強: 1000 Terms and Phrases
- あくが強い
- having a strong alkaline taste
- harsh to the taste
- excessively strong-willed
- fiercely individualistic
- strongly idiosyncratic
- 列強の思惑
- Calculation of World Powers
- 日清戦争と欧州列強
- Japanese-Sino War and European Powers
- 自然法的理解の強調
- Emphasis on understanding of natural law
- Emphasized understanding based on natural law
- 住民は強制的に立ち退き
- Residents in those areas were forcibly ordered to move out of their homes.
- 熊本城強襲と小倉電撃作戦
- Storming Kumamoto Castle and Kokura Blitz Tactics
- 山陽鉄道列車強盗殺人事件
- Robbery and Murder on the Sanyo Railway Train
- 住民は強制的に立ち退き。
- Residents were forcibly ordered to move out of their homes.
- 二札徒党・強訴・逃散禁止
- 2. Forbid conspiracy, direct petition, and chosan (fleet the fields to the other districts to evade onerous taxes.)
- 大きかった代償と列強の駐兵
- Big Compensations and Troops Stationed by the Powers
- 3. 他の氏族との関係強化
- 3. Strengthening of relationship with other clan
- 彼女は権勢欲が人一倍強かった。
- She had unusually strong lust for the reins of power.
- 事件後は浪士取締りが強化する。
- Control over the roshi became stricter after the incident.
- 国家による民有地の半強制的買上げ、
- Semi-compulsory purchase of private lands by the state.
- 「辛亥年七月中記」中国的要素が強い。
- It is inscribed in July of the Shingai year' sounds like Chinese very much.
- しかし、相手は強大国・ロシアである。
- But the enemy was a large strong country, Russia.
- 独立運動の監視体制はむしろ強化された。
- The surveillance system against the independence movement was more strengthened.
- 文人は隠逸への強い志向を持つとされる。
- It is said that Bunjin had a strong tendency to lead a reclusive life.
- 極めて強い勢力を誇るようになっていた。
- The sect attained great power and influence.
- ─ 指揮長児玉強之助、一番小隊隊長坂元敬介
- Commander: Kyonosuke KODAMA, Leader of the 1st platoon: Keisuke SAKAMOTO
- 広嗣はこれを左遷と感じ、強い不満を抱いた。
- Hirotsugu felt this demotion transfer and was greatly displeased.
- 徴兵や植民地支配強化を目的とした政策である。
- It was a policy with a purpose of conscription and reinforcement of colonial occupation.
- 仇討ちを強硬に主張し独自の行動をとっていた。
- He acted independently, strongly determined on revenge.
- 神仏習合の動きが強まったのがこの時期である。
- It was also the period when syncretism of Shinto and Buddhism started.
- 朱子学の思想は、近代日本にも強い影響を与えた。
- The thought of Neo-Confucianism had a strong influence on modern Japan.
- このように、小中華主義的な色彩を強くしていた。
- As seen in the above, it had the aspect of sho-chuka shiso (mini-Sinocentrism).
- 黒田は強引に天皇の裁許を得て払下げを決定した。
- Having obtained the Emperor's approval forcibly, KURODA decided to sell the properties.
- 強力な茎をもつ作物を生育する場合(リーキなど)
- The case that a product with a strong stem is grown (such as leek)
- しかし現実には社会的な差別は根強く残存していた。
- The reality, however, was that there existed a deep-rooted discrimination in the society.
- 日本は十万坪強の居留地を設定し、領事館を置いた。
- Japan established a settlement covering 330,000m², and constructed a consular office there.
- そこで朝廷は、まず国防力の増強を図ることとした。
- As a result, the Imperial Court began to build up national defenses.
- ただし、実際は太政官の強い管理下におかれていた。
- However, in fact, it was put under the strong management of Daijokan (Grand Council of State).
- 無論士族に強制されてやむなく、という平民もいた。
- Needless to say, some Heimin were forced by Shizoku.
- ともに内閣総理大臣の権限を強化するものであった。
- Both of the above changes were enacted in order to strengthen the Prime Minister's power and authority.
- このようにして地頭は領地の支配権を強めていった。
- In this way, the Jito gradually strengthened their control of the territories.
- しかし、長宗我部の侵略に際しては頑強に抵抗した。
- When Chosokabe invaded however, they made a strong resistance.
- この唐風が非常に強い文化を弘仁・貞観文化という。
- The culture which was strongly influenced by the Tang dynasty is called Konin-Jogan Culture.
- 平安初期の中央文化は、唐の影響を強く受けていた。
- The central culture of the early Heian period was strongly affected by the Tang dynasty.
- 本協約は脅迫に基づいて強制的に調印させた条約である
- The treaty was a treaty in which the signing was forced under threat.
- 文永の役後、幕府は博多湾の防備を強化しようとした。
- After Bunei no Eki, bakufu intended to strengthen the defense of Hakata Bay.
- 京大当局も学生の抗議行動に対し強硬な態度で臨んだ。
- The authorities of Kyoto University were also severe with the students' protest.
- それらは、中国律令制の強い影響を受けたものである。
- The plans were largely influenced by the Chinese Ritsuryo system.
- 彼は唐と友好関係を強化しようとしていたと思われる。
- It is thought that he was trying to strengthen relationships with the Tang Dynasty.
- 日清戦争直後の朝鮮半島では改革派の勢いが強かった。
- The reformist group gained power in the Korean Peninsula immediately after the Sino-Japanese War.
