperor's enemy, despite in the end being the ones who saved the new Imperial government whose days were already numbered.

1897年、鉱毒被害地の農民が大挙して東京に陳情（当時の表現では押出し）を行うなど、世論が高まると、同年3月、政府は足尾銅山鉱毒調査委員会を設置し、数度の鉱毒予防令を出した。
In 1897 large numbers of peasants from the affected area went to Tokyo to protest (called 'Oshidashi', protest) and the general verdict on the company and government became negative, then, in March of the same year, the government established the Research Committee of Ashio copper mine Mining Pollution and issued several acts for preventing mining pollution.

同年8月29日、国民政府主席の蒋介石は陳儀を台湾省行政長官に任命、9月1日には重慶市にて台湾行政長官公署及び台湾警備総部が設置され、陳儀は台湾警備司令を兼任することとなった。
On August 29 of the same year, Kai Shek CHIANG, the head of the nationalist government, appointed Yi CHEN as governor of Taiwan province, and with the establishment of Taiwan Security Bureau on September 1, Chen served concurrently as Commander of Taiwan Security.

マリア・ルス号事件（まりあるすごうじけん）は1872年（明治5年）に横浜港に停泊中のマリア・ルス号（ペルー船籍）内の清国人苦力を奴隷であるとして日本政府が解放した事件を言う。
The Maria Luz Incident is an incident in which the Japanese government freed the Qing laborers the Peruvian ship 'Maria Luz' harbored in Yokohama Port in 1872, on the ground that they were treated as slaves.

また、学制の整備によって宣教政策の目的が達成されるとの観点から、政府は教部省の存在自体を懐疑的に捉える結末となり、上記の混乱によって既存の宗教勢力は右往左往することとなった。
In addition, the Meiji government considered that the establishment of the educational system throughout Japan could satisfy the purpose of national edification at the same time and thus became skeptical of Kyobusho, and these inconsistencies made the existing religious groups rush around in confusion.

藩閥（はんばつ）は明治から大正にかけて、日本の政府と軍の要職を占めた旧・西南諸藩（薩摩藩・長州藩・土佐藩・肥前藩のいわゆる薩長土肥）出身者のグループに対する批判的呼称である。
Hanbatsu (domain clique) is a critical designation for the group of people from the former domains in southwest Japan (the domains of Satsuma, Choshu, Tosa and Hizen; they were so-called, Sacchodohi), who occupied important posts in the Japanese government from the Meiji to the Taisho period.

また、律令政府では弱体化した防人や軍団 (古代日本)に替わって蝦夷を用いる構想などを打ち出している（貞観 (日本)11年（859年）12月5日付太政官符（『類聚三代格』））。
Also, the government set forth the idea of using Emishi in place of Sakimori and the army (of ancient Japan) which had become weak (Daijokanpu [official documents from Daijokan to local governments] on 14 January, 859, 'Ruiju sandai kaku [Assorted regulations from Three Reigns]').

中国では国民党政府の時代、1929年に度量衡法を公布し、「1担＝100斤、1斤＝16両、1両＝10銭、1銭＝10分」と規定し、1両は唐代に準じて37.301グラムと規定された。
In China, the government of the Nationalist Party promulgated the Weights and Measures Act in 1929, and in the provision, '1 tan (dan in pinyin) was equivalent to 100 kin, 1 kin to 16 ryo, 1 ryo to 10 sen, and 1 sen to 10 bu,' and the weight of 1 ryo was set at 37.301 grams, modeled after the standard in the Tang Dynasty China.

その間、薩摩・長州・土佐・肥前藩の建白により版籍奉還が企図され、同年9月諸藩の藩主（大名）は領地（版図）および人民（戸籍）を政府へ返還、大名は知藩事となり、家臣とも分離された。
During this period, a plan to return land and people to the emperor was set by a petition from major clans Satsuma, Chofu, Tosa and Hizen, and was actually carried out in September, by returning land (called hanto) and people (family register) to the government, transforming the lord of domain (daimyo [Japanese feudal lord]) to chihanjis (modern-day governors), and separating vassals from each clan.

1873年6月の閣議(いわゆる留守政府)において参議板垣退助が交渉の行きづまりを打開するため陸軍一大隊の朝鮮への派遣を主張、西郷隆盛は使節の派遣と自らその職への任命を主張した。
In a cabinet meeting (of the so-called rusu seifu - government while heads were away) in June 1873, Taisuke ITAGAKI, Sangi (the Councilor), claimed to dispatch a battalion of Army to Korea to resolve the deadlock in negotiations, and Takamori SAIGO demanded that an envoy be dispathced and he be appointed as the envoy.

当時、中央集権体制を進めるために廃藩置県の必要があることは政府内の共通認識となっていたが、その実施に向けた方策について急進的な木戸孝允と漸進的な大久保利通との対立が続いていた。
Although there was a shared understanding within the government at that time that Haihan-chiken had to be carried out in order to move towards a centralized administrative system, Takayoshi KIDO (who insisted on radical reform) and Toshimichi OKUBO (who insisted on moderate reform) continued to hold differing views concerning practical procedures.

新政府側でも徳川家（特に前将軍慶喜）に対して厳しい処分を断行すべきとする強硬論と、長引く内紛や過酷な処分は国益に反するとして穏当な処分で済ませようとする寛典論の両論が存在した。
Within the new government there were two opposing policies regarding treatment of the Tokugawa shogunate; one was the Hard-liner policy, which insisted upon the administration of severely harsh punishment to the Tokugawa family (particularly the former Shogun, Yoshinobu); the more liberal group persisted in the application of a more lenient treatment policy, which considered a more appropriate (reasonable) and tempered punishment toward the Tokugawa family; this stance was an effort to address the potential for prolonged turmoil resulting from a harsher punishment, and the resulting effects upon the national interests.

移配（いはい）とは、8世紀から9世紀にかけて、当時の日本の律令政府（朝廷）が現在の東北地方に居住していた蝦夷を内地（関東地方以西の本州・四国・九州）に強制移住させた政策のこと。
Ihai is a policy under which the Ritsuryo-seifu Government (the ancient Japanese government of centralized governance) (Imperial court) forced Emishi (northerners), who lived in present-day Tohoku area, to move to Kanto region and to the west of Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu from the 8th to the 9th century.

しかし、改税約書違反の悪質な金貨を鋳造していた事実が明らかとなったために諸外国からの抗議を受け、明治政府が太政官札への全面切り替えと造幣局 (日本)建設を決めたために廃止された。
However, because the fact that kin-za was casting inferior gold coins in violation of kaizei-yakusho (revised agreement on trade attached to the Ansei Five-Power Treaties) was revealed, it met with protests by many foreign countries and kin-za was abolished because the Meiji Government decided full switchover to dajokansatsu (government note) and construction of the mint bureau.

だが、復古的な攘夷論がこれによって一掃されたわけではなく、大楽源太郎の反乱計画や二卿事件、久留米藩難など明治政府を倒して攘夷を断行しようとする事件が暫くの間継続されることとなる。
However, the revival of the joi ron did not completely disappear; some incidents that tried to decline the Meiji government and force the Joi movement, such as Gentaro DAIRAKU's rebellion, Nikyo Jiken (The Incidents triggered by two court nobles), and the Kurume Domain incident continued for a certain period of time.

戊辰戦争から箱館戦争の間における旧江戸幕府軍及び佐幕派諸藩との戦いは、明治政府の構成員であった公武の人々のみならず、当初は日和見的な態度を取っていた諸藩の助力を得たものであった。
The battles against the former Tokugawa troop and the supporting domains of the Shogun, from the Boshin War to the Battle of Hakodate, were assisted by not only the court nobles and samurai belonging to the Meiji Government but also domains waiting and seeing how things went at first.

榎本とともに奥羽越列藩同盟の軍議に参加し、同盟軍総督に推薦されたが、まもなく奥羽越列藩同盟が崩壊、同盟藩が次々と新政府軍に屈服した後は、戦う地がある限りどこまでも戦うことを決意。
Together with ENOMOTO Toshizo participated in military meetings of Ouetsu Reppan Domei (Northern Alliance) and was recommended to become General of Domei Army; however, Ouetsu Reppan Domei soon collapsed, and after the clans forming the Domei Army surrended one after another to the army of the new government, Toshizo decided to fight until the end, so long as there is a place where he can fight.

民撰議院設立建白書（みんせんぎいんせつりつけんぱくしょ）は、1874年（明治7年）1月17日、前参議・板垣退助、後藤象二郎らが、政府に対して最初に民選の議会開設を要望した建白書。
Minsen Giin Setsuritsu Kenpaku Sho' was the first petition requesting the government to establish a parliament with democratically-elected representatives supported by people including former Sangi councilors Taisuke ITAGAKI and Shojiro GOTO on January 17, 1874.

1870年に「藩制」が制定されて藩組織の全国的な統一が強制されるなど、中央政府による各藩に対する統制が強められる一方、多くの藩で財政の逼迫が深刻化し、廃藩を申し出る藩が相次いだ。
Control of han by the central government was tightened as evidenced by the 'fief system' established in 1870 to force a nation-wide unification of han organizations, and at the same time, since the financial condition of domain administration was worsened, domain governments who requested abolition of 'han' appeared one after another.

だが、酒造業者の経営不振はやがて税収減少に跳ね返ることとなり、政府はどぶろくなどの自家醸造禁止などの酒造業者保護策を打ち出して酒造業者との妥協策を探る方向に転換することになった。
Breweries' financial difficulties, however, eventually brought declining tax revenues back to the government and thus the government turned in another direction to seek compromise with the breweries by developing breweries protection measures such as the ban on home-brewing of doburoku (unrefined sake).

しかし顧問団が戊辰戦争で箱館戦争し敗戦の結果に終わり、ヨーロッパで普仏戦争にプロイセン（ドイツ）が勝利したこともあってか、明治新政府は軍制を転換しドイツから顧問団を招くこととした。
However, because the efforts of this advisory group ended in defeat at the battle of Hakodate during the Boshin War, and perhaps also because Prussia (Germany) won the Franco-Prussian War, the new Meiji government overturned its military system and decided to invite an advisory group from Germany.

このため明治政府は条約改正に努力したものの、逆に国粋主義者の一部には外国人を居留地に閉じ込めて、日本の伝統・文化を守るべきだと言う対外硬運動も起きて複雑な展開を見せることもあった。
The Meiji government exerted great effort to revise the treaties in order to regain sovereignty over the remaining settlements, but one nationalist faction began a movement to insist that on the contrary, Japanese tradition and culture would be best protected by continuing to confine foreigners to the settlements, rendering the situation still more complex.

兵士と移民を送りこむロシアに対し、日本が劣勢に立たされていることに強い危機感を抱いた政府は、明治3年（1870年）に樺太開拓使を設置し、黒田清隆を開拓使次官にして樺太専務を命じた。
However, Japanese government felt a strong sense of crisis over Russia which sent more soldiers and immigrants to Sakhalin and pushed Japan into an inferior position, and established the Sakhalin Development Commission in 1870, and the vice chief of the Commission, Kiyotaka KURODA, was assigned to oversee the administrative matters of Sakhalin.

しかし同時にソビエト連邦が誕生したことにより、赤化(共産主義)思想が広まり、共産主義者による革命運動を懸念した政府は治安維持法を制定し、国民の運動に対し規制がかけられる形となった。
However, the birth of the Soviet Union during the period spurred the spread of communism in Japan and prompted the government fearing revolutionary movement by Communist agitators to pass the Peace Preservation Act and control popular movements.

慶応4年（1868年）4月、江戸幕府の解体により成立した明治新政府は、政体書において地方制度では大名領を藩とし、大名を知事に任命して諸大名統治のかたちを残す府藩県三部制を確立する。
The new Meiji government was set up after the demise of the Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) in April 1868, established a Fu-han-ken sanbusei (fu-han-ken tripartite governance system) under the Constitution of 1868 in which daimyo domains were made into han (domains) in the local system and daimyo (Japanese feudal lords) were assigned as governors, leaving the form of territorial lords being in control.

基本的には「全国画一」の地租への統合を従来通りあるいはそれ以上の水準で農民に賦課しようとする明治政府と生活の維持・改善のために生産余剰の確保を求める農民側との対立ということになる。
Basically, the revolts were collisions between the Meiji Government that hoped to impose a uniform ratio of integrated land-tax on peasants at a level as high as, or even higher than, the conventional one, and peasants that hoped to preserve the surplus products in order to maintain and improve their standards of living.

近衛は、すでに1921年の演説で、統帥権によって将来軍部と政府が二元化しかねない危険性を説き、その後それは現実となったのだが、このような状況はアメリカ側には理解し難い内容であった。
In his speech of 1921, Konoe had already talked about the danger of the likely split in the future between the military and the government because of the Emperor's supreme command, which is what happened, but such a situation was a difficult concept for the United States to understand.

この決定に対し、翌日の外国公使との交渉の席でさらに激しい抗議が行われ、英国公使ハリー・パークスらと大隈重信ら政府代表者たちは六時間にもわたって浦上の信徒問題を議論することになった。
Negotiations with foreign ministers on the following day saw more fierce protests against the decision of the conference, with the discussion on the Urakami Christian problem between the British minister, Harry PARKES, and others and government representatives, including Shigenobu OKUMA, lasting more than six hours.

そもそも「韓日合邦を要求する声明書」は韓国と日本が対等な立場で新たに一つの政府を作り、一つの大帝国を作るという、当時の現状から見ても日本にとっては到底受け入れられない提案であった。
In the first place, the 'Statement calling for the annexation of Korea' said Korea and Japan would establish one government anew on an equal basis to create a large empire, which was not acceptable at all to Japan in view of the circumstances of those days.

そこで神亀2年（725年）に律令政府はこうした俘囚のうち、130名を伊予国に、578名を筑紫（九州）に、15名を和泉監に移すこととした（『続日本紀』神亀2年閏正月己丑条）のである。
Accordingly, in 725, the government decided to move 130 such subjected barbarians to Iyo (Shikoku) and 578 to Chikushi (Kyushu) and 15 to Izumi (article on February 25, 725 in 'Shoku Nihongi' [Chronicle of Japan Continued]).

当時、越前市（旧武生市に相当）を治めていた本多家は、越前福井藩の陪臣として幕府から大名格の処遇を得てきたが、明治政府が制定した華族制度では、当主の本多副元が華族でなく士族とされた。
At that time, Bakufu (Shogunate) treated the Honda family, the ruler of Echizen City (the area previously known as Fusho City), with the equivalent of a Daimyo treatment as a baishin (indirect vassals) of the Echizen-fukui Domain, however in the peerage system established by the Meiji government, the lord Sukemoto HONDA was ranked as a Shizoku (warrior class) not Kazoku (the peerage).

同年9月「地所売買放禁分一収税施設之儀正院伺」が大蔵省によって作成され、田畠永代売買禁止令の廃止とともに地租改正の実施が明治政府の方針として正式に決定されその準備が急がれたのである。
In the September of the same year the Ministry of Finance created the document titled 'To Seiin: On the matters of the abolition of the ban on trading and selling of farmland and establishing the tax collection system based on percentage' and submitted it to Dajokan Seiin, the Main Office of the preconstitutional Meiji government that became the Cabinet later, for approval; subsequently the ban on trading and selling of farmland was abolished by the government and the implementation of the land-tax reform was officially concluded as the policy of the Meiji government and the governent quickly made preparation for the enforcement of the reform.

東京春秋会（新聞社複数社で結成された連合）はこのような政府の処分に対し取り消しを要求し、水野錬太郎内務大臣 (日本)は「内務省 (日本)発表の公報情報のみ掲載を認める」と柔化させた。
Tokyo Shunju Kai (a combination made up of various newspaper companies) demanded a retraction of this punishment by the government, as a result, Rentaro MIZUNO, prewar Minister of Home Affairs, relaxed the ban that 'only official information announced by prewar Ministry of Home Affairs could be published'.

慶応4年1月3日 (旧暦)（1868年1月27日）、戊辰戦争が開戦、間も無く、徳川方の尼崎藩（現・兵庫県）を牽制するため、明治新政府は備前藩に摂津国西宮（現・西宮市）の警備を命じた。
Soon after the outbreak of Boshin War on January 27, 1868, the new Meiji government ordered the domain of Bizen to guard Settsu Province, Nishinomiya (present-day Nishinomiya City) in order to contain the domain of Amagasaki (present-day Hyogo Prefecture), which was on the side of the Tokugawa family.

紙幣整理（しへいせいり）とは、明治初期に出された明治政府及び国立銀行 (明治)発行の紙幣を整理・縮減して日本銀行発行の兌換紙幣に変換することで通貨制度・信用制度の信頼回復を図る政策。
Shihei seiri (paper money readjustment) was a policy of seeking to recover the public trust in the currency system and the credit system by readjusting and reducing the amount of the notes that were issued by the Meiji government and the National Bank (in the Meiji period) and first went into circulation in the early Meiji period, and by converting the notes into the convertible paper money issued by the Bank of Japan.

日本は日清戦争以後、日本政府が台湾を統治するにあたり、製糖と樟脳を台湾における主要産業の一つと位置付け、製糖関係では1902年（明治35年）に『輸入原料砂糖戻税』を制定して保護した。
After the Japanese-Sino war, Japan positioned sugar and camphor production as one of the key industries in Taiwan for the Japanese government to rule Taiwan, and protected the industry by enacting 'Yunyu Genryo Satou ModoshiZei' (duty-free imported sugar) in 1902.

いずれにしても、自由民権派による「第2の西南戦争」になる事を危惧した明治政府側は板垣・後藤に対する責任追及を避けて、「一部過激派」の暴走と規定することで事態の収拾を図ったとは言える。
The Meiji Government, in any case, which had some misgivings about the possibility of 'another Satsuma Rebellion' started by the Freedom and the People's Rights Movement, avoided examining the responsibility of ITAGAKI and GOTO and settled the situation dismissing the case as the act of some extremists who went too far.

西園寺は陸軍の仕業であることに気づき、興津より上京して首相田中義一を呼びつけ、政府としてこの問題をしっかり調べ、もし犯人が日本人であるならば厳罰に処す必要があることを申し渡している。
Saionji suspected that the Army had a hand in the incident, and went to the capital from Okitsu, summoned Prime Minister Giichi TANAKA, and advised him that the government must thoroughly investigate this affair, and if the guilty party was Japanese, a harsh punishment should be exacted.

このため、政府側は新規の政策のための予算を必要とする官庁や軍からの突き上げを受ける事になり、民党に対してポストや金で抱き込んででも予算案を通過させる必要性が出てきてしまったのである。
For this reason, the government was pressured by the authorities or the military that needed to obtain budget for new political plans, and therefore, had to have the budget plan approved even if they had to bribe the minto with government positions or money.

明治政府は華族制度の創設や武士身分の士族への編入など、当初は旧来の身分制度をある程度継承したものの、廃藩置県・徴兵令・秩禄処分といった政策の強行は特権身分に対して大きな打撃を与えた。
At first the Meiji Government kept the class system, introducing the peerage system by transferring the samurai class, the previous ruling class, into one of the classes of the new system as Shizoku (literally, the warrior class), but the major political changes the government took, including Haihan-chiken (abolition of feudal domain and establishment of prefectures), Conscription Ordinance and Chitsuroku-shobun (measures to abolish hereditary stipends) were significant blows to the privileged class.

廃藩置県（はいはんちけん）とは明治維新期の明治4年7月14日 (旧暦)（1871年8月29日）に、明治政府がそれまでの藩を廃止して地方統治を中央管下の府と県に一元化した行政改革である。
Haihan-chiken was an administrative reform implemented on August 29, 1871 through which the Meiji government abolished feudal domains and established prefectures that were under the control of the central government.

1879年明治政府のいわゆる琉球処分に際しても、それに反対する清との1880年北京での交渉において日本は沖縄本島を日本領とし八重山諸島と宮古島を中国領とする案(分島改約案)を提示した。
Japan made a proposal that the main island of Okinawa be a part of Japanese territory and that both the Yaeyama Islands and Miyako Island be a part of Chinese territory (Bunto revision plan, which literally means a plan to divide islands for a treaty revision) in the negotiation held in Beijing in 1880 with Qing, which had been opposing to what is known as the Ryukyu Annexation by the Meiji Government in 1879.

陸奥は非藩閥出身であり政府内部では伊藤の信頼によって政治的な基盤を得ているような状態であったが、逆に藩閥政治家とは敵対関係にあった自由党 (明治)の中島信行・星亨とは盟友関係にあった。
Mutsu was from non-domain clique and gained political foundation inside the government only by Ito's confidence, but he was a sworn friend of Nobuyuki NAKAJIMA and Toru HOSHI who belonged to the Liberal Party (Meiji) that had an adversarial relationship with statesmen of domain cliques.

打ちこわしや一揆そのものは生活苦の改善や新規の徴税や徴兵に反対するものが中心であり、思想的・政治的な背景に欠くもので、最終的には幕府・諸藩・明治政府のいずれかの兵に鎮圧されて終わった。
Having no ideological and political background, most of the destructive riots and uprisings simply aimed at requiring the relief from hardships of life, and demonstrating their displeasure against the taxation and conscription imposed anew, and all of them ceased in the end when suppressed by Edo bakufu, domains, or the Meiji government.

三・一独立運動に衝撃を受けた日本政府は、武力だけで朝鮮支配は不可能と判断し、また大正デモクラシー期における政党内閣の登場や、武断政治批判の日本国内世論にも配慮し、武断政治を一部変更した。
The Japanese government, shocked by the March First Movement, found that it was impossible to rule Korea only by force of arms, and changed its Budan seiji partly, also in consideration of the emergence of the party cabinet in the Taisho Democracy period and Japanese domestic public criticism of Budan seiji.

1921年、国際連盟規約への抵触、日英双方国内での日英同盟更新反対論、日本との利害の対立から日英同盟の廃止を望むアメリカの思惑、日本政府の対米協調路線を背景にワシントン会議が開催された。
In 1921 the Washington Conference was convened against the background of the infringement on the Covenant of the League of Nations, opposition to the renewal of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance both in Japan and Britain, the US's desire for abrogation of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance due to its clash of interests with Japan, and the cooperative policy of the Japanese Government toward the US.

翌明治2年（1869年）1月に新政府樹立に貢献した薩摩藩、長州藩、土佐藩、肥前藩が建白書を提出し、同年5月には上局、公議所において諮問が行われて実施され、同年9月には藩制布告が行われる。
In January 1869 in the next year, Satsuma domain, Choshu domain, Tosa domain, and Hizen domain submitted a petition and in May, an inquiry was held at Jokyoku (a law-making body) and Kogisho, (the lower house) followed by the execution and declaration of the han domain system in September.

一八　談国事に及びし時、慨然（がいぜん）として申されけるは、国の陵辱（りようじよく）せらるるに当りては縦令（たとい）国を以て斃（たお）るるとも、正道を践（ふ）み、義を尽すは政府の本務也。
18. When his talk turned to the topic of affairs of State, Saigo said lamentably that if a situation ever arises where this nation is insulted by a foreign country, it will be a duty of the government to carry out the right way and to act in accordance with moral principles even if the entire country becomes engaged in and goes down as a result.

なお、日清戦争から日華事変甲号軍票までは明治時代に発行された明治通宝とよばれる政府紙幣のデザインを踏襲した縦型のものを使っていたが、その後は銀行券スタイルのものが発行されるようになった。
The military currency used during Sino-Japanese War through Ko-go currency used during the China Incident, vertical style ones followed a design of the government-issued bank note called Meiji Tsuho was adopted, but bank-note styled military currencies were issued afterwards.

その一方で、知藩事の家禄は藩の実収石高の十分の一と定められて藩財政から切り離され、藩の職制・禄制・兵制は中央政府が定めた規定に従うこととされており、藩の内情についても強く監督されていた。
On the other hand, however, the Karoku (hereditary stipend) for the Chihanji was set to 10% of the gross yield of their domain, separated from the domain's finance, and the Chihanji had to follow the rules set by the central government about the systems of office organization, salary and military in their domains, leaving the internal affairs to be under scrutiny.

その後、朝露密約がされるが、そのような経緯の中で井上角五郎等から具に事情を聞いた福澤諭吉らは、ここに至り事大主義、小中華思想で、平等や義や独立の精神に反する朝鮮王朝政府に見切りをつけた。
Later on, when a secret agreement was signed between Korea and Russia and Yukichi FUKUZAWA and others who heard about it from Kakugoro INOUE, they gave up on the government of the Korean Dynasties that were against equality, righteousness and independence with their Sadaejuui policy and petit Sinocentrism.

いわゆる日本主義者が、『日本 (新聞)』を舞台に政府の外交方針と自由民権運動の民力休養路線の双方を批判して、強硬的な外交政策による不平等条約解消とその裏付けとなる軍事力の拡張を主張した。
So-called 'Japanese nationalist' criticized the line of reducing the national burden which were the government diplomatic policies and the Freedom and People's Rights Movement in 'Japan (newspaper)' and advocated dissolution of unequal treaty with the forceful diplomacy and to expand the military force.

また、留守政府では旧薩摩藩士で参議の西郷隆盛らが朝鮮出兵を巡る征韓論で紛糾しており、薩摩士族の暴発を予防策として家禄制度を維持しての士族階級の懐柔を行うべきであるとする意見も存在していた。
In Rusu-seifu, a former feudal retainer of Satsuma and a councilor, Takamori SAIGO and his supporters asserted Seikanron (an opinion to dispatch troops to Korea), and some members of Rusu-seifu insisted that the stipend system should be maintained to conciliate the warrior class, thus preventing the Satsuma warriors from exploding.

日本と清国との間で帰属がはっきりしなかった琉球だったが、この事件の処理を通じて日本に有利に働き、明治政府は翌1875年琉球にたいし清との冊封・朝貢関係の廃止と明治年号の使用などを命令した。
The attribution issue of Ryukyu between Japan and Qing, which had remained unsolved, worked out in the favor of Japan in the peace process and in the following year, 1875, the Meiji Government ordered Ryukyu to sever relations with Qing based on sakuho (Chinese vassal system) and choko (tributary system) as well as to adopt Meiji as an era name.

熊本城の包囲が解けた4月23日、政府は参軍川村純義海軍中将を総司令官として別働第1旅団（旅団長高島鞆之助）・別働第3旅団2個大隊（田辺良顕中佐）を主力とする陸海軍混成軍を鹿児島に派遣した。
On April 23 when the siege of Kumamoto Castle was released, the national government sent an army-and-navy-mixed troop whose main forces were composed of the detached 1st brigade (led by Commander Tomonosuke TAKASHIMA) and two battalions of the detached 3rd brigade (led by Lieutenant Colonel Yoshiaki TANABE) to Kagoshima with Sangun Sumiyoshi KAWAMURA, Vice Admiral of the Imperial Navy, as the Supreme Commander.

幕藩体制の崩壊に伴い、中央集権国家の確立を急ぐ必要があった新政府は、律令制を範とした名称を復活させた（例：太政官、大蔵省など。ただし、当然のことながら実態は律令制のそれとはかなり異なる）。
The new government, which needed to establish a centralized government quickly after the feudal system of the Shogunate collapsed, restored job titles and names of government offices following the Ritsuryo system (such as Dajokan [Grand Council of State] and the Ministry of Finance. Naturally, the actual work of the given titles was substantially different from that under the Ritsuryo system).

西園寺が自由民権運動に加担することは政府や宮中で物議を呼び、内大臣岩倉具視が働きかけた明治天皇の内勅により退社を余儀なくされ、東洋自由新聞は4月30日発行の第34号にて廃刊に追い込まれた。
Saionji's involvement in the Democratic Rights Movement became controversial in the government as well as in the Imperial Court, and he was forced to resign from the company because of a private ordinance of Emperor Meiji's that was set up by Minister of the Imperial Household, Tomomi IWAKURA, and Toyo Jiyu Shinbun was forced to shut down after publishing the 34th issue on April 30.

江藤新平が建白書の直後に士族反乱の佐賀の乱（1874年）を起こし、死刑となっていることで知られるように、この時期の自由民権運動は政府に反感を持つ士族らに基礎を置き、武力闘争と紙一重であった。
As Shinpei Eto is known to have been executed for causing the Tosa War, a revolt by family with samurai ancestors in 1874, this period of the Jiyu Minken Undo movement was characterized by the antigovernment movement led by members of the former samurai class (Shizoku) and often erupted into violence.

実は一連の欧化政策の背景を単なる「外国崇拝」ではなく、当時の極端に低い日本の国際的地位に明治政府が危機感を抱き、そのための手段を選ぶ余裕すらなかったという当時の状況を無視することは出来ない。
In a very real sense, a background of a continuous policy of Europeanization was not merely 'the adoration of foreign countries' but also the measurable situation of the times, in which the Meiji Government felt a so srtong sense of danger for Japan's international status being extremely low at the time, that they could not take time to choose the means for improvement.

この高宗の密使外交を排するために日本政府は日露戦争終結後の1905年11月に第二次日韓協約（韓国側では乙巳保護条約と呼ぶ）を締結し、12月には韓国統監府を設置して外交権をその支配下に置いた。
The Japanese government concluded the second Japan-Korea Treaty (called Eulsa Protectorate Treaty in south Korea) in November, 1905 after the Russo-Japanese War to eliminate Gojong's diplomacy by secret envoys and established the Korea Protection Agency in December to hold diplomatic authority under its control.

その原点は、幕末の攘夷論や明治初期の征韓論などに求めることも可能であるが、直接的な原因としては、明治政府が条約改正に際して採った欧化政策とそれに対する反発としての国粋主義の高揚が上げられる。
The origin can be considered the principle of excluding foreigners in the end of the Edo Period or Seikanron (debate on subjugation of Korea) in the early Meiji Period, however, the direct causes were that a policy of Europeanization at the revision of a treaty by the Meiji government and a nationalist fervor against the Europeanization.

征韓論（せいかんろん）は、日本の明治初期において、当時留守政府の首脳であった西郷隆盛、板垣退助・江藤新平・後藤象二郎・副島種臣らによってなされた、武力をもって朝鮮を開国しようとする主張である。
Seikanron is the insistence of the members of the 'Rusu-seifu' on making Korea open to the world by military power (Rusu-seifu means the government while heads of government are away: the heads of Rusu-seifu were Takamori SAIGO, Taisuke ITAGAKI, Shinpei ETO, Shojiro GOTO, and Taneomi SOEJIMA).

これに金札引換公債への引換による整理分も含めると、1881年から85年末までに政府発行紙幣は1億1890万円から8834万円に減少し、国立銀行発行紙幣も3439万円から3015万円に減少した。
When the amount of the paper money exchanged for Kinsatsu hikikae kosai was added to this collected amount, the amount of government-issued paper money decreased from \118.9 million to \88.34 million, and the amount of the paper money issued by the national bank decreased from \34.39 million to \30.15 million over the period from 1881 to the end of 1885.

また、政党が農村部で発達し始めたことから、選挙区の組み替えや国税納付の資格を緩和することで、これまでの地盤を破壊し、政府や都市部の意向を反映した議員を生み出しやすくする狙いがあったといわれる。
Also, because political parties started to develop in villages it was assumed that he let the conventional foundation collapse and facilitated the development of assembly members who incorporated the intentions of the national government or city governments by changing constituencies or easing qualifications for payment of the national tax.

これに対して政府は同年12月26日に保安条例を制定して活動家の弾圧を始める一方、翌1888年2月には大隈重信を第1次伊藤内閣の外務大臣 (日本)として入閣させて立憲改進党を運動から離脱させた。
Against this movement, the government enacted hoan jorei (regulations for the preservation of law and order) to oppress those activists on December 26 of the same year, whereas Shigenobu OKUMA was appointed to the First Ito Cabinet as a Minister of Foreign Affairs in February, 1888 (the following year) to separate the Constitutional Progressive Party from the movement.

西南戦争以後の財政難と地租改正に対する農民の抵抗に悩まされた明治政府は、当時の日本の工業で最も生産額が多く、かつほとんどが国内消費に回されていて関税の問題も薄い日本酒に対する増税を度々行った。
The Meiji Government, suffering from economic difficulties that had lingered since the Seinan War as well as peasants' resistance against the land-tax reform, raised tax on sake repeatedly because the sake brewing industry generated higher production value than any other industries in Japan at that time and sake is almost free from problems concerning customs duty as most of it was consumed within the country.

7月28日に地租改正法（上諭と地代の3％を地租とする旨を記載した1ヶ条で構成）と具体的な規定を定めた地租改正条例などから成る太政官布告第272号が制定され、明治政府は翌年から地租改正に着手した。
In July 28, 1873, the Meiji government promulgated the Ordinance of Dajokan No.272 which consisted of the Land Tax Reform Law (made up of an imperial edict and one article stating the land tax will be 3% of the cash value of the land) and the regulation of land-tax reform in which concrete rules were laid down; in the following year the government started the land-tax reform.

一方政府は事件が広がったのは新聞が誇大に報道したためであるとし、8月7日に『高岡新報』を発禁処分にしたのをはじめ、8月14日には米騒動に関する一切の報道を禁じる記事差止命令を報道各社へ通達した。
In contrast, the government insisted that the movements were spread since newspaper had reported them exaggeratedly, so they shut down 'Takaoka Shinpo' (newspaper) on August 7 and issued an injunction against articles about the rice riots to media organizations on August 14.

1898年に第2次松方内閣がこの構想を打ち出すと、政府と民党、あるいは地主・農村と商工業者の間で激しい議論を巻き起こすようになり、政党と藩閥の連携などの政界の構図を激変させる原因の1つとなった。
When the Second Matsukata's cabinet proposed this policy in 1898, heated arguments erupted between the government and Minto or landowners and peasants against commercial and industrial men, which caused a radical change in the composition of the political world such as the cooperative relationships between political parties and domain cliques.

1つは一気に廃藩置県を論じたことによって諸藩の武士は大いに動揺し、一部の保守派が京都に押しかけて、伊藤を「忠義の道を蔑ろにする者」としてその排斥もしくは処罰を新政府に求める動きに出たことである。
One is that samurais of domains got upset by the sudden discussion on haihan-chiken and a part of the conservatives mobbed Kyoto to ask the new government to exclude or punish Ito as 'the one who makes light of loyalty.'

だが、自由民権運動の弾圧、松方財政による深刻なデフレーションの状況下でのこの欧化の動きは国内的には「貴族主義的」あるいは「上からの欧化」と見られてやがて左右の反政府派の攻撃の格好の標的となった。
At the same time, this movement of Europeanization later made a fat target for attacks by right and left wings of an antigovernment party as it was domestically considered as 'aristocratic-ism' or 'Europeanization from above,' under the oppression of Jiyu Minken Undo (Movement for Liberty and People's Right) and under the circumstance of the serious deflation caused by the Matsukata Finance.

大量の予算を充足する目的から、会計事務掛由利公正（福井藩士。のち由利公正）が導入した不換紙幣太政官札（10両、5両、1両、1分、1朱の5種）が大量に発行され、政府貨幣の信用が著しく低下していた。
In order to secure a large budget, a lot of inconvertible paper currency, Dajokan-satsu (state bill) 5 types; 10 ryo, 5 ryo, 1 ryo, 1 bu, and 1 shu), introduced by an accountant, Kosei YURI (a feudal retainer of the Fukui clan, Kosei YURI later) was issued and the credibility of the government currency significantly fell off.