- 事件の発生は、列強への反感を次第に募らせていった。
- The outbreak of these incidents gradually build up antipathy toward the allied western powers.
- 以後、平氏政権はますます軍事的な色彩を強めていく。
- From this point onwards, the military color of the Taira clan administration became more prominent.
- こうして守護には強大な権限が集中することとなった。
- Like this, great power and authority were given to shugos.
- こうして長年にわたり強盛を誇った蘇我本宗家は滅びた。
- This was how the tyranny exercised by the head family of the Soga clan over the years was ended.
- 支那は勢力が強くもなく、君臣の義が守られてもいない。
- China has no strong power or bonds between lords and vassals.
- 一条氏は七守護の3倍強の力を持って土佐政治に関与した。
- The Ichijo clan took part in political affairs in Tosa with the power that was approximately three times of that of nanashugo.
- 8世紀前半は、律令制強化への動きが積極的に展開された。
- In the first half of the eight century, the move to strengthen the Ritsuryo system became active.
- 朝鮮と西欧列強との出会いは、概ね芳しいものではなかった。
- The encounters between Korea and Western European countries were generally not satisfactory.
- 谷中村は1906年に強制廃村となり、藤岡町に合併された。
- In 1906, Yanaka Village was ceased to exist by the order and merged into Fujioka-machi.
- その後ヤマト王権は対外指向が弱まり、内向性が強くなった。
- After that, the Yamato Kingdom became less foreign-orientated and more inward-looking.
- これは強盗であり持ち物を奪われた上に車外に放り出された。
- The geisha was robbed of her belongings and was thrown out of the car.
- しばしば大名が就任した(開幕初期はその傾向が特に強い)。
- Often a daimyo was installed as a ban-gashira (especially, such tendency was often seen during the early years of the Edo bakufu).
- 信長は仕方なく、三方の監視のみを強化して一旦兵を引いた。
- Helplessly, Nobunaga made the soldiers withdraw while strengthening the three-side surveillance.
- だが、国司・荘園領主達の反発が強く、翌年には撤回された。
- Resistance among provincial governors and the lords of shoen was fierce, however, so the following year this authority was revoked.
- However, he faced strong opposition from Kokushi (provincial governor) and lords of the manor and this right was taken back in the following year.
- 清盛一族はさらに権力を強化し、ついに平氏政権を樹立した。
- The Kiyomori family gained further power and finally established the Taira clan administration.
- また、その様式には強く唐風の物があり、奈良とは異なった。
- In contrast to the Nara period, the Heian style was strongly influenced by the Tang dynasty.
- 西欧列強の対日条約のいずれにも、これに類似する項目は無い。
- None of the treaties between Japan and the powerful countries of Western Europe included similar provisions to this.
- また、薩長らの強硬な動きに在京の諸藩代表の動揺が広がった。
- The adamant move of Satsuma and Choshu Domains spread disturbance among the representatives of many domains in Kyoto.
- 交換の際、日本は樺太のアイヌ民族を北海道に強制移住させた。
- When the land exchange took place based on the treaty, Japanese government forcibly transferred the Ainu in Sakhalin to Hokkaido.
- この強襲中の昼過ぎ、遅れて西郷が川尻から代継宮に到着した。
- Around early afternoon during the attack, SAIGO arrived at Yotsugimiya from Kawajiri after the army.
- 取り調べで特に拷問や自白の強要が行われたという記録はない。
- There is no record of torture or forced confession during the examination.
- 列強への「宣戦布告」の際には「現在我が中国は積弱極まった。
- At the 'proclamation of war', Empress Dowager declared 'our country of China has been gradually weakened.
- 1966年2月22日、京都地方裁判所が強制執行停止を決定。
- On February 22, 1966, the Kyoto District Court decided to discontinue compulsory execution.
- この集落は、朝鮮半島南部の影響を強く受けて、成立したものか。
- This settlement's style was probably made with the strong influence from that in the southern area of Korean Peninsula.
- 盗賊(強盗)、追い剥ぎ、詐欺などの犯罪に科された刑罰である。
- This form of capital punishment was imposed for robbery (forcible burglary), brigandage, and fraud, etc.
- 台南において地元民(高山族)を中心とする頑強な抵抗が続いた。
- Obstinate resistance mainly by local people (mainly by Kao-shan Tribe) continued in Tainan,
- これには欧米列強による植民地化を免れるという大前提があった。
- The major premise of the above was to prevent the nation from being colonized by western powers.
- されに、より強力な政権へ成長したことの現れだと解されている。
- Historians and other experts believe that the disappearance of the keyhole-shaped mounds, during this historical period, was dependant upon and directly related to the impact of 'Yamato sovereignty' gaining greater political power.
- 礼儀による秩序を構築・強化する為に以下のような施策を行った。
- In order to establish and enhance public order through the courtesies, the following measures were taken:
- 義盟に加わり、強硬な急進派として活動したが、最初に脱盟した。
- Despite joining the group and actively working as a radical, he was the first to withdraw his allegiance.
- こうした戦国大名による強固な領国支配体制を大名領国制という。
- Such strong control by sengoku daimyo over their own territory is called a daimyo-ryogoku system (the system in which daimyos control feudal domains).
- 更に辛亥革命の影響もあって陸軍_(日本)の増強圧力が高まった。
- In addition to that, the impact of the Xinhai Revolution increased the pressure to build up the Japanese army.
- また、内務大臣、府県知事などの監督権が強く、自治権は弱かった。
- In addition, the Minister of Home Affairs and prefectural governors had the strong right to supervise, while autonomy was not sufficiently granted.