当時の朝廷には政権を運営する能力も体制もなく、一旦形式的に政権を返上しても、公家衆や諸藩を圧倒する勢力を有する徳川家が天皇の下の新政府に参画すれば実質的に政権を握り続けられると考えてのことである。
As the Imperial Court at that time had no ability and system to come into power, Yoshinobu thought that the Tokugawa family could practically have control over political administration if the family, which had a power to overwhelm Kugeshu (court nobles) and domains, participated in the new government under the Emperor even if the family formally returned the power.

その後日清戦争や日露戦争、第一次世界大戦（青島攻略戦）などの対外戦争で日本政府が占領地で発行しており、太平洋戦争（大東亜戦争）では中国および東南アジアの占領地各地で現地通貨建てのものが使用された。
Afterwards, during such wars against foreign countries as Sino-Japanese War, Russo-Japanese War and the First World War (the war for captureing Tsingtao), Japanese government issued its military currency in the occupied areas and during the Pacific War (The Greater East Asian War), Japanese military currency was issued in the occupying areas, including China and Southeast Asia, based on the local currency.

新政府要人である横井小楠暗殺事件で島流し（島流し刑の最後の例）となった上平主税が、伊豆新島への終身流刑（約十年後特赦）となった際、流刑船内で同じく島流しとなる新選組最後の局長・相馬主計と出会った。
Chikara UEHIRA, who was exiled to Nii-jima Island of Izu (the last case of banishment) because of his involvement in the assassination of Shonan YOKOI, a key figure in the new government (he was later given a special pardon after ten years), met Kazue SOMA, who was the last head of Shinsen-gumi and was also banished to the island, on an exile ship.

台湾統治に当っては、当時の政府の見解としては、前述のとおり日本の領土であるため憲法の効力が及び、台湾における立法についても憲法5条により帝国議会の協賛を要するという見解を基本として統治方針を固めた。
As for governing Taiwan, the government of that time settled on the governing policy based on the above viewpoint that the Constitution should be in force in Taiwan as it was Japan's territory and the legislation in Taiwan required the consent of the Imperial Diet in accordance with Article 5 of the Constitution.

そのため、政府内にも島津久光を筆頭に前原一誠・桐野利秋ら保守的な反対論者を多数抱えており、また西郷隆盛も「壮兵」といって、中下層士族の立場を考慮した志願兵制度を構想していて徴兵制には消極的であった。
Therefore, there were a lot of conservative people against it within the government, with Hisamitsu SHIMAZU as the leader, Issei MAEBARA, Toshiaki KIRINO and others, and Takamori SAIGO took a passive stance for conscription because he had his own plan of the volunteer 'sohei' military system in consideration of the middle to lower class samurai.

貨幣司二分判（かへいしにぶばん）は明治元年（1868年）明治新政府が金座を接収し、造幣局 (日本)の開局までの経過措置として10ヶ月の期間鋳造されたもので、明治二分金（めいじにぶきん）とも呼ばれる。
Kaheishi nibuban was casted for 10 months as a progress measure until opening of minting authority when the New Meiji Government took over kin-za in 1868 and is called Meiji nibukin.

台湾出兵時に西郷従道が装備したガトリング砲も九州へ送られるなど、徴兵で構成された政府軍は精強な薩摩士族相手に戦うために、相当な意気込みを見せたが、一番肝心な歩兵銃の弾薬調達でトラブルが発生していた。
The government army, which consisted of conscripts, was so enthusiastic about fighting against the powerful band of warrior class in Satsuma that it even sent the Gatling gun that had been equipped by Tsugumichi SAIGO for the Taiwan expedition to Kyushu but had a trouble in the essential matter of supplying ammunition for infantry rifle.

これら一連の法律に基づいて、翌1900年初めから5年間（1904年まで）の期限付きで民間に残された政府発行紙幣・国立銀行発行紙幣の交換が行われ、流通していたこれらの紙幣の回収が完了することになった。
Based on a series of these Acts, the government-issued paper money and the paper money issued by the national bank that were left for the public to use for a limited period of five years from early 1900 (to 1904) were replaced, and the collection of these notes in circulation was completed.

これに衝撃を受けた西郷は、役人の驕奢により新政府から人心が離れつつあり、薩摩人がその悪弊に染まることを憂慮して、薩摩出身の心ある軍人・役人だけでも鹿児島に帰らせるために、9月、池上を東京へ派遣した。
Saigo was shocked about that, and he was concerned about distancing the people due to the extravagance of the officers of the new government, and that the Satsuma citizens might develop bad habits as a result, and therefore he sent Ikegami to Tokyo to bring back only the thoughtful soldiers and officers from Satsuma back to Kagoshima.

律は制定されず、令のみが唐突に頒布されていることから、草壁の死による政府内の動揺を抑え、天武の（律令制定という）遺志の継承を明示するため、予定を前倒しして、令のみが急遽公布されたのだと考えられている。
Since all of a sudden only ryo was distributed without ritsu, it is believed that ryo was issued ahead of schedule in haste in order to quell the unrest within the government caused by the sudden death of Prince Kusakabe and to clearly express that the will of Emperor Tenmu to enact ritsuryo would be followed.

そして、5月2日に西郷の命を受けた谷干城・赤松則良が率いる主力軍が、江戸幕府から引き継いだ小さな軍艦2隻で長崎を出航すると政府もこれを追認、5月6日に台湾南部に上陸すると台湾先住民と小競り合いを行う。
Then, on May 2, when the main unit led by Tateki TANI and Noriyoshi AKAMATSU left Nagasaki by order of Saigo in two small warships which were got from the Edo Bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun), the government officially approved it and on May 6, when they went ashore in southern Taiwan, they skirmished with the Taiwanese aborigines.

そのうえ、にわか仕立ての新政府軍はその実、統一日本国の軍隊ではあり得ず、事実上諸藩の緩やかな連合体に過ぎなかったため、諸藩の結束を高めるためには強力な敵を打倒するという目的を必要としていたからである。
Moreover, another factor was the newly established 'new government army' inability as a unified Japanese Army in a practical sense; in reality, this was the only an alliance which loosely combined all of the domains.

従って、旧幕府勢力が完全に崩壊して、続く版籍奉還・廃藩置県によって幕藩体制が消滅すると、今度は攻撃対象が新政府側に向かうことになり、解放令反対一揆や血税一揆、地租改正反対一揆の形で現れることになった。
And so, when the force of Edo bakufu completely collapsed, and the shogunate and domain system was consecutively put an end by 'Hanseki-hokan' (the return of the domain registers to Meiji Emperor) and 'Haihan-chiken' (the abolition of feudal domains and establishment of prefectures), the new government became the target of aggression, which were manifested as the uprising against the liberation order of the discriminated classes, 'blood tax uprising' (the uprising against the compulsory military service), and the peasant uprising against the land-tax reform.

また、終戦後10日目の1945年（昭和20）8月25日には、市川房枝らによる「戦後対策婦人委員会」が結成され、衆議院議員選挙法の改正や治安警察法廃止等を求めた五項目の決議を、政府及び主要政党に提出する。
On August 25, 1945, ten days after the war ended, Fusae ICHIKAWA and her allies organized the 'Women's Committee on Postwar Policy' and submitted a resolution to the government and the major political parties which consisted of five demands, including the revision of the electoral law for House of Representatives members and the abolition of the Security Police Law.

このようにして別府・辺見・河野・小倉壮九郎（東郷平八郎の兄）らが区長になり、私学校党が県政を牛耳るようになると、政府は以前にもまして、鹿児島県は私学校党の支配下に半ば独立状態にあると見なすようになった。
In this way, Beppu, Henmi, Kono and Sokuro OGURA (the older brother of Heihachiro TOGO) became ward mayors and the Shigakko party controlled politics in the prefecture, thus the government considered the prefecture of Kagoshima to be controlled by the Shigakko party, and it became mostly independent.

1870年（明治3年）政府は工部省を設置、また技術導入のためにお雇い外国人を多数採用し、殖産興業推進のため、鉄道、造船、鉱山、製鉄、電信、灯台など産業振興と産業インフラ整備のための幅広い事業を推進した。
In 1870 Meiji government established the ministry of industry, employed many foreign specialists, and promoted new industries and improved infrastructure such as railway, shipbuilding, mine, iron manufacture, telegraph, lighthouse, etc.

なお、地租改正に先立って、政府は、に田畑永代売買禁止令を解除して既に形骸化していた土地の売買禁止の合法化を行い、には地所質入書入規則及び動産不動産書入金穀貸借規則を定めて土地を担保とした貸借も合法化した。
In addition, before land-tax reform, the government legalized buying and selling of land by lifting the prohibition of sale and purchase of farming land which was already lacked in substance in 1872; in 1873 the government also legalized the borrowing and lending of money by using land as collateral by setting the regulations on pawing and listing real estates and regulations on listing movable property and real estate property for borrowing and lending of money and goods.

北越戦争により旧幕府軍が敗退すると、流域の村々は新政府側に分水工事着工の嘆願書を提出し、1869年（明治2年）にようやく着工が認められたが、総工費80万両のうち60万両が地元負担という厳しいものとなった。
After the army of former Edo bakufu was defeated in Hokuetsu War, the watershed villagers submitted a petition for the commencement of the diversion construction to new Meiji government, and the plan was finally approved in 1869 on the stringent condition that 600,000-ryo out of the total construction cost 800,000-ryo be paid by the local communities.

対朝鮮（当時は李氏朝鮮）問題は、明治元年（1868年）に李朝が維新政府の国書の受け取りを拒絶したことに端を発しているが、この国書受け取りと朝鮮との修好条約締結問題は留守内閣時にも一向に進展していなかった。
In Korea trouble arose (at the time Korea was ruled by the Yi Dynasty) in that Korea under the Yi Dynasty refused the sovereign's message for restoration of the government in 1868; however, neither the acceptance of the sovereign's message nor the conclusion of the problem of the treaty of amity with Korea progressed when the Rusu-naikaku was in power.

政府は長年、この予防令による工事と、後述する渡良瀬川の改修工事（1927年竣工）で鉱毒問題は解決したとしてきたが、1993年、『環境白書』で、当時の対策が不十分で、根本的な解決とはならなかったことを認めた。
For many years the government had been explaining that the works by the preventive measure and the renovation on Watarase-gawa River which was completed 1927 (see below) had solved the mining pollution, however, in the Environmental White Paper of 1993, they admitted that the then measures had been not enough to solve the fundamental issues.

日本では、既に江戸時代末期より、幾度と無く多数の死者を出す流行が見られており、早期対策の重要性を認識していた明治政府は、虎列刺病（コレラ）予防心得（内務省 (日本)）とともに避病院仮規則（警視庁）を整えた。
In Japan, because cholera pandemic repeatedly reoccurred and killed many people since the end of the Edo period, the Meiji Government knew the importance of an early countermeasure, so the Meiji Government enacted 'Instruction for preventing Cholera' (by prewar Ministry of Home Affairs) and 'Temporary rules of Hibyoin' (by Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department).

なお、公議とは当時討幕派・佐幕派問わずに広く唱えられた公議政体論に由来すると考えられており、明治政府と戊辰戦争で敵対した奥羽越列藩同盟の諸藩代表による議事機関にも公議所（白石城に設置）の名称が用いられている。
Incidentally, it is said that Kogi derived from Kogi-seitai-ron (parliamentary regime theory) that was then widely advocated without regard to anti-Shogunate group or Sabaku-ha (supporters of the Shogun), and Ouetsu-reppan alliance (alliance of strong domains in the northern part of Japan) also used the name of Kogisho (established at Shiraishi castle) for the assembly body of representatives of the domains who opposed to the Meiji Government at Boshin War.

幕末期、第8代藩主となった稲垣太清は大番頭や大坂定番、海軍奉行などの要職を歴任して佐幕派の立場を貫いたが、明治維新頃から太清が病に倒れて稲垣太祥が代理として藩政を執り始めた頃から新政府側に与するようになった。
At the end of the Edo period, while the eighth lord of the domain Motokiyo INAGAKI remained a Sabaku-ha (supporter of the Shogun) by serving such posts as Oban gashira, Osaka-joban (a primary guard post of Osaka-jo Castle), and bugyo of navy, Motoaki INAGAKI, who acted as proxy when Motokiyo was confined to bed with illness around the Meiji Restoration, started to shift towards pro-new government.

高輪談判（たかなわだんぱん）とは、明治2年7月12日（1869年8月19日）に、東京高輪において開催された明治政府首脳とイギリス・フランス・アメリカ合衆国・イタリア・北ドイツ連邦の5ヶ国の駐日公使による会談。
The Takanawa negotiation was a conference held by the the head of the Meiji Government and the ambassadors of England, France, United States of America, Italy, and Germany, in Takanawa, Tokyo Prefecture on August 19, 1869.

だが、前述の外国人に対する等価引換が34万両、太政官布告による引換が判明分だけで157万両であり、現在判明している政府発行の悪質な金貨（事実上の贋貨）が381万両であるから、それよりも遥かに少ないことになる。
However, the amount by the exchange in equal value for foreigners was 340 thousand ryo as mentioned above, and the amount by the exchange following the edict of Daijokan, which had become clear was 1.57 million ryo, while the amount of the bad quality gold coins (actually counterfeit coins) issued by the government, which is recognized today is 3.81 million ryo, so the former ones are much smaller than the latter.

12月、危機感を抱いた政府から勅使岩倉具視・副使大久保利通が西郷の出仕を促すために鹿児島へ派遣され、西郷と交渉したが難航し、欧州視察から帰国した西郷従道の説得でようやく政治改革のために上京することを承諾した。
In December, the Imperial envoy Tomomi IWAKURA and vice envoy Toshimichi OKUBO were sent to Kagoshima by the government, which sensed a crisis and urged Saigo to serve them, and they negotiated with Saigo to that end, but ran into difficulties, and finally persuaded Judo SAIGO, who had come home after inspection of Western countries, to come to Kyoto due to the political turmoil.

それが叶わないとみるや今度は洲本を中心に淡路を徳島本藩から分藩独立させて稲田氏を藩主とする稲田藩（洲本藩）の設立を目指す(そうすれば自分達は士族になる)ようになり、明治新政府にも独立を働きかけていくようになる。
When they found that would not be granted, in turn, they moved to spin off Awaji with Sumoto as its center from the Tokushima Honpan and aimed to establish the INADA Domain, of which the leader would be the INADA clan (so that they would become warrior class), and also worked on the new Meiji Government for their independence.

そのうえ技術移転を日本にしてもいいとの条件もあったことから、日本政府は近代的印刷技術も獲得できることもあり1870年（明治3年）10月に9券種、額面5000万円分（後に5353万円分を追加発注）の発注を行った。
Moreover, they offered to transfer the technique to Japan, which would allow Japan to obtain the modern printing technique; therefore the Japanese government ordered nine kinds of bills in October 1870, of which the total amount was worth 50,000,000 yen (later on they ordered an additional amount of 53,530,000 yen).

政府は死刑をもって取り締まろうとするものの、専売品があまりにも高価で劣悪過ぎたために却って良質な密売品の方が値段が安くなったために、密売品販売による利益は厚く、誘引となったために根絶する事が出来なかったという。
The government tried to regulate it by death penalty, but they could not exterminate the trafficking because the monopoly products were so expensive and so bad that high-quality trafficked products became less expensive, inviting bigger profits.

だが、その後、同党からの入閣の約束を一方的に反故にして、文官任用令改正を行い、続いて文官分限令・文官懲戒令・治安警察法の制定、軍部大臣現役武官制の導入などで、政党を政府から排して超然主義による国家運営を目指した。
However after that, he unilaterally broke the promise to take the members of this party into the Cabinet and implemented revision of the Civil Service Appointment Ordinance followed by enactment of the ordinance on the status of civil servant, the ordinance on reprimand of civil servant and the Security Police Law, as well as introduction of Military ministers to be officers on active-duty rule to eliminate political parties from the government and aim for running the country by the doctrine of superiority.

また征韓論に賛成する軍人、下野した参議近衛都督の引継ぎを行わないまま帰国した法令違反で西郷を咎めるどころか、逆に西郷に対してのみ政府への復帰を働きかけている事に憤慨して、板垣・後藤に近い官僚・軍人が大量に辞職した。
Besides, military men who agreed to the Seikanron, they didn't blame SAIGO who returned home without training the replacement of the downfall councilor, Konoe-totoku (Commander-in-Chief of the Inner Palace Guard) that was violation of law, instead, on the contrary, they encouraged only SAIGO to make a comeback to the government, and the large numbers of bureaucracies and military men who were close to ITAGAKI and GOTO were resentful at it and resigned.

内容は(1)摂関制度（摂政・関白）の廃止(2)（慶喜の）将軍職辞職を勅許(3)江戸幕府の廃止(4)（新たに）総裁、議定、参与の三職をおくというもので、江戸幕府の廃絶と、天皇による新政府の成立を宣言するものであった。
It was a declaration to abolish the Edo Shogunate and to establish a new Imperial government; more specifically, (1) abolishment of sekkan-seido (a system of regents and advisors), (2) imperial consent to Yoshinobu's resignation of Shogunate, (3) abolishment of the Edo Shogunate, and (4) appointment to the posts of three new offices, namely sosai (president), gijo (official post) and sanyo (councilor).

居留地は外国人を一ヶ所に集めて置けるので、日本人との紛争防止に役立つなど、日本政府にとって便利な面もあったが、やはり治外法権、領事裁判権を認める不平等条約の落とし子であり、国家的な体面から容認できないものであった。
In many ways the settlements were quite convenient for the Japanese government, for example because they kept foreigners settled in certain specific places and thus helped prevent conflict with local Japanese, but as they were the fruit of the unequal treaties and demanded extraterritoriality and consular jurisdiction for their inhabitants, they were unacceptable with respect to national prestige.

しかし散会間際に、荒畑寒村、宇都宮卓爾、大杉栄、村木源次郎ら硬派の一団は、突如赤地に白の文字で「無政府共産」「社会革命」「SOCIALISM」などと書かれた赤旗（本数は資料により異なる）を翻し、革命歌を歌い始めた。
Just before the end of the celebration, a group of hard-liners including Kanson ARAHATA, Takuji UTSUNOMIYA, Sakae OSUGI and Genjiro MURAKI suddenly waved red flags (the number of the flags varies according to materials) on which white letters saying 'Anarchism,' 'Social Revolution' and 'SOCIALISM' were written, and started to sing songs of revolution.

江戸時代後期、慶応3年（1867年）に15代征夷大将軍徳川慶喜が大政奉還を行って江戸幕府が消滅し、山岡鉄太郎の斡旋により新政府軍の大総督府参謀である西郷隆盛と徳川家陸軍総裁の勝海舟の会談で江戸城の無血開城が決定する。
In 1867 in the late Edo period, the Edo bakufu ruined due to the Taisei Hokan conducted by the 15th Seii Taishogun, Yoshinobu TOKUGAWA, then through the mediation of Tetsutaro YAMAOKA, the bloodless surrender of Edo Castle was decided at a meeting of Takamori SAIGO, a general officer of the grand government general, and Kaishu KATSU, president of the Tokugawa family's army.

この戦争において日本軍および政府は、旅順要塞司令官のステッセルが降伏した際に帯剣を許すなど、武士道精神に則り敗者を非常に紳士的に扱ったほか、戦争捕虜を非常に人道的に扱い、日本赤十字社もロシア兵戦傷者の救済に尽力した。
In the Russo-Japanese War, the Japanese military forces and the Government treated their adversaries in a gentlemanly manner in accordance to the way and mentality of bushido ('way of the samurai.') and mentality of the samurai; for instance, the Russian commander of the Lushun Fortress wore his sword when formalizing the surrender of Lushun, and prisoners of war were treated very humanely, and the Japanese Red Cross Society worked hard to treat injured Russian soldiers.

以上のように、軍票は通貨のような体裁と流通形態をしていて、商品券のような物と誤解される場合があるが、法律上の扱いは法定通貨でも有価証券でもなく領収書であり、最終的には相手国政府当局に提出して現金化する事が必要である。
As stated above, military currency was sometimes mistaken as a voucher since it had an appearance and a circulation system as if it were usual paper money; however, legally, it was only a receipt, not a legal tender or marketable securities, and had to be encashed by the government of the military force.

前年明治6年（1873年）10月に政府内で起きたいわゆる征韓論争に敗れた征韓派参議の西郷隆盛・江藤新平・板垣退助らが下野したことは、征韓論に期するところのあった不平士族らにとって、いっそうの不満を高めることとなった。
The resignation of Seikan-ha (supporters of sending army to Korea) Sangi (councilors), including Takamori SAIGO, Shinpei ETO and Taisuke ITAGAI, who were defeated at the Seikan Ronsou (debate on subjugation of Korea) occured in October 1873, made fuhei shizoku (former samurai with gripes) even more frustrated since they looked forward to conquer Korea.

しかし一方では権限を越えて条約改正交渉を行おうとしたことによる留守政府との摩擦、外遊期間の大幅な延期、木戸と大久保の不仲などの政治的な問題を引き起こし「条約は結び損い金は捨て世間へ大使何と岩倉」と狂歌の題材にされた。
On the other hand, they caused political problems such as a conflict with Rusu-seifu due to their attempt to negotiate for treaty revision which was beyond their authority, long delay of their return from overseas and a quarrel between Kido and Okubo, which became the subject of the kyoka (comic ［satirical］ tanka) that went like this, 'Failed in signing a treaty, threw out money, how can you explain to the world.'

産業振興や軍備拡張によって、財政膨張を続ける政府財政の無駄を削減して（政費節減/経費節減）、その削減分に相応した地租などを削減して重税に苦しむ国民の負担を軽減して（民力休養）、国民生活の再建を図るべきとする主張である。
Minryoku-Kyuyou and Seihi-Setsugen asserted the reduction in the waste in the growing government's finances due to industrial advancement and the build up of armaments (Seihi-Setsugen and Keihi-Setsugen), and the alleviation of tax burden on people suffering from heavy taxation by a reduction of the land tax with a decrease of waste (Minryoku-Kyuyou) to reestablish lives of people.

地租改正反対一揆（ちそかいせいはんたいいっき）とは、1873年より明治政府によって推進されてきた地租改正に反対する農民一揆である（ただし、近年の研究では合法的闘争による例も多かったとされていることに注意が必要である）。
Peasant revolts against the land-tax reform refer to the uprisings by peasants to oppose to the land-tax reform that had been promoted by the Meiji Government since 1873 (we should note that many of the revolts were legal conflicts, as recent studies show).

いったんは、明治6年（1873年）8月に明治政府は西郷隆盛を使節として派遣することを決定するが、同年9月に帰国した岩倉使節団の大久保利通、岩倉具視・木戸孝允らは時期尚早としてこれに反対、同年10月に遣韓中止が決定された。
The Meiji government once decided to send Takamori SAIGO as an ambassador to Korea in August 1873, but Toshimichi OKUBO, Tomomi IWAKURA, Takayoshi KIDO and other members of the Iwakura Mission who returned Japan in September 1873 opposed it because it was too early in their opinion, and the government finally decided to suspend to send Saigo to Korea.

明治維新後にも明治政府の修史事業が進められ、漢文体の大日本編年史が企画されたものの、その編纂方針をめぐる対立や、編纂の中心となっていた久米邦武の久米邦武筆禍事件により中止され、代わりに大日本史料が編纂されることとなった。
Even after the Meiji Restoration, the new Meiji government proceeded to launch history compilation projects, planning to create a chronological history of Greater Japan, but this effort petered to a halt because of opposition to the objectives of the plan and due to the 'slip of the pen' incident involving Kunitake KUME, who was central to the compilation effort; in place of the proposed chronological history, Dainippon Shiryo (Historical Materials of Greater Japan) was compiled instead.

このとき、西郷の参議・近衛都督辞職は許可されたが、陸軍大将辞職と位階の返上は許されなかった（岩倉・木戸・大久保らは、これらを許可しないことによって、西郷ら遣韓派をいずれ政府に復帰させる意図があることを示したのであろう）。
At the time, Saigo's resignation of the position of councilor and Konoe-totoku was approved, but his resignation of the title of full general was not approved, nor was he allowed to return that rank (based on this failure to receive approval, Iwakura, Kido and Okubo had plans to restore Saigo and the supporters of those in favor of sending an ambassador to Korea return to government).

天正4年（1576年）、その昔足利尊氏が再起を果たし足利家にとって縁起の良い土地であった備後国鞆の浦（当時は毛利領）に亡命政府（幕府）を樹立（鞆幕府とも呼ばれる）し、そこから信長追放を目指して諸大名に討伐令を下し続けた。
In 1576, Yoshiaki built a government in exile (Shogunate) at Tomo no Ura in Bingo Province (Mori clan domain at that time), which was a lucky place for the ASHIKAGA family because Takauji ASHIKAGA successfully recovered, and continued to give orders to various feudal lords to suppress Nobunaga,

日本による、韓国施政忠告権や臨検収用権など、日本側に有利な条項もあるが、反面、日本政府は、李王家、韓国の独立及び領域 (国家)を確実に保障し、片務的防衛義務を負うなどとしており、一方的に日本に有利なものとはなっていない。
There were some Articles which were advantageous to Japan, such as the right of the admonishment of the Korean administration and also the rights of visitation and expropriation; however, by contrast, it was not always a one-sided treaty because there were some Articles which didn't benefit Japan; the treaty said the Japanese government shall certainly guarantee the independence and territories of the Korean Imperial family Ri, the sovereign of Korea; nevertheless, the government had the one-sided obligation to defence of the Korean territories.

これは結果的には大多数の農民の負担を高めることにつながり、また土地の所有者がおらず納税が困難な入会地が事実上、政府に没収されたことなどから伊勢暴動、真壁暴動など一揆（地租改正反対一揆）が頻発し、自由民権運動へ影響を与えた。
In terms of the consequence, this high tax rate resulted in increasing the burden of majority of the farmers; therefore, peasant revolts against the land-tax reform erupted including the Ise Revolt, Makabe Revolt; the part of the reason these revolts occurred lied in that the government virtually confiscated common land (iriaichi) from which the government could not expect to receive taxes; these revolts gave influence to the Jiyu MInken Undo (Movement for Liberty and People's Right).

1871年8月29日（7月14日 (旧暦)）に、薩摩・長州藩出身の指導者により廃藩置県が実施され、都道府県制度が設置され（当初は3府302県、直後に整理され3府72県）、中央政府から都道府県知事を派遣する制度が実施された。
Therefore, on August 29, 1871, the leaders from Satsuma domain and Choshu domain abolished feudal domains and established prefectures instead (Haihan-chiken), and the modern prefecture system of Japan was established (at first, there were 3-fu and 302-ken, and soon after the system was organized to 3-fu and 72-ken), and then the system of dispatching the prefectural governors from central government was implemented.

明治8年（1875年）、明治政府は、江戸幕府が定め複雑に入り組んだ酒株に関する規制を一挙に撤廃し、酒類の税則を醸造税と営業税の二本立てに簡略化して、醸造技術と資本のある者ならば誰でも自由に酒造りができるように法令を発した。
In 1875, the Meiji Government abolished at a stroke complicated regulations concerning sakekabu which the Edo bakufu had implemented, simplified the taxation rule for alcoholic beverages by implementing a dual system of brewing and trading taxes, and issued an order to allow anyone with brewing techniques and capital to brew sake freely.

一進会の主張はあくまで日韓両国民の対等な地位に基づく日韓共栄であって日本の考える韓国の吸収併合とは全く異なるものであることや、日韓併合については韓国側の要求は一切受け入れない方針であったため日本政府は一進会の請願を拒否した。
The Japanese Government refused their demand because Isshinkai claimed for the mutual prosperity between Korea and Japan on a basis of Korean and Japanese people's equal position, which was completely different from the merger and annexation of Korea, that Japan was expecting, and also Japan was taking its own policy that any request from Korea was unacceptable for the Japanese annexation of Korea.

政府は8月13日に1000万円の国費を米価対策資金として支出する事を発表し、各都道府県に向けて米の安売りを実施させたが、騒動の結果、米価が下落したとの印象があるとの理由から8月28日にはこの指令を撤回し、安売りを打ち切った。
On August 13, the government announced that they would spend the national treasury of 10 million yen as money for rice price and ordered each local government to sell rice at a cheap price, but took the order back and stopped the discount on August 28 since they judged that the rice price seemed to drop as a result of riots.

普仏戦争敗北と第二帝政の崩壊、かわって樹立された革命政府パリ・コミューンとドイツ軍によるその鎮圧という、混乱の真ただ中にパリに到着した西園寺は、以後10年近くにわたってフランスやヨーロッパの知識や思想、文化を吸収していった。
Saionji, who arrived in Paris amidst the chaos of France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the fall of the Second Empire, and the rise of The Revolution Government (the Paris Commune) in its stead, and the suppression of it by the German forces, absorbed French and European knowledge, ideology and culture over almost the next 10 years.

規模はきわめて小規模で、当面の目標も栃木県庁落成式に出席する政府高官への襲撃程度のものであったが、自由党急進派は、前年の1883年（明治16年）後半以降、圧制打倒をめざして頻繁な交流を図り、同志的結合を強めていく傾向にあった。
It was quite small in scale and its immediate aim was only attacking high-ranking government officials who attended the Tochigi Prefectural Government inauguration ceremony: Since the latter half of 1833 of the previous year, the Liberal Party radicals had frequent meetings and were in a direction of strengthening the unity of the like-minded members.

1904年2月23日、開戦前に「局外中立宣言」をした大韓帝国における軍事行動を可能にするために日韓議定書を締結し、開戦後8月には第一次日韓協約を締結、大韓帝国の財政、外交に顧問を置き条約締結に日本政府との協議をすることとした。
On February 23rd, 1904, Japan concluded the Japan-Korean Protocol enabling Japan to take military action in the Korea in spite of the fact that the Korean Empire had announced a 'Declaration of neutrality' prior to the outbreak of the war; This made the way for the conclusion of the Japan-Korea Treaty in August 1904 in which Japan assigned advisers to Korean financial and foreign affairs departments to ensure that they consulted the Japanese government prior to concluding treaties with foreign powers.

当時ドイツ帝国の科学的植民地主義に傾倒していた後藤は生物学の観点から植民地の同化は困難であり、英国政府の植民地政策を採用し、日本内地の外に存在する植民地として内地法を適用せず、独立した特殊な方式により統治するというものである。
Goto, who was inclined towards scientific imperialism of Germany, claimed that it was difficult to assimilate the natives of colonies from a biological viewpoint and that Japan should follow the British colonial policies; the colony outside Japan should not be subject to Japanese law and should be governed under a special approach independent from Japan.

この軍議では一旦は篠原らの全軍攻城策に決したが、のちの再軍議で熊本城を長囲し、一部は小倉を電撃すべしと決し、翌23日に池上四郎が数箇小隊を率いて出発したが、南下してきた政府軍と田原・高瀬・植木などで衝突し、電撃作戦は失敗した。
The plan of Shinohara that all army attack the castle was chosen at the military meeting at first, but they had been laying seige to Kumamoto Castle for a time by the next military meeting, and decided that the part of them should attack Okura suddenly, so Shiro IKEGAMI left with several platoons on the 23rd, but they encountered the Governmental army, which was moving south at Tahara, Takase and Ueki, and the blitz tactics failed.

一方、新政府側でも19日大久保と寺島宗則が、新政権の諸外国への承認獲得と外交の継続宣言をすべく、アーネスト・サトウ（英国公使館付通訳）やシャルル・ド・モンブラン（フランス貴族）と協議し、新政権から諸外国への通達詔書を作成する。
The new administration, in the meantime, issued an imperial edict to foreign countries which was written by Okubo and Munenori TERASHIMA upon consultation with Ernest Mason Satow (interpreter of the British legation) and Charles de Montblanc (French nobleman) in order to win recognition for the new administration from foreign countries and to declare the continuation of diplomacy.

江戸開城（えどかいじょう）とは、江戸時代末期（幕末）の慶応4年（1868年）3月から4月（旧暦）にかけて、明治新政府軍の代表西郷隆盛と旧江戸幕府軍（徳川家）の代表勝海舟らの交渉により、江戸城の無血開城がもたらされたことをいう。
The Surrender of Edo-jo Castle was executed during the ending of the Edo period (the final phase of the Tokugawa shogunate), occurring over the months of March to April in 1868; Takamori SAIGO, a representative of the new Meiji government, and Kaishu KATSU, a representative of the former Tokugawa shogunate troops; together strategically negotiated a peaceful resolution to the surrender of Edo-jo Castle; this peacefully negotiated transfer was to become historically known as, The Bloodless Surrender of Edo-jo Castle.

それにもかかわらず、この条約を結んだことを理由に、野党の立憲政友会総裁の犬養毅と鳩山一郎が衆議院で、「軍令部の反対意見を無視した条約調印は統帥権の干犯である」と政府を攻撃、続いて枢密院議長倉富勇三郎もこれに同調する動きを見せた。
Despite of the fact, the government concluded the treaty, so that Tsuyoshi INUKAI, the President of the Opposition Rikken seiyukai, and Ichiro HATOYAMA attacked the government at the House of Representatives appealing 'The conclusion of the treaty ignoring the opposite opinion given by the Army means the interference and violate of supreme command', and following that the Chairman of the Privy Council Yuzaburo KURATOMI showed his attitude to sympathize with that.

欧化主義（おうかしゅぎ）とは、1880年代の日本において、明治政府が日本の文物・制度・風俗・習慣をヨーロッパ風にして欧米諸国に日本の近代化を認めてもらおうとして採った政策（欧化政策）とこれに関連して盛んに行われた思潮・風俗の動き。
Europeanism is a policy (a policy of Europeanization) which the Meiji Government implemented to make an impression on Western countries by modernizing Japan, that is to say, by Europeanizing Japanese things, regulations, folkways, and customs in Japan in 1880s, and an active movement of thought and folkways of the times related to the policy.

輸租帳（ゆそちょう）とは、律令政府が国司の政務実績を調査するために毎年1年間に実際に収納した田租・地子に関する正確な数値を書き上げさせた上で、国司が都に派遣する四度使のうち調帳を提出する貢調使に携帯をさせて民部省に提出させた帳簿。
Yusocho refers to an account book recording accurate figures of Denso (rice field tax) and Jishi (land taxes under the Ritsuryo system) actually collected in one year in order for the Ritsuryo government (ancient Japanese government of centralized governance) to survey the actual performance of government affairs by Kokushi (provincial governor), which was always carried by Kochoshi, one of Shidoshi dispatched to the capital by Kokushi, in charge of submitting Chocho (list of choyo (tribute and labor) and was submitted by Minbusho (the Ministry of Popular Affairs) by order of the government.

1874年9月に開始された交渉は一旦は実務レベルの関係を回復して然るべき後に正式な国交を回復する交渉を行うという基本方針の合意が成立（「九月協定」）して、一旦両国政府からの方針の了承を得た後で細部の交渉をまとめるというものであった。
The negotiation started in September 1874, once reached an agreement ('September Agreement') on the basic policy that restores practical level relationship and have an official negotiation to restore the diplomatic relation after a reasonable period of time, and then, finalize the details after gained approval from both governments on the policy.