- 天武天皇は改革を進めてより強力な中央集権体制を築くことになる。
- Emperor Tenmu advanced reforms to build a stronger centralized administrative system.
- 12月、義仲は後白河法皇に強要して頼朝追討の院宣を発出させる。
- In December, Yoshinaka forced the Cloistered Emperor Goshirakawa to issue a command from a retired Emperor to track down and kill Yoritomo.
- 畿内では惣村の形成が著しく、民衆の団結・自立の傾向が強かった。
- In the Kinai region, the formation of soson was tremendous and the common people's tendency for solidarity and independence was strong.
- 井伊家には警告が届いていたが、直弼はあえて護衛を強化しなかった。
- The Ii family had received a prior warning about his safety, but Naosuke refused to strengthen his protection.
- これは当時日本自身が欧米列強から強く要求されていたものであった。
- This was exactly the same as the strong request from the western powers imposed on Japan in those days.
- 結果的にはより強硬な運動弾圧策に乗り出す環境を整える事となった。
- As a result, this made the government take more severe oppressive measures against the movement.
- 日本による台湾統治は武力による支配という様相を強めることとなる。
- Japanese governance over Taiwan, in effect, took on the aspect of military control.
- 19世紀なかばから東アジア世界に西欧列強による脅威が迫ってきた。
- East Asia had been facing threats from Western powers since the middle of the 19th century.
- しかし、ロシアは強大な軍事力を背景に日本への圧力を増していった。
- However, Russia increased pressure on Japan with its massive military power.
- 室町時代の守護は検断権だけでなく更に強力な統治権限が認められた。
- In the Muromachi Period, Shugo was given not only the right to judge criminal cases but also more powerful authority of administration.
- こうして、建築はもっぱら工学的な学問と考えられる風潮が強まった。
- As a result, there developed a tendency to view architecture solely as an engineering concept.
- 遣隋使・遣唐使の時代になると、中国の建築様式の影響が強くなった。
- The influence of Chinese architectural style grew during the Sui and Tong Dynasties when Japanese envoys were sent to China.
- このため焼成温度(800~900度)が低く、強度があまりなかった。
- Therefore, the firing temperature was as low as 800 to 900 degrees C and the earthenware was not very hard.
- 明治以降は、列強である欧米からの影響を受け、西洋文明を受け入れた。
- After the Meiji period, there was assimilation of Western Civilization, being influenced by powerful countries in Europe and America.
- 戦争後、欧米列強各国は清の弱体化を見て取り、中国分割に乗り出した。
- After the war Western powers took the opportunity of weakening Qing to start divisions in China.
- しかし一度破堤したことで籠城側は神威を信じ、粘り強く抵抗していた。
- However, a break of the enemy's bank made the besieged believe the power of god, so that it continued to fight with patience.
- 改めて強調するまでも無く、義和団の乱は国内外に様々な影響を残した。
- Obviously, the Boxer Rebellion had various effects within and outside the nation.
- 日本は開国により帝国主義時代の欧米列強と国際関係を持つこととなる。
- By opening the country, Japan established international relationships with the allied western powers of imperialism.
- 役高に規定される番士の軍役から計算した総兵力は400人強となった。
- The total military forces calculated by the number of banshi who joined the military service which was decided on the basis of the yakudaka (the amount of the person's fief) were over four hundreds.
- そこから尼子軍の本陣を強襲したところ尼子勢は総崩れとなり敗走した。
- They stormed the troop headquarters of the Amago army from the top of Fubeyama, and the Amago army broke down and ran away.
- 翌日の夜明けには長篠城包囲の要であった鳶ヶ巣山砦を後方より強襲した。
- The following day, at dawn, they suddenly attacked the fort on Mt. Tobigasu, the keystone of the besiege on the castle, from behind.
- この銘文には、治天下、八十たび、十握などの強い日本調が混じっている。
- This inscription contains highly Japanese style of expression such as chitenka (under the rule), yasotabi (eighty times), totsuka (length of ten fists)
- これを受け倭国内部では、国制整備・国力増強への志向が急速に強まった。
- Following this failure, aspirations to develop a domestic system and nationalistic powers rapidly intensified in Wakoku.
- 殉死者が自殺する場合と、体制側が強制的に殉死者を選別する場合がある。
- There are two cases of junshi: in one case, a person voluntarily kills himself or herself and in the other case, a regime selects a person to perform junshi compulsorily.
- ところがロシアは履行期限を過ぎても撤退を行わず駐留軍の増強を図った。
- Russsia, however, did not withdraw its troops even after the promised deadline had passed; on the contrary, it planned to reinforce its occupation.
- 強制的な年季奉公の廃止など、公娼制度を大規模に制限する法令であった。
- The law provided major restrictions to government-approved prostitution by abolishing forced apprenticeship.
- 但し、秋田城は放棄されず、軍事機能を強化して国司が駐在して指揮した。
- But Akita-jo Castle was not abandoned; with its military functions being reinforced, a provincial governor resided and took the initiative.
- 日清戦争・日露戦争や第一次世界大戦で世界の列強と渡り合い、勝利した。
- Japan won the Japanese-Sino War, Japanese-Russo War and the First World War, fighting against powerful countries around the world.
- 貞昌の家臣・鳥居強右衛門が密かに脱出し、岡崎城の家康に後詰を要請した。
- Suneemon TORII, a vassal of Sadamasa, secretly escaped from the castle, and asked Ieyasu in Okazaki-jo Castle to send reinforcements.