一向宗宗名論争（浄土真宗が公式に否認している「一向宗」を宗派名として強要しようとした問題）を機に浄土真宗内部からも政府への反発が高まってきたこともあり、教部省の施策が暗礁に乗り上げると政教分離の観点から脱退するといった動きを見せた。
However, triggered by the dispute over naming of the Ikko sect (the issue that government attempted to enforce the name of 'Ikko' as an official name on the Jodo Shinshu sect even though the sect had officially rejected it), the repugnance against the government grew within the Jodo Shinshu sect, and the Jodo Shinshu sect withdrew from Kyobusho after the policy of Kyobusho reached a deadlock on the basis of the separation of religion and politics.

主な代表的な高札としては、寛文元年（1661年）の5枚の高札（撰銭、切支丹、火事場、駄賃、雑事）や正徳 (日本)元年（1711年）の5枚の高札（忠孝、切支丹、火付、駄賃、毒薬）、明治維新とともに新政府から出された五榜の掲示などがある。
Most commonly known Kosatsu are 5 boards of Kosatsu published in 1661 ('Erizeni' for eliminating low quality money, 'Kirishitan,' [Christian] the ban of 'Christianity,' 'Kajiba,' the law at the scene of a fire for preventing theft at the scene, 'Dachin,' the law for money or goods for the purpose of reward and 'Zatsuji,' the law for personal affairs), 5 boards of Kosatsu published in 1771 ('Chuko,' the loyalty and filial piety, 'Kirishitan,' the ban of Christianity, 'Hitsuke,' the law at the scene of a fire, 'Dachin,' the law for money or goods for the purpose of reward and 'Dokuyaku, 'the law for treating poisons) and 5 posts on the streets released by a new government after the Meiji restoration.

当該制度改正により、日本で勲等の授与（叙勲）という行為が適用されなくなった後も、政府は勲章の授与（授章）について授章のみならず「叙勲」の表現も用いている（たとえば、官報の叙位叙勲欄は叙位授章欄などへ変更されずにそのままの名称である）。
After the amendment, bestowal of medals for merit, i.e., bestowal of an order, has not been done in Japan; still, the Japanese government is using the word 'bestowal of an order' as well as 'awarding of a decoration' to express awarding of a decoration (for example, the section of the official gazette has not been changed its title from Bestowal of an Order to Award of Decoration.)

1886年（明治19年）、井上は東京において諸外国の使節団と改正会議を行うが、井上案は関税の引き上げや外国人判事の任用など譲歩を示したため、政府内で農商務大臣谷干城や法律顧問ギュスターヴ・エミール・ボアソナードらからの反対意見を受けた。
In 1886, INOUE held the conference of revision with the delegation of the foreign countries in Tokyo, and proposed an appeasement plan such as to raise tariffs and to appoint foreign judges, so that he was opposed by the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce Tateki TANI and the government counsel Gustave Emile BOISSONADE.

これに対して、政府と海軍が陸軍と協議をした結果、内閣官制によって事務行為の代理については文官でも認められること、ただし、帷幄上奏に関する職務は軍令部長が代行すること、陸軍に対しては今回の件を前例とはしないことで、陸軍もこれを受け入れた。
For that, as a result of the consultation between the government, the Navy, and the Army, the substitution of official activity by the civil officers would be admitted by the government regulations, but the duty as for the Iaku-joso (making comments on military affairs to the Emperor with full responsibility of the results) would be substituted by the Chief of the Naval General Staff, and the Army accepted that the affair this time would not become a precedent.

政府による「私有財産と生命、一国民としての栄誉の保護」が行われない朝鮮の国民であるよりも、各地で支配力を有するようになっていたイギリス人やロシア人に支配される方が、朝鮮の人々（朝鮮人民）にとっては幸福ではないかと強い語気で主張している。
The editorial strongly suggests that for Korean people it would be better to be ruled by British or Russians who began to hold control in various places than Korean nationals who have no 'protection for their private property, life and honor as a citizen' by the government.

明治政府の外交政策にとって、この是正は重要な課題のひとつとなるが、逆に一部の国粋主義者からは居留地の存在が外国の思想や宗教から日本の伝統・文化を守る防壁になっているという見地からの存続論も登場して複雑な論争を招くことになった（内地雑居）。
While this change was an important policy issue for the Meiji government, complicated disputes arose among some nationalists as to whether the settlements acted as a bulwark protecting Japanese tradition and culture from foreign ideas and religion.

日本政府内では小村寿太郎、桂太郎、山縣有朋らの対露主戦派と、伊藤博文、井上馨ら戦争回避派との論争が続き、民間においても日露開戦を唱えた戸水寛人ら七博士の意見書（七博士建白事件）や、万朝報紙上での幸徳秋水の非戦論といった議論が発生していた。
While debates continued within the Japanese government between factions including Jutaro KOMURA, Taro KATSURA, and Aritomo YAMAGATA and an anti-war faction including Hirobumi ITO and Kaoru INOUE, these discussions were mirrored in the public sphere by an pro-war petition circulated by seven professors (Seven Professor's Petition) including Hirondo TOMIZU and an anti-war argument and discussion by Shusui KOTUKU which was published in the Yorozuchoho (a daily newspaper).

つまり、当時の政府もその具体額は把握しておらず、将来的にも全容を明らかにするのは困難である（3,000万両は過大であるとしても、現在明らかになっているだけで800万両近くあり、それを遥かに上回る金額の悪貨・贋貨が発行されたと考えられる）。
In other words, the government at the time also did not know the concrete amount of fake money coined, and even in the future, uncovering the whole truth would be difficult (even if 30 million ryo is exaggerated, the amount made clear presently is still close to 8 million ryo, and much more bad money and counterfeit money is thought to have been issued.)

明治4年（1871年）11月12日、三条・西郷らに留守内閣（留守政府）をまかせ、特命全権大使岩倉具視、副使木戸孝允・大久保利通・伊藤博文・山口尚芳ら外交使節団が条約改正のために横浜から欧米各国へ出発した（随員中に宮内大丞村田新八もいた）。
On November 12, 1871, Sanjo and Saigo were entrusted with the duty of Rusu-naikaku (the acting cabinet while the heads of government are away), because a group of ambassadors, namely the ambassador who is the ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary Tomomi IWAKURA, vice ambassadors Takayoshi KIDO, Toshimichi OKUBO, Hirobumi ITO and Naoyoshi YAMAGUCHI went to Europe and the North America for revision of a treaty (Kunai-taijo (a post in the Imperial Household Ministry), and Shinpachi MURATA was one of the attendant).

三條は1869年（明治2年）に太政官制太政官制が導入されて以来、実権はさておき、名目上は常に明治新政府の首班として諸事万端を整えることに努めてきたが、伊藤博文の主導する内閣制度の導入によってこれに終止符が打たれたのはこの4年前のことだった。
Setting aside the question about his real power, SANJO had always strived to organize everything as head seat of new Meiji government since the System of Departments of State was introduced in 1869, but it was four years earlier that it was put an end by the introduction of cabinet system led by Hirobumi ITO.

10月14日-15日に開かれた閣議は紛糾したが、採決で同数になった結果、この意見が通らないなら辞任する（西郷が辞任した場合、薩摩出身の官僚、軍人の多数が中央政府から抜けてしまう恐れがある）とした西郷の言に恐怖した議長の三条が即時派遣を決定。
The cabinet meeting held on from October 14 to 15 got complicated, but chairman SANJO who was afraid of SAIGO's remark that he will resign when his idea couldn't put through as a result of a tie (there is a possibility that numerous bureaucracies and military men from Satsuma will leave from central government in case of Saigo's resignation), determined immediate dispatch.

明治時代になると、明治政府の立場から天皇を中心とする国民国家を建設するため、国家主義的な歴史観が構築されていったが、それは大政奉還・王政復古を正当化する歴史観であり、そのため大化の改新・建武の中興・明治維新が最も重要な改革に位置づけられた。
After the Meiji period, the Meiji government sought to establish a nation-state which set the emperor in the center of the nation. This produced a nationalistic view of history, which justified Taisei Hokan and Osei Fukko, and so the Taika Reforms, Kenmu no Chuko (=Kenmu restoration) and Meiji Restoration were ranked as the most important reforms.

そこでの決議をもとに、請願活動や高利貸との交渉を行うも不調に終わり、租税の軽減・義務教育の延期・借金の据え置き等を政府に訴えるための蜂起が提案され、大宮郷(埼玉県秩父市)で代々名主を務める家の出身である田代栄助が総理（代表）として推挙された。
Based on the decisions they made there, they had petitioning activity and negotiations with usurers only to fail, therefore, an uprising was proposed in order to make an petition for tax reduction, postponement of compulsory education and deferment of debt to the government, and Eisuke TASHIRO, whose family acted as a nanushi (village headman) for generations in Omiyago (Chichibu City, Saitama Prefecture) was recommended for their representative.

結果として自由民権運動や大隈の唱えるフランス流やイギリス流を否定したものの、岩倉らの進めようとしたプロシア流についても一旦は白紙撤回されることとなった（勿論、これによってプロシア（ドイツ）流論者の政府内での立場が強化されたのは事実であるが）。
As a result, the Freedom and People's Rights Movement, France style and England style, which were recommended by Okuma, were rejected but also Prussia style, which was recommended by Iwakura, was rejected (as a result, people who advocated Prussia (Germany) style strengthened their position).

3つの形態に分かれた機構を共通にしようとすれば既に中央政府から派遣された官吏によって統治される形式が採られていた「府」・「県」とは違い、知藩事と藩士によって治められた「藩」の異質性・自主性が「三治一致」の最大の障害となることは明らかであった。
In unifying three different systems, it was obvious that the different nature of 'han', which were governed by chihanji and hanshi unlike 'fu' and 'ken' that were governed by the government officials, became the biggest obstacle for 'sanchi-icchi'.

更にこうした一連の遣り取りが内外に伝わると2月28日には横浜居留地の商人たちが会合を開いて明治政府に贋貨によって生じた損害賠償を求める事を決議し、更に一部の商人が今後の回収に期待して暴落した贋貨を買い占めるなど様々な思惑が動き出し始めていた。
Furthermore, when this series of exchange spread around Japan and foreign countries, people began to move on their various ideas, for example, merchants of Yokohama settlement held a meeting on February 28, and decided to seek compensation from the Meiji Government for the damage caused by counterfeit money, or some merchants started to buy up the counterfeit money which had slumped anticipating the next recall.

ところが、台湾出兵の発生と大院君の失脚によって征韓を視野に入れた朝鮮遣使論は下火となり、代わりに純粋な外交による国交回復のための特使として外務省の担当官であった森山茂（後に外務少丞）が倭館に派遣され、朝鮮政府代表との交渉が行われることとなった。
However, the debate to dispatch an envoy to Korea with a view of subjugation of the Korea died down due to the occurrence of the Taiwan expedition and the downfall of Daewongun, instead, an official of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Shigeru MORIYAMA (Later became Gaimu shojo who's post at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) was dispatched to Wakan (consular office) as a special envoy for restoring relations by pure diplomacy, and started to negotiate with the representatives of Korean government.

王政復古 (日本)が行われ、薩摩藩・長州藩を中心とする明治新政府の兵との衝突から鳥羽・伏見の戦いが起こると容保は奥羽越列藩同盟の中心となり、会津藩兵も戦うが、大坂へ退いていた慶喜が戦線から離脱すると従い、弟・定敬らとともに幕府軍艦で江戸へ下る。
After the restoration of the monarchy (called Osei-fukko), Katamori became a key person of the Ouetsu Reppan Domei, clashing in the Battle of Toba Fushimi with soldiers of the Satsuma and Choshu-han clans which were at the center of the new Meiji government; soldiers of the Aizu-han clan fought too, but Katamori went to Edo with his brother Sadaaki on a shogunate warship when Yoshinobu who had retreated to Osaka fled from the battle line.

その後、イギリス公使トーマス・ウェードの斡旋で和議が行われ、全権弁理大臣として大久保利通が北京に赴いて清国政府と交渉した結果、清が日本軍の出兵を義挙と認め賠償金50万両（テール）を日本に支払うことと引き換えに、征討軍の撤兵が行われることとなった。
Afterwards, peace talks were held through the mediation of British envoy Thomas Wade and Toshimichi OKUBO went to Beijing as a minister extraordinary and plenipotentiary to negotiate with the Qing Government, as a result of which Japan committed to the withdrawal of the expeditionary force in exchange for Qing interpreting the dispatch of Japanese troops as an act of righteousness as well as paying 500 thousand liang (tael, which was a monetary unit formerly used in China) in compensation to Japan.

しかし、このまま維新の三傑である大久保の遺族が路頭に迷うのは忍びないという配慮から、政府は協議の上、大久保が生前に鹿児島県庁に学校費として寄付した8,000円を回収し、さらに8,000円の募金を集めて、この1万6,000円で遺族を養うことにした。
However, from the consideration for the bereaved family of Okubo who was one of the three contributors of Meiji Restoration, the government discussed and decided to support them with the total amount 16,000 yen raised by retrieving 8,000 yen donated by Okubo to Kagoshima prefectural office while he was alive as an educational fund and another 8,000 yen from donations.

ちょうどその頃、上総国菊間から大浜出張所（碧海郡に16ヶ村幡豆郡に5ヶ村、計21ヶ村は、大浜領と呼ばれ、菊間藩の大浜出張所に支配されていた。）に赴任してきた服部純は、明治政府の方針に従い村法の改正や勤王主義教育、神仏分離などの宗教改革を実施した。
At precisely the same time, Jun HATTORI who was transferred to an Ohama branch office (16 villages in Aomi County, 5 villages in Hazu County, 21 villages in total were called Ohama territory and were controlled by Ohama branch office in Kikuma Domain) from Kikuma, Kazusa Province, implemented the revision of village law, the imperialism education, and the religious transformation such as separation of Buddhism and Shintoism by following the policy of the Meiji Government.

韓国国内には一部反対の声もあったが、日本は「韓国の通信機関を整備し日本国の通信機関と合同連絡して両国共通の一組織にすれば、韓国の行政上経済上得策である」と提案し、そのため日韓両国政府の間で、4月1日に「韓国通信機関委託ニ関スル取極書」が調印された。
Although there were some dissenting voices in Korea, Japan suggested that 'Korea would benefit administratively and economically if Korean communication institutions were streamlined and combined into one organization with Japanese communication institution' and the two government signed a treaty 'Memorandum Concerning the Commission of Korean Communication Institution' on April 1.

1869年旧会津藩の武器御用商人だったジョン・シュネルが、旧会津藩士ら約40名ほど（詳細な記録がないため正確な人数は不明）を連れ、明治政府に無許可でカリフォルニア州ゴールド・ヒルに移住、茶と養蚕を目的とした「若松コロニー」を作るが、僅か2年で頓挫。
In 1869, without any permission from the Meiji Government, John SCHNELL, a merchant of weapons for the former Aizu Domain, led about 40 immigrants including former feudal retainers of the domain to Gold Hill in California and built the 'Wakamatsu Colony' for tea and sericulture production, which ended in failure after two years.

第二次世界大戦中は更に政府の統制が強化されたが、終戦後の1946年（昭和21年）の第1次地方制度改革で知事の選挙投票者による分類制が導入されるなどの民主化が行われ、最終的には1947年（昭和22年）の地方自治法の成立により現行の都道府県制に移行した。
During World War II, the regulation by the government was enforced, however, after the war, the first reform of the local system was implemented in 1946 to promote democratization, and the classification system where a prefectural governor is elected by voters was introduced, which was after all replaced by the current Todofuken sei (system of prefectural government) when the Local Autonomy Law was established in 1947.

ただし、大化の改新直後の大化2年（646年）に諸国に対して国の境界についての文書あるいは地図を献上するように命令が出され、律令政治下においては民部省に国境把握の義務があり、図書寮には地図保管の義務があったため、当然政府内で地図が作られていた筈である。
Nevertheless, in 646 right after Taika no Kaishin (Great Reformation of the Taika Era), an instruction to submit documents concerning province boundaries or maps was issued to all the provinces, and Minbusho (Ministry of Popular Affairs) in the government according to the Ritsuryo codes was responsible for the borders, and Toshoryo (Government Library) was responsible for storing maps, and so it is natural to believe that maps were made in the government.

公署は旧台北市役所（現在の中華民国行政院）に設置され、国民政府代表の陳儀、葛敬恩、柯遠芬、黄朝琴、游弥堅、宋斐如、李万居の他、台湾住民代表として林献堂、陳炘、林茂生、日本側代表として安藤利吉及び諫山春樹が参加し、ここに日本による台湾統治は終焉を迎えた。
The administrative office was established in the former Taipei municipal office (today's Executive Yuan of the Republic of China) and with Yi CHEN, Jing-en GE, Yuan-fen KE, Chao-qin HUANG, Mi-jian YOU, Fei-ju SUNG and Wan-ju LI representing the National government, Xiantang LIN, Xin CHEN and Mao-sheng LIN on behalf of the residents of Taiwan and Rikichi ANDO and Haruki ISAYAMA representing Japan, the ruling of Taiwan by Japan ended.

明治政府の成立後、江戸幕府発行の貨幣に替わるものとして太政官札（金札）5種（10両・5両・1両・1分・1朱）が発行されたが、財政補完を目的として高額金札ばかりが発行され、1分・1朱がほとんど発行されなかったために、民間の需要に応えることが出来なかった。
After the Meiji government was established, the 5 kinds (10 ryo, 5 ryo, 1 ryo, 1 bu, 1 shu) of Dajokan-satsu (Kinsatsu, a golden bank note) were issued as an alternative to the currency issued by the Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun), but only expensive Kinsatsu were issued in order to complement public finance, and 1 bu or 1 shu were rarely issued, so they could not accommodate public demand.