- 強盗ではなく窃盗の場合でも、十両盗めば死罪と公事方御定書で規定された。
- Kujigata-osadamegaki (the code of law under the Edo shogunate) provided that shizai is imposed on theft, even when not involving violence against victims, so long as the amount stolen is 10 ryo (Currency unit of the Edo Period).
- この案では損害もでず、また高麗の統治強化および南宋と日本の分断が可能。
- This plan could strengthen its governing power in Goryeo and isolate the Southern Sung Dynasty and Japan from each other, without suffering any damage.
- 日本政府には、列強三か国に対抗する力は無かったため、これを受け入れた。
- The Japanese government reluctantly agreed to the intervention, as it had no power to militarily resist the three major European powers.
- また根来衆と通称される強力な僧兵武力を擁し、大量の鉄砲を装備していた。
- In addition, it held a strong military force of armed priests which were commonly called Negoro shu and equipped with a large amount of guns.
- ─ 岩切喜次郎・児玉強之助ら(3個小隊)、佐々友房ら(熊本隊3個小隊)
- Kijiro IWAKIRI, Kyonosuke KODAMA, and others (three platoons), Tomofusa SASSA and others (three platoons of the Kumamoto-tai troop)
- 西南戦争の教訓から、徴兵兵士に対する精神教育を重視する傾向が強まった。
- From the lessons obtained through the Seinan War, the tendency of emphasizing moral education for conscripted soldiers became stronger.
- ところが北宋の時代には、北方に遼・金 (王朝)の強大な王朝が出現した。
- However, in the Northern Sung dynasty era, strong dynasties like Liao and Jin appeared in the northern region.
- 日本の後押しを受けていた開化派政権は崩壊し、ロシアの影響力が強まった。
- Kaika group's government supported by Japan fell apart while Russia's influence increased.
- そのようにして心理的に強制を加え、間接的に義務の履行を促すものである。
- Thus, the execution of one's duties is urged indirectly by a psychological coercion on the obligated party.
- 室町時代になると、室町幕府の設立の経緯から、守護の権力が強大であった。
- From the start of the Muromachi period, provincial constables increased their power based on the background of the establishment of the Muromachi bakufu.
- 「男女」が「捕らる」のだから、捕囚され強制連行されたことにほかならない。
- 'Men and women were captured' surely means that the enemy brought them home as captives.
- 常識的に考えれば、強大なロシアが日本との戦争を恐れる理由は何も無かった。
- They believed that a country as powerful and large as Russia had nothing to fear in a war against Japan.
- この傾向は王陽明も持っていたが、特に王龍溪はこの傾向を強めたといわれる。
- Wang Yangming was also similarly inclined, and it is said that Wang Longxi further strengthened that tendency.
- 1942年 12月5日から翌日にかけ、マンザナール強制収容所で暴動発生。
- From December 5 to 6, 1942, a riot occurred at Manzanar War Relocation Center.
- その後の増強と幕府制度の整備にともない、本丸老中支配として12組となる。
- Following the enhancement of oban and the improvement of the bakufu system, oban consisted of twelve units, serving as Honmaru-roju-shihai.
- 三好長慶は近畿周辺を制圧した強大な軍事力をバックとして足利氏を追放する。
- Backed up with powerful military force with which the Kinki province and surrounding areas were conquered, Nagayoshi MITYOSHI ousted the Ashikaga clan.
- 戦国時代 (日本)の戦国大名は、守護大名以上に、地域支配を強めていった。
- Sengoku-daimyo during the Sengoku period strengthened the regional governance more than shugo-daimyo did.
- そこで、版籍奉還を行って藩統制に強力な法的根拠を持たせようとしたのである。
- To this end, it tried to bring a strong legal basis for han control through the return of lands and people to the Emperor.
- 侮蔑を強めるには、中国では倭寇、韓国・北朝鮮ではウェノムなどと表現される。
- To stress the sense of contempt, Wako in China and Wenomu in the South and North Korea are used.
- 勅許を得ず日米修好通商条約に調印、安政の大獄といわれる強権の発動を行った。
- He signed up to the Treaty of Amity and Commerce with the United States without obtaining the Imperial sanction, and asserted ultimate authority in what is called Ansei no Taigoku (suppression of extremists by the Shogunate).
- これは近代日本初の海外出兵であったが、清側は直ちに抗議し撤兵を強く求めた。
- This is the first time for Japan to dispatch troops abroad in modern times, but the Quing dynasty immediately protested demanding the withdrawal of the troops.
- また、守護の世襲化が進行したこともあり、守護所も固定される傾向が強まった。
- Also, Shugosho increasingly became fixed to one place according to the development of Shugo's hereditary succession.
- その後は京極氏の家臣となり、守護代の尼子氏の強い影響を受けるようになった。
- Thereafter, the Mitoya clan became the vassal of the Kyogoku clan and was strongly influenced by the Amago clan, the deputy provincial constable.
- 山内らは慶喜の出席を強く主張して両者譲らず、遂に中山忠能が休憩を宣言した。
- Yamauchi and his comrades strongly demanded the participation of Yoshinobu, and while both groups stuck to their own demands, Tadayasu NAKAYAMA eventually declared a pause.
- 北朝はこれらの制度を背景に国力を増強していき、次第に南朝を圧迫していった。
- The Northern Dynasties enhanced the national power based on the systems to gradually become a threat to the Southern Dynasties.