現在、これらを前身として存続している銀行のうち、国立銀行時代のナンバーを引き継いでいないところのほとんどは、1930年代から1940年代前半の政府の施策として、銀行の1県1行主義に伴う戦時統合により、新たな法人として設立されているところが多くみられる。
Currently, many of the surviving banks which used to be the National Banks but did not take over the numbers at the time were established as new legal entities by the integration in wartime according to the principle of one bank per one prefecture under the government measures of 1930 to early 1940.

しかし、当時既に開設されていた電信によりいち早く彼らの蜂起とその規模を知った政府は、一部汽車をも利用して警察隊・憲兵 (日本軍)等を送り込むが苦戦し、最終的には東京鎮台の鎮台兵を送り郡境を抑えたため、11月4日に秩父困民党指導部は事実上崩壊、鎮圧された。
However, the government, getting information on their uprising and its scale instantaneously by telegram that had already been in use at that time, sent a troop of police and military police (Japanese Army) partially by train only to face uphill fights, but finally soldiers in Tokyo Chindai Army (garrison in Meiji period) brought the county boundary under their control, leading the leaders of the Konmin Party to the collapse and subjugation on November 4.

しかし、その届出額は当時の歳入の倍に相当する7413万円（両）にも達して（しかもこの金額には後述の理由で天保年間（1830年～1843年）以前に発生した債務の大半が含まれていないものと考えられている）おり債務を引き受けた新政府にも財政的な余裕はなかった。
The amount, however, reached 74.13 million yen (ryo), twice the government revenue at the time, and the new government couldn't afford to repay (in addition, the sum of debts which were made before the Tenpo era (1830 - 1843) was not included in this amount because of the reason mentioned below).

しかしながら日本とペルーの間では当時二国間条約が締結されておらず、政府内には国際紛争をペルーとの間で引き起こすと国際関係上不利であるとの意見もあったが、副島は人道主義と日本の主権独立を主張し、マリア・ルスに乗船している清国人救出のため法手続きを決定した。
However, no bilateral treaty was signed between Japan and Peru in those days, and some government officials argued that causing a dispute with Peru could result in a disadvantage for Japan in international relations; nonetheless, Soejima resolved to take legal steps to rescue the Qing people in the name of humanitarianism and Japan's sovereignty.

彼らは水雷の製造者で、日本海軍を攻撃する意図をもって、中国政府との契約により渡中する旨の報がつたえられたから、日本官憲は、同船を臨検したところ、2名は既に、フランスと極北諸港間の航路に就航するフランス船シドニー号に移乗し、神戸経由上海に行こうとしていた。
Because Japanese officials found out that these two were producers of underwater mines and had an intention of attacking Japanese Navy by their contract with Chinese government, they conducted a search on the vessel, only to find out that the two were already aboard a French vessel, Sydney, bounded for Shanghai via Kobe.

当時の政府は、外国人顧問から聴いた母国の植民地法制を参考にしつつ、日本の領域 (国家)たる外地（南樺太、台湾、朝鮮）には憲法の効力が及ぶのに対し、日本の領土ではない外地（関東州、南洋群島）には憲法の効力が及ばないという考え方を前提にして、統治方針を決めた。
The government consulted foreign advisors and, referring to the legislation systems of the advisors' home coutries, established a governing policy based on the premise that the Constitution should be in force in Gaichi which were included in Japan's territories (Southern Sakhalin, Taiwan, and Korea) and should not be in force in Gaichi which were not included in Japan's territories (the Kwantung Leased Territory and the South Sea Islands).

このとき、西郷の推挙で兵部大輔大村益次郎の後任に補されながら、能力不足と自覚して、先に下野していた前原一誠は「宜シク西郷ノ職ヲ復シテ薩長調和ノ実ヲ計ルベシ、然ラザレバ、賢ヲ失フノ議起コラント」という内容の書簡を太政大臣三条実美に送り、明治政府の前途を憂えた。
At the time, Issei MAEHARA (who was appointed the successor of Masujiro OMURA, the Hobu-taifu, who had resigned earlier because he was doubtful of the sufficiency of his ability) sent a letter to the grand minister of state, Sanetomi SANJO saying 'Saigo should be reassigned to his work of attempting the harmonization of Satsuma and Choshu. If not, there will be some debates about wise lost', because he was concerned about the future of the Meiji Government.

幕末には攘夷論が台頭するがそれを克服し、戊辰戦争の後明治政府は西洋文明の積極的な受容による近代国家の建設、幕府が結んだ西欧諸国との不平等条約の改正と南下政策を進めるロシア帝国との国境確定および東アジア諸国との外交関係の再構築と版図の確定という課題に取り組んだ。
Japan conquered principle of excluding foreigners that emerged at the end of Edo period, and the Meiji Government had tackled the following issues since the Bushing War: the construction of a modern state through the introduction of western civilization; the revision of the unequal treaties that the bakufu signed, with western countries; the definition of the border with Russia that had been promoting southward expansion; and the restructing of diplomatic relations and definition of the territory with East Asian countries.

近代日本の官制（きんだいにほんのかんせい）は、王政復古 (日本)によって明治維新が始まった慶応3年12月9日 (旧暦)（西暦1868年1月3日）から、内閣官制が制定された1889年（明治22年）12月24日に至るまでの中央政府における主な機関の変遷を概観する。
Under the title 'Government Organization of Early Modern Japan,' this article outlines the changes of major agencies of the central government of Japan from rom January 3, 1868, when the Meiji restoration was started with Restoration of Imperial Rule, to December 24, 1889, when the official organization system under the Cabinet was established.

さらに、政治学者の丸山眞男は、甲申事変が三日天下に終わったことの挫折感と、日本・清国政府・李氏政権がそれぞれの立場から甲申事変の結果を傍観・利用したことに対する不満から、「「脱亜論」の社説はこうした福沢の挫折感と憤激の爆発として読まれねばならない」と説明する。
A scholar of political science, Masao MARUYAMA said that, from frustration of the Gapsin Coup being short-lived and disappointment toward Japan, the Chinese government and the Yi government when all of them were just watching the Coup and using the results, 'the editorial of the 'Datsu-A Ron' should be read as an emotional explosion of Fukuzawa's frustration and rage.'

ところが、実際に帝国議会が開催されて民権派系の民党と政府の対立が激化すると、大同団結運動と距離を置いていた板垣退助を擁立する声が高まり、これを機に旧自由党系の再集結論が盛り上がり、同年暮に大井の自由党や大同倶楽部などによって板垣を擁した立憲自由党が結成された。
However, once the Imperial Diet was actually held and a confrontation between People's Rights-leaning minto (general term of the political parties such as Liberal Party) and the government became intense, the trend became stronger to give support to Taisuke ITAGAKI, who had distanced himself from the movement to unite for a common purpose, and then this led to the discussion toward reunifying former Liberal Party; in the end of the year, the Constitutional Liberal Party was organized by Oi's Liberal Party and Daido kurabu and supported Itagaki.

明治維新後も新政府は、江戸時代の貨幣制度をほぼそのまま受け継いだが、中央集権的な国家を建設するためには、各藩が独自に発行していた藩札（さらにそれを受け継いだ府県札）の整理や、東日本の小判（計数貨幣）と西日本の丁銀（秤量貨幣）の統一なども課題として残されていた。
Although the currency system in the Edo period had been kept in almost the same manner by the new government after Meiji Restoration, there were problems including organizing han bills (bills usable only in a particular feudal clan) (further, prefectural bills taken over from the han bills) issued by each domain independently and integrating koban (former Japanese oval gold coin) (Keisu kahei [currency by table]) in eastern Japan and chogin (collective term of silver) (Hyodo kahei [currency valued by weight]) in western Japan in order to establish a centralized state.

壬午事変（じんごじへん）とは、1882年7月23日に、大院君らの煽動を受けて、李氏朝鮮のソウル特別市（後のソウル特別市）で大規模な兵士の反乱が起こり、政権を担当していた閔妃の政府高官や、日本人軍事顧問、日本外交官らが殺害され、日本公使館が襲撃を受けた事件である。
The Imo incident, (also known as the Jingo incident) was a massive soldiers' revolt that occurred under the incitement of Daewongun on July 23, 1882, in Seoul special city during the Joseon Dynasty (same as the later Seoul Special City), during which many people such as high-ranking government officials of Queen Min's, a Japanese military advisor, and Japanese diplomat were killed, and the Japanese legation was attacked.

政府は当初、伝統宗教の権威と地盤を以ってキリスト教防御と維新後の新体制を国民に教導する考えであったが、近代国家の樹立の為には政教分離と信教の自由を国家の基本方針として盛り込むことは避けられず、また西洋諸国との外交関係に於いてキリスト教の禁制解除は不可欠となった。
At first, the Meiji government intended to keep citizens away from the influence of Christianity and to educate them on the new systems made by the new government renewed after the Meiji Restoration with authority and foundations of the Japanese traditional religion; however, the separation of religion and politics and the freedom of religion were essential policies in order to establish a modernized nation, and the cancellation of a ban on Christianity was indispensable to maintain the diplomatic relationships with Western countries.

1月より持ち越しの由利公正（越前藩士）が起草した新政府の方針案では、諸侯会議派である土佐藩の福岡孝弟が第一条冒頭に「列侯会議ヲ興シ」の字句を挿入し、表題も「会盟」と改めており、3月の木戸による国是建議の後提出したが、もはやこの時期には列侯会議は必要性を失していた。
For the draft policy of the new government prepared by Kosei YURI (feudal retainer of Echizen) and had been carried over from January, Takachika FUKUOKA of Tosa Domain who belonged to the lords conference group inserted the phrase 'Establish a council by feudal lords' to the beginning of the Article 1 and amended the title to 'Kaimei (pledge of feudal lords)', and submitted it after Kido's proposal for national policy in March, but the necessity of the council by feudal lords had already been lost by then.

その後も、一部の人々は攘夷運動を進めようとした（草莽）が、明治2年（1869年）に入ると、明治政府は公議所・上局から上げられた「公議輿論」が攘夷は不可能であるという意見であったことを理由に「開国和親」を国是として以後は攘夷を議題としないことを決定（5月28日）した。
Even after that, some ordinary citizens tried to continue the Joi movement; however, because the kogi-yoron (public deliberation) issued by the Kogisho (the lower house) and the Jokyoku (a law-making body) expressed the judgment that joi (the expelling of the barbarians) was not possible, the Meiji government adopted a national policy of 'opening the country up and establishing friendly relations with other countries' (kaikoku washin) in 1869 and decided not to employ joi as part of their agenda anymore (May 28).

新政府から朝敵とされるや否や、寛永寺に謹慎した事などから、天皇や朝廷を重んじる心ある者だと評価される（尊王思想である水戸学や、母親が皇室出身であることなどが多分に影響していると思われる）が、一方で、主君として敵に毅然とした対応を示さなかったため、「弱腰」とも言われた。
Because he entered Kan'ei-ji Temple for disciplinary confinement as soon as the New Government designated him as the Imperial Court's enemy, he was considered as a reasonable man who respected the Emperor and the Imperial Court (perhaps this was due to the teaching of Mito-han [Clan] that highly respected the Emperor and also to the fact that his mother was from the Imperial Family); however, on the other hand, he was also called weak-kneed because as the lord of his people, he was not able to stand resolutely in the face of the enemy.

一方、公家の岩倉具視や薩摩藩の大久保利通ら討幕派は、親徳川派の摂政・二条斉敬や久邇宮朝彦親王（維新後久邇宮）が主催する下で徳川中心の朝廷政府が成立することを阻止するため、満15歳の明治天皇を手中にして二条摂政や朝彦親王を排除し、朝廷を掌握するためのクーデター計画を進めた。
On the other hand, in order to prevent establishment of an Imperial Government centered on Tokugawa under the sponsorship of Nijo and the Imperial Prince, members of the anti-Shogunate group including Tomomi IWAKURA, a noble, and Toshimichi OKUBO of the Satsuma Domain manipulated the 15-year-old Emperor Meiji, expelled pro-Tokugawa members of the court such as Nariyuki NIJO (the Imperial Regent) and Imperial Prince Kuninomiya Asahiko (Kuninomiya after the Meiji Restoration) and planned a coup to seize control of the Imperial Court.

このように日朝修好条規、朝鮮修信使の制度ができるまでは、明治初期の1872年頃までの当時の開化派とされた朴珪寿でさえ、彼を含めた朝鮮政府の共通認識は「欧米人は通商によって利益を追求する人倫を欠いた禽獣であり、日本人もまた同様である（倭洋一体）」のようなものだったのである。
Before the Treaty of Ganghwa (Japanese-Korea Treaty of Amity) and the system of the post-1868 embassy from Korea, even Gyu-su PARK who was one of the most civilized at that time around up until 1872 and the common view of the Korean government including his was 'Europeans and Americans are animals without humanity who are only after profit from trade and Japanese are the same (Wayo Ittai ron theory to consider Japan, European countries and the USA as one).'

一方、中央の朝廷（律令政府）もこれを抑止するどころか、8世紀末期の平安京造営と蝦夷討伐の費用の捻出のために不動穀の一部を中央に上供させたり、不動穀の財源である田租の中から国税にあたる年料租舂米・年料別納租穀を抽出したため、結果的に貯蔵に回す稲穀の量は減少することになった。
On the other hand, the Imperial Court in the capital, which was the government based on ritsuryo system, did not suppress this use of fudokoku; the government itself needed funds to build Heiankyo (ancient capital in curent Kyoto) at the end of the eighth century and to send an expedition to subjugate Ezo (northerners), so that it ordered a part of fudokoku to be delivered to the capital; also the government extracted the national taxes of nenryo soshomai (milled rice to be provided to officials) and nenryo betsuno sokoku (rice in the husk to be provided to officials) from the rice field tax that should have been stored as fudokoku; it resulted in a decrease in the amount of rice in the husk to be stored.

また、華族制度改革や将来の内閣_(日本)制度導入を巡って、岩倉との間に見解の相違があることも明らかになってきた（岩倉は華族に維新の功臣が加えられることや既存の律令制・太政官制度に基づいた大臣制が廃止されることで、公家出身の自分が政府の中枢から排除されることを警戒していた）。
In addition, there was conflict of views between Iwakura and Ito regarding reform of the peerage system and introduction of cabinet (Japan) system in future (Iwakura worried about adding new meritorious retainers during the Meiji Restoration to the peerage and abolishment of institution of ministers based on existing the ritsuryo system [a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code] and Dajokan [Great Council of State] system, because he thought he would be excluded from the center of the government.)

その後、届出額の半数以上が天保年間以前の債務に由来するまたは幕府債務として無効を宣言されて総額で3486万円（うち、新公債1282万円、旧公債1122万円、少額債務などを理由に現金支払等で処理されたものが1082万円）が新政府の名によって返済されることになった（藩債処分）。
Thereafter, more than half of the above amount was declared void as the debts made before the Tempo era or the debts of bakufu, and the total amount of 34.86 million yen (shin-kosai: 12.82 million yen, kyu-kosai : 11.22 million yen, small amount debts that were repaid in cash: 10.82 million yen) were repaid by the new government (hansai-shobun (the policy on the disposition of the debts of feudal domains)).

塩専売法実施による塩価の急激な高騰は世論を喚起し、非難は少なくなく、明治39年以後議会ごとに廃止論議が行われたが、政府はこれを肯んじることなく、改善に努めるとともに大正7年ついに収益主義を事実上廃し、公益主義を採って需給調節と塩業保護を目的とするようになり非難はおさまった。
The steep price rise of salt caused by the enactment of the Salt Monopoly Law evoked public opinions, inviting many criticisms, and after 1906, the possibility of abolition of the law was debated at each meeting of the Diet, but the government never accepted it but worked hard to improve the law and virtually abolished private profitalism in 1918, and, by adopting public profitalism, tried to adjust the balance of demand and supply and to protect the salt industry, and then the criticisms subsided.

形式上のみとはいえ、太政官よりも上位とされた神祇官に対して、太政官の1機関に格下げられた神祇省は一見すると地位が低下したようにも見受けられるが、実際には大教宣布の理念に基づいた天皇による祭政一致、ひいては神道の国家宗教化を目指す方針のために政府の関与を強めるためのものであった。
The Department of Divinities had been considered superior, at least pro forma, to the daijokan (the Grand Council of State), and hence by the comparison the Ministry of Divinities may seem to have suffered a demotion given the fact that it was created as one arm of and under the daijokan, but in actuality Japan, under the principles laid out in the Imperial Edict (of 1870) for Establishment of Shinto, had embraced a theocratic form of government (saisei itchi, or 'the unity of church and state') under the Emperor; consequently, the Ministry of Divinities had been created to strengthen the government's ability to participate in religious matters in order to achieve the objective of making Shinto the national religion of Japan.

台湾領有については松方、陸奥、伊藤ら日本政府要人も1894年以来、その領有の必要性や目的を意見書「威海衛を衝き台湾を略すべき方策」(伊藤)、「台湾島鎮撫策に関して」(陸奥)などでマレー半島や南洋群島に進出する根拠地、中国大陸に将来版図を展開する際の根拠地とする意見を表明していた。
Leaders in the Japanese government such as Matsukata, Mutsu, and Ito expressed their opinion in their papers on the aim and necessity for Japan to occupy Taiwan based on its expansion to the Maly Peninsula and the South Sea Island or as a base in the future to conquer territory on the Chinese continent since 1894: for example 'Strategy for occupation of Taiwan by attacking Weihaiwei' (Ito), and 'A measure to pacify the Taiwan Island' (Mutsu).