- それを皮切りに李氏朝鮮は列強諸国と不平等条約を結ばされて開国を強いられる。
- With this as a start, the Yi Dynasty Korea was forced to enter into unequal treaties with these powerful countries and to open up their country.
- 興宣大院君派は人材登用の面はあったが総じて小中華思想が強く西欧を排斥した。
- The Heungseon Daewongun group recruited others but most of them had strong 'Petit Sinocentrism' and totally rejected the West.
- 強制に基づく徴兵は監獄に行くのと同じであり嫌だ、という反抗の表れとされる。
- This verse is considered to reflect the people's resentment that being drafted forcedly was the same with being imprisoned.
- しかし田沼意尊率いる幕府軍が敦賀に到着すると強硬な態度で戦後処理を進めた。
- However, when the army of bakufu led by Okitaka TANUMA arrived at Tsuruga, they took a strong line to handle the post war situation.
- 帝国は、強大な西洋諸国に対抗する形で各国に経済的・軍事的に進出していった。
- The empire was expanding both economically and militarily in order to oppose powerful Western countries.
- 少数派ではあったが、終身議員のみで構成されており、強い影響力を持っていた。
- It was only a small group but with lifetime members and extensive authority.
- 勤皇党のうち、明治政府への強い不満を抱く構成員により、敬神党が結成された。
- Members of the Kinno-to party who were deeply dissatisfied with the Meiji Government formed the Keishin-to party.
- しかしながら、守護大名の拡大指向は根強く、幕府対守護の戦乱が多数発生した。
- However, the Shugo daimyo tried tenaciously to expand their power, and many battles were fought between the bakufu and Shugo.
- 桓武天皇は新王朝の創始を強く意識し、自らの主導による諸改革を進めていった。
- Emperor Kanmu was strongly aware of the start of the new dynasty and promoted various reformations.
- その強烈な指揮権によってもっとも製作カラーの鮮明な映画会社であり続けている。
- Under such strong leadership Toei has kept the most distinctive characteristics of its production.
- こうした背景の中、藩閥出身で陸軍の影響力が強い第三次桂太郎内閣が組閣された。
- The third administration of Taro KATSURA, a member of the Meiji oligarchy representing dominant former feudal domains and strongly influenced by the Japanese Imperial Army, was formed under these circumstances.
- 九卿という呼び名は理念的な意味合いが強く、諸卿という呼び名の方が実態に近い。
- The term 'Kyukei' implied a more philosophical meaning, and the term 'Shokei' (various lords) was closer to the actual situation.
- 北京駐在公使の要請を受けて五月末より、列強の連合軍は軍事介入を計画していた。
- The allied forces of the western powers were planning to intervene with military force from the end of May after receiving the request of envoys stationed in Beijing.
- これらを加えて幕府の討伐軍は更に強大な布陣を敷き天狗党の前に立ちはだかった。
- In addition to Yoshinobu, the punitive force of Tenguto lined up a larger and stronger army against Tenguto.
- そうすると、政府への強い批判が起こり自由民権運動が一層の盛り上がりを見せた。
- Then, criticism towards the government became stronger and the Freedom and People's Rights Movement was pumped up.
- そうした中の同年閏2月に、平清盛が熱病で没して平氏政権は強力な指導者を失う。
- In February of the same year (a leap year), TAIRA no Kiyomori died from a fever and the Taira clan government lost its strong leader.
- 東アジア各国では、気象機関がそれぞれ「黄砂」の定義や強弱の基準を定めている。
- In each eastern Asian nation, the meteorology-related organization defines 'kosa' and specifies the strength levels of kosa.
- こうした内向的な時期を経てヤマト王権による支配体制が徐々に強化されていった。
- Through such a domestically-oriented period, control by the Yamato sovereignty had been gradually strengthened.
- なおこの頃、唐の強い影響のもとで、日本や新羅において律令制定の動きが見られた。
- Furthermore, movements to establish the Luli System was seen in Japan and Silla around this time by the strong influence of Tang Dynasty.
- この防塁はもっとも頑強な部分で高さ3メートル、幅2メートル以上ともされている。
- The strongest part of these defense walls is said to have measured three meters high and more than two meters thick.
- ゆえに中世における公家法は慣習法的要素が強いということを指摘することができる。
- Therefore, it can be pointed out that the court noble law in the medieval period had strong nature of common law.
- 交渉の結果、官舎の設置や朝鮮内地の旅行は、朝鮮側の強い反対で日本側が撤回した。
- As a result of the negotiation, Japan withdrew the matters regarding establishment of the official residence and traveling inland in Korea, because of severe objection by Korea.
- 日本側の原案にはこの条項が当然入っていたが、朝鮮側の強い要望により削除された。
- The provision was provided as a matter of course in the original plan given by Japan, but due to Korea's strong demands it was deleted.
- 大日本帝国憲法では、皇室の永続性が皇室の正統性の証拠であることを強調していた。
- The Constitution of the Empire of Japan emphasized that consistency of the Imperial Family was an evidence for their orthodoxy.
- その後張維の影響を強く受けて、朝鮮陽明学の代表ともいえる鄭斉斗(霞谷)が出た。
- Then, Cheng Chatoo (Hagok), who can be said to have been a leading person of Korean Yomeigaku, appeared under the strong influence of Jang Yu.
- しかしながら、この嘉元の乱では周囲の北条庶流の反発は強く、収まりはしなかった。
- However, in this Kagen War, the rebellious power of branch Hojo families was too strong to get the situation under control.
- 江戸幕府が朝廷に対する公然あるいは非公然な統制を強めるのはこれ以後の事である。
- It was after this period that the Edo bakufu tightened up the control over the imperial court explicitly and implicitly.
- 室町時代に荘園公領制が消滅すると城下町としての性格を強め三田藩が成立していく。
- After shoen koryo sei (the system of public lands and private estates) disappeared in the Muromachi period, Sanda Domain was formed as a castle town.
- このような経緯を経て、次第に地頭が荘園・公領への支配を強めていくこととなった。
- Through these processes, jitos gradually strengthened their dominance over shoen and koryo.
- そのため、強い低気圧が通過した前後などは砂嵐が多く発生し、黄砂の量も多くなる。
- Therefore, before and after a strong low pressure passes a kosa generating area, sandstorms are generated frequently, increasing the amount of kosa produced as well.
- この時期の前方後円墳は、特に規模が巨大化しており強力な王権の存在を示している。
- Large keyhole-shaped tomb mounds in this era became particularly large, indicating that strong sovereignty existed.
- 多くの優秀な将兵を失った武田家は、勝頼の下で再編成を強いられるがこれに失敗した。
- The Takeda family who had lost many excellent officers and soldiers was forced to reorganize itself under Katsuyori but they failed.
- 清朝から西欧列強の情報を得ていた大院君は、断固として鎖国を維持する姿勢を貫いた。
- Daewongun had already received information on the powerful countries of Western Europe from the Qing dynasty, so he firmly maintained the policy of national isolation.
- 両国が当時おかれていた西欧列強による脅威を前提に相互扶助を誓約するものであった。
- Both countries, parties to the treaty, promised mutual assistance on the basis that both countries faced threats from the western powers.
- 更に下関条約で遼東半島の割譲を日本が要求していることを知った列強は衝撃を受けた。
- In addition, the world powers were stunned to know that Japan demanded the cession of the Liaodong Peninsula from Qing in the Treaty of Shimonoseki.
- 札幌本庁を統括していた松本十郎_(開拓使大判官)は、強制移住に反対して辞任した。
- Juro MATSUMOTO, a senior magistrate of the Hokkaido Development Commission, who headed the main office in Sapporo, objected to the forced migration and later resigned to take responsibility.
- 装薬が充填され信管が取り付けられている尖頭砲弾を使用し、当時最強の火力を有した。
- It had the most powerful firing ability of its day, using steeple skull ammunition and a detonation cord loaded with powder charge.
- そして市民の警察官に対する「厳つい」というイメージもよりいっそう強まっていった。
- And so was citizen's 'rugged' image of policemen.
- 結果として大阪会議以前の大久保の独裁体制が、より強化された形で復活したといえる。
- As a result, Okubo's former despotic system was revived in a more powerful form.
- 首都北京近辺における義和団の横行を許したのは、義和団の強大化だけが原因ではない。
- The Boxers were permitted to go on rampages in neighborhoods of the capital Beijing, but the massive scale of the Boxers was just one reason for this.
- 国司は大幅に増えた権限に対応するため、国衙機構の強化に努めるようになっていった。
- In order to cope with the massively increased power, the Kokushi attempted to strengthen the structure of Kokuga.
- 多田源氏は京武士として活動し朝廷との関わりが強く、畿内では大きな力を持っていた。
- Tada-Genji took action as kyobushi (literally, samurai in Kyoto), maintained a strong connection with the Imperial Court, and possessed significant power in the Kinai region (provinces surrounding Kyoto and Nara.)
- それは富国強兵という目標を推進するとともに、差別の再生産を準備していたといえる。
- It can be said that this played the role of reproducing discrimination while moving toward the goals of fortifying the country.
- これに従わないときは国税滞納処分の例により当該過料を強制的に徴収することとなる。
- If the obligated party does not obey the order, Karyo conserned is collected forcibly, following the disposition of the National Tax delinquency.
- 資本力をもった酒屋が業界の垣根をこえて麹造りにも進出し、北野麹座は強く反発した。
- The Kitano koji za reacted strongly to the penetration of the koji malt production industry by Sakaya with financial power.
- 戦国時代初期の文化は北山文化や東山文化と同様に、禅宗などの強い影響を受けている。
- Culture at the beginning of the Sengoku Period was strongly influenced by the Zen sect, same as Kitayama culture and Higashiyama culture.
- 強国に挟まれていた関係上、国人の一人毛利元就が集団の統率者となり戦国大名化した。
- Because they were wedged between great powers, one of the kokujin, Motonari MORI became the leader and changed to sengoku daimyo.
- その間に持豊配下の兵士が「陣立」と称して洛中の土倉・質屋を襲撃して財物を強奪した。
- During that time, soldiers under Mochitoyo attacked doso (underground warehouse) and pawnshops in the capital and robbed properties calling it as a 'battle array.'
- そのことに対する(桐野の)山縣への嫉妬と敵意がこの事件の追及を強めた原因とされる。
- KIRINO's jealousy and hostility against YAMAGATA was ascribed to the intensified pursuit of this incident.
- また、司法省の権限強化を目指した江藤新平の追及もこの事件に大きな影響を与えている。
- In addition, the pursuit by Shinpei ETO who aimed strengthening of authority for the Ministry of Justice also had a great influence on this incident.
- また、元谷中村民以外も一緒に移住したが、実質的には元谷中村民救済の意味が強かった。
- Although people, who had not lived in Yanaka Village, also moved to such towns at that time, the measures of the movement and acceptance had been originally to relieve the ex-residents of Yanaka Village.