だが、植木は「会議は禁止されても代表に会う事までは禁じられていない」として、5月4日に淀川上の船上で大阪入りできた代表と会合を持ち、5月10日に京都祇園で改めて2府15県代表44名と会議を開催して先に禁錮刑を受けた小原鉄臣を代表者として「酒税軽減嘆願書」を起草して政府に提出した。
Ueki, however, held a meeting with delegates who managed to arrive in Osaka on board on the Yodo-gawa River on May 4, saying 'the council is prohibited, but it is not prohibited to meet the delegates,' held the council with 44 delegates from 17 prefectures in Gion, Kyoto at another time on May 10, and made Tetsuomi KOHARA who had been imprisoned before represent participants to draft and submit 'The Petition for Liquor Tax Reduction' to the government.

第1回衆議院議員総選挙で合計すると、衆議院の過半数を制した自由党（当時は分裂状態にあり、大同団結運動を経て再統合される）や立憲改進党などの民権派各党は、世論の意思は自分たちにあると捉え、自分達を弾圧してきた藩閥政府やその同調者と見られた保守系政党（大成会など）との対決姿勢を強めた。
Winning majority in the first general election of the members of the House of Representatives in 1890, the parties demanding the democratic rights such as the Liberal Party (it was split then and reunited through the Great Merger Movement) and the Constitutional Progressive Party and etc. thought that the public was on their side and strengthened the attitude toward the han-dominated government (the members of former Choshu and Satsuma domains who played major part in the Meiji Restoration and had power after the restoration) which suppressed them and toward other conservative parties (the Taiseikai Group and so on) regarded as the followers of the government.

その一方で明治4年（1871年）に中央政府に復帰して下野するまでの2年間、上京当初抱いていた士族を中心とする「強兵」重視路線が、四民平等・廃藩置県を全面に押し出した木戸孝允・大隈重信らの「富国」重視路線によって斥けられた事に対する不満や反発が西郷の心中に全く無かったとも考えられない。
Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that SAIGO might have resentment and antagonism toward the incident that a policy of placing a great importance on 'military buildup' mainly with the warrior class, which he had fostered during his early days in Tokyo for two years from his comeback to the central government in 1871 until he left the government, was defeated by a policy of placing a great importance on 'national enrichment' by Takayoshi KIDO and Shigenobu OKUMA, which emphasized the equality of all people and the abolition of feudal domains and establishment of prefectures.

ところが、その背景にキリスト教の信奉者である森有礼が文部省御用掛に内定したことを天皇が「教学聖旨」を無視したものと不快感を示して公務への復帰を拒んでいたことが明らかとなり、しかもそれが政府が報告するよりも先に宮中の側近達から天皇に対して報告されていたことに伊藤は衝撃を受けたのである。
Ito was shocked to know that the reason of Emperor's rejection to return to public service was because the Emperor was upset about the informal appointment of Arinori MORI, a Christian, as Goyogakari (a general affairs official of the Imperial Household) which he thought was a neglect of his 'Imperial Thoughts on Education', and that the appointment was reported to the Emperor by the close advisers in the Imperial court before the government.

なぜなら、朝鮮との国交問題そのものは未解決であること、伊地知正治のように征韓派でも政府に残留した者も存在すること、そして天皇の勅裁には朝鮮遣使を「中止」するとは書かれず、単に「延期」するとなっており、その理由も当時もっとも紛糾していたロシアとの問題のみを理由として掲げていたからである。
Because, the issue of diplomatic relations itself with Korea was unsolved, and there's a remains existence who was a Seikan-ha (supporters for subjugation of the Korea) like Masaharu IJICHI, and, in the imperial decision made by the emperor, it wasn't mentioned to 'cancel' dispatching an envoy to Korea, but simply said to 'postpone' it, and the reason they stated was only the problem with Russia that has been the most tangled at that time.

この条約の締結にはイギリス公使ハリー・パークスの仲介があったが、この条約には安政条約以来欧米各国が江戸幕府及び明治政府と締結した全ての不平等条約の規定の中でもっとも有利な条件が反映され、その内容は各国が日本と結んだ条約の最恵国待遇の規定によって全ての列強に対して適用されることとなった。
English Minister, Harry Parks mediated for the conclusion of this treaty, and among all the unfair treaties concluded between the Edo government and the Meiji government with Europe and the North America since the Ansei era treaty, the treaty contained the most advantageous conditions, the contents of which applied to all countries who had made 'Most Favored Nation Treatment' treaties with Japan.

明治政府が進める富国強兵路線を継承する次世代の政治家を育てる手段として中等以上の財産家を集めて新党を結成して地方自治において主導権を握るとともに、彼らに政治的経験を積ませて中央に進出させ、穏健な保守勢力を形成させることで、過激な自由民権派や国粋主義者の台頭を食い止める構想を打ち明けている。
He also introduced the concept of collecting the wealthy men above the middle class to establish a new political party having the central power in local districts, make them have seasoned political experience before dispatching to central political district to develop moderate conservative power to prevent the increase of school of the Freedom and People's Rights Movement and nationalist as means of providing the politicians of the next generation who will continue the policy of enhancing the wealth and military strength of a country sought by the Meiji government

だが、この事実が当時の幹部以外の軍部関係者には認識されず、大山・山縣は参謀総長として出席したと解されたらしく、以後の御前会議で統帥部が出席する根拠とされ、また事実と全く反するにも関わらず「政府の決定によって統帥部の決定がひっくり返された前例はない」とする'神話'が生み出されたと言われている。
However, this fact was not known to the military related person except for the executives at that time, OYAMA and YAMAGATA might have been considered to be attended the conference as the Chief of the General Staff, and this became an evidence for the supreme command staff to attend the later conference in the presence of the Emperor, and despite it was completely the opposite to the fact, 'a myth' was born saying 'there is no precedent that the decision of supreme command staff was overturned by the decision of the government'.

神道国教化政策との絡みや、キリスト教を解禁しても直ちに欧米が条約改正には応じないとする懐疑的な姿勢から来る、政府内の保守派の反対のみばかりでなく、宗教界や一般民衆からも「邪宗門」解禁に反対する声が強く紛糾したものの、明治6年（1873年）2月24日禁制の高札を除去し、その旨を各国に通告した。
The conservatives in the government opposed it because they thought that allowing Christianity could be an obstacle to establishing Shinto as a state religion, and because they doubted Europe and the United States would accept a revision of the unequal treaty immediately even if they lifted the ban on Christianity, but also because the religious world and people opposed it because they considered Christianity as 'Heresy,', but in any case the government lifted the ban on Christianity and announced it to foreign countries on February 24, 1873.

そこで2月30日に伊達の名において各国公使に対して政府は現在の通貨（公式にはそれが改税約書違反の悪貨とは認めなかった）を今後は鋳造せずに新貨幣の準備が整うまでは太政官札で対応していくこと、太政官以外の組織・個人はたとえ諸侯であっても貨幣を鋳造するものは処罰の対象となることを通知したのである。
Here, in the name of DATE, the government notified minsters from each country that Japan will not coin the current currency from now on (they did not formally recognize this as bad money violating the kaizeiyakusho), that the daijokan money would be used until the preparations for the new currency is completed, and that if organizations and individuals besides the daijokan coin currency, they will be subject to punishment, even if they are lords.

ところが、新政府は慶応4年1月10日にいわゆる「開国の詔」を出して諸外国に対して江戸幕府が締結した条約の継続を約束し、また五箇条の御誓文にて「旧来ノ陋習ヲ破リ」「智識ヲ世界ニ求メ」と述べ、続く五榜の掲示においても「万国公法履行」を掲げていたにも関わらず、攘夷については明確な否定をしなかった。
However, on January 10 1868, the new government promised to continue the treaty which Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) concluded for the foreign countries as ' an imperial rescript of opening of a country to the world' and although the government stated 'Knowledge shall be sought throughout the world' and 'Evil customs of the past shall be broken off' in the five charter oath and although they posted 'implementation of international law' in the next five notices, they didn't deny excluding foreigners clearly.

明治から昭和の戦前にかけては、富国強兵政策や身分が低いながらも関白太政大臣になったということで民衆の手本にしようという試みもあり、好意的に捉えられることが多かった（秀吉を肯定することで家康を貶め、しいては江戸幕府の評価を下げることで明治政府の正当性を高めるという側面もあったとも指摘される）。
From Meiji Period to prewar of Showa Period, there was an effort to show Hideyoshi as a model of people for the policy of increasing wealth and military power because he had promoted to Kanpaku Daijodaijin in spite of lowly origin; and he was often seen favorably (an aspect is pointed out that seeing Hideyoshi positively led to looking down Ieyasu and coming down Edo Shogunate, and that, as a result, it led to boosting up legitimacy of Meiji Government).

明治以後多くの現代語訳の試みがなされ、与謝野晶子や谷崎潤一郎の訳本が何度か出版されたが、昭和初期から「皇室を著しく侮辱する内容がある」との理由で、光源氏と藤壺女御の逢瀬などを二次創作物に書き留めたり上演することなどを政府から厳しく禁じられたこともあり、訳本の執筆にも少なからず制限がかけられていた。
After the Meiji period, many people tried to make modern translations, and translations by Akiko YOSANO and Junichiro TANIZAKI were published several times; however, beginning in the early Showa period the government prohibited the production or performance of stories adapted from the scene of a secret meeting of Hikaru Genji and Fujitsubo due to the reason that 'it includes a scene insulting to the Imperial Family,' so even the translation was restricted more than a little.

1868年に明治新政府が旧幕府領を天皇直轄領（天領）として府・県に編成した際に、大名領は天子たる天皇の「藩」であると観念されたこともあり、「藩」は新たに大名領の公称として採用され、藩主の居所（城持ち大名の場合は居城）の所在地の地名をもって「何某藩」という名前が正式の行政区分名となった（府藩県三治制）。
When the new Meiji government regionalized the former territories of the bakufu into prefectures called Fu or Ken as the direct control territories of the emperor (tenryo) in 1868, 'Han' was newly adopted as an official name for the daimyo's domains because the daimyo's domains were thought to be the emperor's 'Han', so 'XX Han' became the official way of calling administrative divisions, with the 'XX' for the Hanshu's location (or castle, if daimyo had one) (fu-han-ken sanchisei [fu-han-ken tripartite governance system].)

大隈はインフレーションに対応するための公債・紙幣の整理策を求められ、同年に「公債及び紙幣償還概算書」を作り1905年までの償還を計画したものの、翌年にはこれを改訂した「国債紙幣償却方法」（「減債方策」）を作成して、地方への支出抑制、間接税の増加、横浜正金銀行の設立などを行って政府資金の蓄積に尽くした。
Okuma was pressed to trim public bonds and paper money in order to deal with the inflation, so he drew up 'Estimate of redemption of public bond and paper money' in 1878 to stipulate a redemption plan which would be completed by 1905, but he revised it the very next year to create 'Measures to redeem government bonds and paper money' ('Measures to reduce bond') and committed himself in saving government funds by curbing spending on local issues, increasing indirect tax and establishing Yokohama Specie Bank.

そこで政府側では、イギリスのジョージ5世 (イギリス王)即位の際、即位直後であることを理由に自由党 (イギリス)と保守党 (イギリス)との政争をやめるよう命令して、それを実現させた話にならい、ちょうど大正天皇が即位して間もない頃だったので、勅語を出すという形で西園寺公望に対し政争を中止するように諭した。
Following the story of how the end of the political battle was realized because of the order that was given to stop the political battle between the Liberal Party (Britain) and the Conservative Party (Britain) using the coronation of George, the 5th (King of Britain) as a reason, the government advised, in the form of an ordinance of the Emperor, Kinmochi SAIONJI to stop the political battle since Emperor Taisho had just been enthroned as the Emperor.

なお、一説によれば、律令制における田租の原点は、神事の遂行のために在地首長（豪族）へ献上されていた初穂であったとされ、在地首長から政治的・宗教的権限を剥奪した朝廷（律令政府）がその初穂を自己に納めさせたものであり、不動穀化はそれを囲い込むことによって在地首長と田租を切り離す目的があったとも言われている。
In addition, according to a view, the starting point of the rice field tax of the ritsuryo system was the first crop of the season offered to the head of a province (powerful local clan) for doing a shrine ritual; the Imperial court which was based on the ritsuryo system took away the political and religious power from the powerful local clan and ordered the first crop of the season to be offered to the court and it is said that the system of fudokoku was to separate the rice field tax from the heads of local provinces.

だが、伊藤の盟友である井上馨外務大臣 (日本)が進めた条約改正案にあった「外国人裁判官」制度と鹿鳴館に代表される欧化政策が内外の反感を買い、自由民権運動による三大事件建白書や大同団結運動、保守中正派（天皇親政派）と見られた谷干城農商務大臣の辞任を招くなど、政府批判が一気に高まった（「明治20年の危機」）。
However, the policy of Europeanization represented by Rokumeikan and 'a foreigner judge' system, which was included in the amendment of the treaty promoted by Ito's sworn ally Kaoru INOUE, Minister of Foreign Affairs (Japan), antagonized inside and outside Japan, and criticism of the government was mounted rapidly due to the petition of three major affairs by democratic-rights movement, the movement to unite for a common purpose and the resignation of Tateki TANI, Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, who was thought to be a member of conservative political party (direct rule by the emperor party) ([The crisis of the 20th year of the Meiji era]).

古代（奈良時代、平安時代）から中世前期（鎌倉時代）における日本では、天皇を中心とした政治体制が維持されており、国家における天皇が政治を行っていた政府（御所）のことを意味することが多い（ただし、皇位から離れた天皇（太上天皇）が実質の政務を行う院政も「天皇家の当主」を中心としていることでは差異はほとんどない）。
In Japan, from the ancient times (the Nara Period, the Heian Period) to the early Middle Ages (the Kamakura Period), the political system centered on an emperor was kept, and the Imperial court often means the government (gosho, or the Imperial Palace) in which an emperor carried out politics (however, the Imperial court was similar to Cloister government in wich Daijo Tenno, a retired Emperor, carried out politics).

明治政府が明治元年（1868年）3月に発した太政官布告神仏分離令や明治3年（1870年）の大教宣布などの法令は、仏教排斥を意図したものではなかったが仏像・仏具の廃棄を神宮寺の社僧に抑圧されていた神職が暴力的に行い、檀家制度のもとで、寺院に搾取されていると感じる民衆がこれに加わり、各地に廃仏毀釈運動が起きた。
The Meiji Government issued the edict of Separation of Shinto and Buddhism by Dajokan (Grand Council of state) in March 1868, and the Imperial Edict for Establishment of Shinto in 1870, although they did not intend to exclude Buddhism, Shinto priests who were oppressed by the priests attached to Jingu-ji Temple abusively destroyed Buddha statues and Buddhist objects, and the people who felt being exploited by the temple under the danka (parishioner) system joined the movement then it led to the Haibutsu-kishaku Movement in various places.

慶應元年（1865年）11月からは大坂難波に設置された銭座でも鋳造が始まり4年（1868年）1月まで行われ、大政奉還の後、新政府に設立された貨幣司は慶應4年（1868年）4月23日より明治3年（1870年）8月5日までに63,913,752枚を鋳造し、天保6年からの総鋳造高は484,804,054枚とされる。
It was also minted in the gin-za located in Naniwa of Osaka from December 1865 to January 1868, and after the Taisei Hokan (transfer of power back to the Emperor), Kaheishi (a government office taking over the kin-za and the gin-za) established by the new government minted 63,913,752 coins from May 15, 1868 to August 31, 1870; therefore the total number of coins minted from 1835 is said to be 484,804,054.

しかし東京都が首都とみなされる理由としては、日本国憲法で「日本国の象徴であり日本国民統合の象徴」と規定される天皇が常在し、皇居が東京都に所在すること、同じく憲法で国会（立法府）、首相官邸や中央省庁（行政府）、最高裁判所（司法府）という三権の最高機関のいずれもが東京都（中でも千代田区）に所在することが挙げられる。
As for reasons supporting that Tokyo is regarded the Capital of Japan, two are generally given: the Emperor who is prescribed by Japanese Constitution as 'the symbol of Japan and the symbol of Japanese people's integration' is permanently stationed and the Imperial Palace is located in Tokyo, and also the highest organs of the three powers ruled by Japanese Constitution such as the Diet (legislature), the prime minister's official residence and central government ministries and agencies (administration) and the Supreme Court (administration of justice) are located in Tokyo (they are especially concentrated in Chiyoda Ward).

明治政府は、1870年の平民苗字許容令、1872年（明治5年）の壬申戸籍編纂の二段階によって「氏（シ、うじ）＝姓（セイ、本姓）＝苗字＝名字」の一元化を成し遂げ、旧来の氏（ウヂ）・姓（カバネ）を公称することを自ら廃止したため、事実上、「藤原」などの旧来の氏（ウヂ）・「朝臣」などの姓（カバネ）は、その役割を完全に終えた。
The use of traditional uji including 'Fujiwara' and kabane including 'ason' was banned and finished its role when the Meiji Government was able to unify the 'uji = family name' by issuing the order to allow all commoners to have family names in 1870 and the compilation of Jinshin-koseki (family registries in Jinshin) in 1872.