- 金本位制というのは本質的に強い引き締め圧力を持ち、拘束性を持つ政策レジームである。
- Gold standard system is a governmental policy that fundamentally has a strong financial tightening effect and restriction.
- 元親は兵力増強の為、十五歳以上から六十歳までの領民の中で戦に参戦できる者を集めた。
- Motochika collected people aged from 15 to 60, who could participate in the war to raise his troop strength.
- ただ、それ以外のどの説も部分的に正しいといえるため、強いて1つに定める理由もない。
- There is no reason to choose only this theory, of course, as different theories are otherwise reliable.
- 国務大臣(各省大臣)に対する指揮監督権や任免権もないため、明文上の権限は強くない。
- The prime minister had no right to instruct, supervise, appoint, and dismiss respective ministers of state, so his authority defined under the constitution was not strong.
- 尊攘激派が政権を掌握した長州藩も、これらと結びつき京都における政治力を強めていた。
- In the Choshu Domain, the extremists had dominated in the government; they had advanced to Kyoto, cooperated with other clans on those actions and gradually extended their political influence.
- この戦い以降、官軍は警戒を強め、7月17日に堡塁や竹柵を築いて薩軍の奇襲に備えた。
- After this battle, the government army became more vigilant, and on July 17, built forts and bamboo fences against surprise attacks by the Satsuma army.
- 領内の村々は特産品が乏しく、また藩主が江戸在府で領内統治も幕府の統制力が強かった。
- The villages in the domain did not have enough local products, and the lord of the domain was in Edo, so the domain was under strong control of the shogunate.
- 戦後の交渉も使者を殺害するなど強攻策で望んだ鎌倉幕府は本格的な異国警護に着手した。
- The Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun), which took hard-line measures in the negotiation after the war, such as killing of the envoys, started full-fledged guard against foreign countries.
- そのため幕府の対応は三浦半島の防備を強化する為に彦根藩の兵を増やした程度であった。
- Under that opinion, the Shogunate did not take the necessary measures to prepare for Perry's arrival, but only increased the number of soldiers in the Hikone Domain to strengthen the defenses of the Miura Peninsula.
- 最も注目すべき特徴は、この翻訳が原著よりも一層自然法的性格を強めていることにある。
- Most important feature to be noted is that this translation had strengthened nature of natural law compared to the original text.
- 6日未明、渡辺らは村々を強請して約千名の一揆勢を連れ、東本願寺三条別院に集結した。
- Before dawn of 6th, WATANABE and other members visited villages to mobilize villagers for the uprising, and concentrated at the branch temple of Higashi Hongan-ji Temple in Sanjo with the uprising party comprised of about one thousand people.
- また、それに応じた金禄公債の金額が定められて翌年から強制的に行われるようになった。
- And based on this exchange rate, amounts of the public bond was decided and a change to the public bond system was forcibly exercised from the next year.
- また、この事件には道鏡側よりも宇佐八幡宮側の事情が強く関わっているという説もある。
- Some advocate that Usa Hachiman-gu Shrine side is strongly involved in this incident rather than the Dokyo side.
- これは貴族色が強まった義満晩年の政策に反感を抱く武士達の不満に応えたものであった。
- These measures were in response to the discontent felt by many warriors toward the policies, which heavily favored the nobility, enacted by Yoshimitsu in his final years.
- これにより地方行政における国司の役割が強くなり、国司が不輸権を認める荘園も現れた。
- By this transfer, the role of kokushi became stronger in local administration and the shoen, for which the kokushi approved the tax exemption, also appeared.
- 畿内においては、中世以来有力寺社との結びつきが強く、多くが各寺社の管理下に置かれた。
- In Kinai (now refers to Osaka, Kobe and Kyoto areas), Hinin had strong ties with influential temples and shrines since the feudal period and many remained under the control.
- 朝鮮は今後も西欧列強に対し開国する意志がないので無用だというのが、その理由であった。
- The reason for that was that Korea did not intend to open the country to the powerful countries of Western Europe in the future, so that provision would not be necessary.
- なお、日本政府の強引な開戦工作に対して、明治天皇は以下のように述べ怒りを発していた。
- For reference, Emperor Meiji is said to have shown his anger by saying the following.
- 明が清にかわると朝鮮国王に「三跪九叩頭の礼」を強いるなど冊封国としての関係を強めた。
- When the Qing dynasty replaced the Ming dynasty, it forced the Korean dynasty to perform the courtesy of 'nine kowtows' to strengthen the relationship under the vassal system.
- 江戸幕府の支配下、各藩大名に対して参勤交代を強いたり、築城・治水工事を命じたりした。
- Under the control of the Edo bakufu, all daimyo were obliged to participate in Sankinkotai (a system under which feudal lords in the Edo period were required to spend every other year in residence in Edo) and to engage in castle construction and flood prevention works.
- なお、岸和田藩は食野家から多額の借財を抱えており、藩財政は同家の強い影響下にあった。
- Moreover, Kishiwada Domain had a large amount of debt with the Meshino family, so the family had a strong influence over the finances of the domain.
- 鉄道とはいっても、鉄板で補強した木のレールを使用し、牛馬で運行していたものであった。
- Although it was referred as 'a railway,' it was no more than wooden rails reinforced with iron plates, whose coach ran by oxen or horses.
- 当時アジアでは日本やタイ王国等の一部を除いて欧米列強諸国による植民地化が進んでいた。
- At that time, Asian regions were being colonized at high pace by Western powers, except few countries such as Japan and the Kingdom of Thailand.