この声明書の中で、「これまでの朝鮮の歴史の悲劇は自分達が招いたことであり、我が国の皇帝陛下と日本天皇陛下に懇願し、朝鮮人も日本人と同じ一等国民の待遇を享受して、政府と社会を発展させようではないか」と、大韓帝国と大日本帝国が新たに一つの政治機関を設立し、大韓帝国と大日本帝国が対等合邦して一つの大帝国を作るように求めた。
In the statement, it says 'Tragedies in Korean history are our own fault, so we would like to plead to our Emperor and the Emperor of Japan to give Koreans the opportunity to enjoy the same treatment as the first class citizens of Japan. We ask the Japanese to develop our government and society' and suggest the Korean Empire and the Empire of Japan establish a new unified political body together and create a new empire by equal merger of both Empires.

しかし、これらの政党は対外政策では一定の一致をみていたものの、国内政策では国粋主義的な大日本協会や国民協会から自由民権運動の中でも急進派である東洋自由党まで幅広い勢力を含んでいたために、政府あるいは衆議院第2党の自由党 (明治)あるいは後に同党と伊藤博文系官僚勢力が合同した立憲政友会に対する批判でしか一致をみなかった。
Although these political parties agreed certain points in external policy, in the internal policy these parties, which included nationalistic Dainihon Association, National Association, and the East Liberal Party which was a leftist among the Freedom and People's Rights Movement, agreed each other only in the point of criticism against the government, the Liberal Party which was the second party of House of Representatives (in Meiji Period), or the Rikken seiyukai (a political party organized by Hirobumi ITO) which was established from the alliance of the Liberal Party and the governmental bureaucratic in the side of Hirobumi ITO.

金完燮の『親日派のための弁明』（2002）では、一進会の運動を、李氏朝鮮政府の圧政をはねのけようとする農民階級（東学党→進歩会）と、支配階級出身で朝鮮の近代化をめざす改革派知識人グループ（維新会）、そして朝鮮近代化を支援することで「攻撃的な防御」を確保しようとする日本、の3つの改革勢力が結集されたものとして高く評価している。
In 'Explanation for the sake of pro-Japan' by Kim Wansop (2002), the author highly evaluated the Isshinkai's movement, comparing their movment with a concentration of three revolutionary powers consisted of peasants who tried to reject the oppression of Joseon Dynasty Government (Togaku-to => Shinpo-kai), the group consisted of revolutionary intellectuals from governing class aimed at modernization of Korea (Ishin-kai) and Japan which tried to secure the 'aggressive protection' by supporting the modernization of Korea.

だが、一向に新政府からの音沙汰がないのに不満を抱いた伊藤は、薩長土肥の藩主が版籍奉還の上表を行ったという報を聞きつけ、部下である県判事の中島、権判事の田中、同じく英学者で県出仕（顧問に相当する）の何と相談して建白書の提出を図り、これに偶々伊藤と面識を持った陸奥も加わって5人連名で提出したのが6ヶ条からなる『国是綱目』であった。
However, Ito was frustrated because he had not heard a word from the new government, and once he caught a news that the lord of the domains (Satsuma, Choshu, Tosa, Hizen) submitted the memorial to the emperor that they would return their lands and people to the emperor, Ito planned to submit the petition with his subordinates, Nakajima (Assistant Judicial Officer), Tanaka (Assistant Judicial Officer), Ga (Scholar of English, served for prefecture as an advisor), and also Mutsu who happened to get to know Ito joined them, and they all submitted in their five joint names 'kokuzekomoku' which was composed of the six points.

一方で政府と軍の各部署の間の有機的な連係が藩閥によって形成されていたという側面もあり、昭和に入り試験や育成機関から採用された官僚や軍人が部署の実権を掌握するようになると縦割り的弊害が甚だしくなり国家の方針が定まらず迷走することになり、藩閥の消滅による緊張感の低下が政党の腐敗を招き、官僚や軍部に迎合するようになったと見る説もある。
On the other hand, an organic tie between the government and departments of the Army was formed by the domain clique, so there is a view that when bureaucrats and military men who were employed through examinations and training institutions in the Showa period held actual power of their departments, red tape swelled causing the national policy to keep straying unsettled and decreased sense of tension without domain clique brought corruption of the political parties and made them pander to bureaucrats and the military.

更に1887年4月4日に久宮静子内親王が亡くなったにも関わらず、4月20日に首相官邸で仮装舞踏会を開催（ただし、実際は駐英公使の依頼により会場を貸しただけであった）し、4月26日に井上馨邸で天覧歌舞伎が行われた事に対する非難から、仮装舞踏会では政府高官による婦女暴行が行われているという風説（三島通庸の記録より）まで飛んだのである。
In addition, even a rumor went around that government officials sexually assaulted women in the fancy ball (according to the record of Michitsune MISHIMA) because they were accused of holding a costume ball in the prime minister's official residence on April 20 despite the death of Imperial Princess Shizuko HISANOMIYA on April 4, 1887, (in fact, they merely let a venue for the dance at the request of the minister to Britain), and were also accused of taking place Tenran Kabuki (Kabuki the royal family attend to watch) in the house of Kaoru INOUE on April 26.

その一方で、パークスが談判を仕切ったためにフランス公使によって出された損害賠償要求は事実上無視され、大隈の通貨改革についての異論は公使達からも三条・岩倉ら太政官首脳からも出されること無く、内外からの承認を得る形となり、結果的には明治政府による自主的な通貨改革そのものについては、大隈案に沿った形での方針が認められることになったのである。
On the other hand, because Parkes ran the negotiation, the claim for loss put out by the French minister was virtually ignored, and objections to OKUMA's currency reform did not occur by the ministers or the heads of the Daijokan, such as SANJYO and IWAKURA, leading to an agreement from both Japan and foreign countries, and as a result the independent currency reform by the Meiji Government itself was accepted to take the shape of a policy in accordance with OKUMA's proposal.

これは、ロシア側へいかなる弱みともなることをも秘密にしようとした日本政府の政策に加え、新聞以下マスコミ各社が日清戦争を引き合いに出して戦争に対する国民期待を否応なしに煽ったために修正がきかなくなっていたこともあり、国民の多くは戦争をしている国力の実情を知らされず、目先の勝利によってロシアが簡単に屈服させられたように錯覚した反動から来ているものである。
The discrepancy between popular sentiment and government policy is due to the fact that the Japanese Government adopted a stringent policy of secrecy to keep any information that could reveal national weaknesses from falling into Russian hands; The media including newspapers used the example of the Japanese victory in the Sino-Japanese War to fan the flames of war without regard to national sentiment, and inadvertantly built up jingoistic mood which could not be easily reversed; and finally, the majority of citizens were not aware of the true nature of Japan's national strength and erroneously believed that Japan easily defeated Russia in battle.

この会派は陸軍右派として排除された「四将軍派」のうち谷・曾我・鳥尾が揃った（残りの三浦梧楼は三曜会に属した）事に代表されるように国粋主義色の強い右派が多く、藩閥政府――特に伊藤博文に対しては国家の混乱を招いた人物として敵対意識が強く、また山縣有朋系の会派に移行した研究会の方針に不満を抱いて懇話会の結成に参加した者もおり、この両者に対する反発が根強かった。
In this faction, there were many members with right wing who had strong nationalism including the 'four Shogun group' such as TANI, SOGA and TORIO (but Goro MIURA belonged to the Sanyo-kai) who had been removed as army right wing and they felt hostile toward the Hanbatsu Government, especially Hirobumi ITO as a person who led to national disruption, and also there were some members who were dissatisfied with the Kenkyu-kai policy that was shifted into that of the faction with Aritomo YAMAGATA.

留守政府は岩倉使節団派遣中は人事を凍結する約束であり、西郷隆盛に調整役としての期待が大きかったが、西郷自身が「強兵」を維新の主軸に置いており、「強兵」を推進しようとする山縣有朋に対しては自説の士族主体の志願兵構想を撤回して彼の構想する徴兵制の確立に協力し、山城屋事件で山縣が辞任に追い込まれた時でさえ、これを擁護して山縣追い落としを図る薩摩出身者を宥めている。
Rusu-seifu had promised to freeze personnel affairs during the absence of Iwakura Mission and Takamori SAIGO had been greatly expected to work as a coordinator, but SAIGO placed 'kyohei (powerful army)' as one of the top priorities of the Restoration, supported Aritomo YAMAGATA, who was promoting 'kyohei,' to establish a plot of the conscription system instead of realizing SAIGO's own idea of the warrior-class-centered volunteer system, and persuaded people from Satsuma not to throw YAMAGATA out of power even when YAMAGATA came to a crisis of being forced to step down due to the Yamashiroya incident.

4月下旬に始まった帝国議会において、ロンドン海軍軍縮会議締結に対し、軍令部が要求していた、補助艦の対米比7割に満たないとして条約締結拒否を言ったにもかかわらず、この条約を結んだことを理由に、野党の立憲政友会総裁の犬養毅と鳩山一郎が衆議院で、「軍令部の反対意見を無視した条約調印は統帥権の干犯である」と政府を攻撃、続いて枢密院議長倉富勇三郎もこれに同調する動きを見せた。
Despite the Army demanded to reject the conclusion of the treaty of London Naval Conference on Disarmament, at the Imperial Diet opened in the latter half of April, because the proportion of the auxiliary ships unreached to 70 percent comparing to that of the United States, the government concluded the treaty, so that Tsuyoshi INUKAI, the President of the Opposition Rikken seiyukai, and Ichiro HATOYAMA attacked the government at the House of Representatives appealing 'The conclusion of the treaty ignoring the opposite opinion given by the Army means the interference and violate of supreme command,' and following that the Chairman of the Privy Council Yuzaburo KURATOMI showed his attitude to sympathize with that.

彼ら急進派の政府転覆計画は結局は具現化をみるには至らなかったが、その後発生した1884年（明治17年）6月の群馬事件は、群馬県の下部自由党 (明治)員が、妙義山麓に困窮に苦しむ農民を結集し、圧制打倒の兵をあげようとしたものであり、さらに同年9月に発生した加波山事件は、茨城県の加波山に爆裂弾で武装した16人の急進的な民権運動家が挙兵し、警官隊と衝突するというものであった。
After all the plot of overthrowing the government of the radicals was not realized, but in subsequent Gunma Incident occurred in June 1884, local members of the Liberal Party (Meiji period) in Gunma Prefecture, gathering peasants in poverty at the foot of Mt. Myogi, tried to raise an army against suppression and furthermore in Kabasan Incident occurred in September of the same year sixteen democratic radicals armed with bombs raised an army and encountered the police force.

また、旧薩摩藩士の心情として、鹿児島属廠の火薬・弾丸・武器・製造機械類は藩士が醵出した金で造ったり購入したりしたもので、一朝事があって必要な場合、藩士やその子孫が使用するものであると考えられていた事もあり、私学校徒は中央政府が泥棒のように薩摩の財産を搬出した事に怒るとともに、当然予想される衝突に備えて武器・弾薬を入手するために、夜、草牟田火薬庫を襲って弾丸・武器類を奪取した。
Since all the gunpowder, bullets, arms, and making machinery in the Kagoshima arsenal had been constructed or purchased with the money contributed by the then retainers of the Satsuma Domain, the former retainers took it for granted that these things were to be used by the retainers and their descendants in an emergency; therefore, because the Shigakko students got angry with the central government for carrying the domain's property out from there like a thief and for the purpose of being prepared with arms and ammunition for a possible conflict with the central government, they made a night attack on the powder house at Somuta and seized bullets and arms.

だが、藩主が非世襲の知藩事に変わり（ただし、実際には事実上の改易処分を受けた福岡藩などの例外を除いては、世襲の後継者がそのまま後任とされている）、陪臣である藩士も知藩事と同じ朝廷（明治政府）の家臣（「王臣」）とされる事で、朱子学に基づいた武士道（近代以後の「武士道」とは違う）によって位置づけられてきた主君（藩主）と家臣（藩士）の主従関係を否定することになるものであり、諸藩の抵抗も予想された。
However, the lord of a domain changed to a non-hereditary Chihanji, (note that in fact, apart from the Fukuoka domain, whose rank changed by the 'kaieki' sanction (sudden dismissal and deprivation of position, privileges and properties) successors were of heredity) and since feudal retainers of the domain, who were baishin (indirect vassals) were also considered vassals (vassas of the king)of the Imperial Court (Meiji government), which are the same as Chihanji, it contradicted the relationship between the lord and vassal that was established by Bushido (the way of the samurai) based on Shushigaku (Neo-Confucianism) so resistance by domains were expected.

つまり、門閥、閨閥政治や中華思想また小中華思想など民族（人種）差別、日本蔑視思想で、「平等」の精神に真っ向から反する思想、親子（姑、嫁）が血みどろの権力闘争を繰り広げ、そのために事大主義に走り独立心がなく外交の一貫性がないこと、と福澤諭吉らから見れば、そう見える朝鮮王朝政府に対し、「天は人の上に人をつくらず...」（『学問のすゝめ』)とする思想を重んじる立場から「脱亜論」に至ったのだ、という解釈がある。
For Fukuzawa, the government of the Korean Dynasties appeared to be totally against 'Equality' by discrimination by putting too much value on lineage and Keibatsu blood connection, Sinocentrism or petit Sinocentrism and disrespect for Japan as well as families repeating bloody strife over authority, no intention to be independent with their Sadaejuui policy and no consistency in their diplomacy; these things led him to write 'Datsu-A Ron' with his standpoint of 'ten wa hito no ue ni hito o tsukurazu...' (The heavens do not create Man above his station...) ('Gakumon no Susume' [An Encouragement of Learning]).

その後、通貨改革によって正貨・贋貨を問わず全ての現行貨幣を引き揚げて早急に（既に大隈より明治5年11月までという案が出されていた）に引き換えを行うこと、応急措置として外国人の所持する二分金（実は一番問題となっていた政府及び諸藩発行の悪貨・贋貨でもあった）の検査を行って、封包を行って検印を施し、それを行ったものについてはたとえ贋貨であっても正貨と等価による納税または交換を認めることを了承させられたのである。
After this, the Japanese government was forced to consent to pulling out all current currency, regardless of it being specie or counterfeit (it was already proposed by OKUMA that this would be done by May 11), and exchanging it immediately, and as a temporary measure, the nibukin owned by foreigners (this bad money/counterfeit issued by the government and domains was the biggest problem) were to be examined, encapsulated, put a stamp of approval, and handed out, and those that went though this were to be accepted as tax payment or exchange equivalent to the specie even if it was counterfeit.

明治4年7月14日 (旧暦)（1871年8月29日）に断行された廃藩置県の後始末が済まないうちに、岩倉使節団の計画が持ち上がり最終的に岩倉具視・大久保利通・木戸孝允ら明治政府を主導してきた首脳の多くが加わる一大使節団となったことから、使節団の外遊中の留守を守るとともに廃藩置県の後始末を行うための組織として太政大臣三条実美を筆頭に西郷隆盛・井上馨・大隈重信・板垣退助・江藤新平・大木喬任らによって結成された。
The Iwakura Mission project came up before the completion of Haihan-chiken (abolition of feudal domains and establishement of prefectures) that had been set about on August 29, 1871, in the project Tomomi IWAKURA, Toshimichi OKUBO, Takayoshi KIDO and many other leaders of the Meiji government finally joined the great delegation, and therefore the Establishment was organized by Grand Minister Sanetomi SANJO at its head, Takamori SAIGO, Kaoru INOUE, Shigenobu OKUMA, Taisuke ITAGAKI, Shinpei ETO and Takao OKI in order to protect the nation and to settle the affairs of Haihan-chiken while the Iwakura Mission was traveling abroad officially.

自由民権運動は政府の弾圧によって衰微し、自由党_(明治)は解党、立憲改進党も休止状態にあったが、1887年にいわゆる三大事件建白運動が発生すると、かつての自由党の領袖である後藤象二郎は自由民権運動各派が再結集して来るべき第1回衆議院議員総選挙に臨み、帝国議会に議会政治の打ち立てて条約改正や地租・財政問題という難題にあたるべきだと唱え、3月に旧自由党・立憲改進党の主だった人々に呼びかけたのがきっかけである。
The Freedom and People's Rights Movement once declined because of the government's oppression, which led Liberal Party (Meiji Period) to dissolve and the Constitutional Progressive Party to halt its activities, but in 1887, when so called the petition movement of three major events happened, Shojiro GOTO, a leader of former Liberal Party, advocated the reunion of factions of the Freedom and People's Rights Movement to prepare for upcoming of the first House of Representatives election and he called for the establishment of parliamentary government within the Imperial Diet to deal with difficult problems such as treaty revision, a land tax, and financial affairs; in March of the same year, he got principal members of former Liberal Party and the Constitutional Progressive Party to participate, which triggered the movement to unite for a common purpose.

地租改正も田畑永代売買禁止令の廃止の方向が定まった明治4年9月に大久保利通（大蔵卿）と井上馨（同大輔）によってその方針（「地所売買放禁分一収税施設之儀正院伺」）が正院に諮られ、使節団出発直前に井上と吉田清成によってその原案が作成されていた（そもそも明治政府が実施した初期の施策で岩倉使節団出発前に構想として存在しなかったのは、出発後に井上と吉田によって初めて構想され、使節団帰国後に政策として形成された最後に相当する秩禄処分のみであったと言われている）。
The policy of land-tax reform ('Chisyobaibai-houkinbunnitu-syuzeisisetunogi-seiinshi') was presented by Toshimichi OKUBO (Minister of the Treasury) and Kaoru INOUE (Vice-minister of the Treasury) to the Central State Council in October, 1871, when abolition of denpataeitaibaibaikinshirei (a ban on buying and selling fields) was decided, and its draft plan had been already made by INOUE and Kiyonari YOSHIDA just before the delegation's departure (Among early measures of the Meiji government, only Chitsuroku-shobun (Abolition Measure of Hereditary Stipend) was elaborated by INOUE and YOSHIDA after Iwakura Mission departed and formulated as a policy after the Mission returned to Japan).