- このため富国強兵を掲げる明治政府は殖産興業に力を入れ、富岡製糸場などを建設していく。
- To accomplish this, the Meiji government, which was promoting the message of fukoku kyohei (rich country, strong military), focused on nurturing new industries and stepped up construction of various facilities including the silk mills of Tomioka.
- 1980年 連邦議会で初めて戦時中の日系人の強制収容に関する調査委員会が設置される。
- In 1980, the U.S. Congress established the first ever commission on Japanese American Internment during the war.
- 幕末においては当初禁門の変などで強攻策を主張した長州藩及びその支持者が賊軍とされた。
- At the end of the Edo period, the Choshu Domain and their followers, who resorted to drastic measures such as the rebellion at the Kinmon Gate, were first called a rebel army.
- この敬神党は、神道の信仰心が非常に強かったため、周囲からは「神風連」と呼ばれていた。
- Since this Keishin-to party was extremely pious about Shintoism, the party was called 'The Jimpu Group' by people around them.
- 皇太子周辺から法皇近臣は排除され、法皇は平氏に対して不満と警戒を強めることになった。
- The close servants of cloistered emperor were removed from around the crown prince, and the cloistered emperor began to hold a disapproval and was wary of Taira Clan.
- 鎮圧するには強力な武士の棟梁を追討使にする他に手はなく、忠盛に白羽の矢が立てられる。
- To control the situation necessitated a leader of a strong bushi group as Tsuitoshi, and this led to the selection of Masamori.
- しかし豪族層の抵抗も根強く、権力集中化はその後も企図されたが、その動きは伸び悩んだ。
- However, powerful families were still strongly resistant, and the move to concentrate powers was stagnant, though attempted later as well.
- また荘園公領制の進展に伴って各地の荘園を集積するなど、経済的な支配力も強めていった。
- He also put shoen in many places under his control with the development of shoen koryo sei.
- 織田家は勢力を拡大、特にもう一つの悩みであった石山本願寺に対する圧力をいっそう強める。
- The Oda family expanded its power and intensified pressure on Ishiyama Hongan-ji Temple that had been yet another source of worry.
- 蝦夷は山背大兄王を推す叔父の境部摩理勢を滅ぼして、田村皇子を即位させることを強行する。
- Emishi enthroned Prince Tamura by murdering his uncle SAKAIBE no Marise who recommended Prince Yamashiro no Oe.
- 富国強兵(ふこくきょうへい)とは、国家の経済を発展させて軍事力の増強を促す政策をいう。
- Fukoku kyohei refers to a policy that makes state economics grow and encourages reinforcement of military forces.
- これらの強力な統治権は台湾での抗日運動を鎮圧し、台湾の社会と治安の安定に寄与している。
- Such strong ruling power contributed to the suppression of any anti-Japanese movements and thus contributed to the stability and safety of the Taiwanese society.
- 貞時の政策は幕府の基盤である御家人体制の崩壊を強制的に堰き止めようとするものであった。
- Sadatoki's policies aimed to forcibly stop the collapse of Gokenin system which was the foundation of bakufu.
- これは欧米列強の干渉を招かないよう配慮すべし、という森有礼の言が容れられたものである。
- These words included the comment of Arimasa MORI that they should consider not inviting the intervention of the allied western powers.
- さらにボアソナードのいう軍事行動も含む強硬な外交姿勢も、日本は忠実に実行に移している。
- Besides, Japan faithfully practiced the hard diplomatic attitude including military action as recommended by Boissonade.
- また棄捐令を発して旗本・御家人らの救済を図るなど、保守的、理想主義的な傾向が強かった。
- It had a strong conservative and idealistic orientation, such as debt cancellation orders to give relief to direct vassals of the shogunate (hatamoto) and low-level retainers.
- だが、天平2年(730年)に陰陽寮強化の一環としてうち3名を陰陽得業生として給費する。
- In 730, in a bid to enhance the Onmyoryo, scholarships were given to three of the onmyo no sho as onmyo tokugyo no sho (onmyo students).
- 木→火→土→金→水→木の順に相手を強める影響をもたらすということが「五行相生」である。
- Gogyo Sosho' expresses the strengthening influence elements have on others in the following order: wood, fire, earth, metal, water, and wood.
- 酒造石高の実態を把握して課税を強化し、幕府の財政基盤を少しでも確かにすることであった。
- The purpose was to secure the financial basis for the bakufu to any extent at all by grasping the actual condition of sake brewing kokudaka and strengthening taxation.
- 西太后の命により「宣戦布告」したものの、当初から列強に勝利する確信は清朝側に無かった。
- While they made a 'proclamation of war' from the order of Empress Dowager Cixi, from the start the Qing dynasty had no conviction that they would win against the allied western powers.
- 三島由紀夫は、晩年、神風連の乱に強い関心を持ち、敬神党の思想に共感していたといわれる。
- Yukio MISHIMA is said to have become keenly interested in the Shimpuren-no-ran War and have sympathized for the ideology of the Keishin-to party in his later years.
- すなわち聖地への旅の過程において、人々は神との繋がりを再認識し信仰を強化するのである。
- In other words, the process of traveling to holy sites makes people reconfirm their ties with God and strengthens their religious beliefs.
- しかし、黄砂の量は、降水量よりもむしろ嵐による強風の程度や頻度に左右されることが多い。
- However, the amount of kosa is more affected by the strength of wind due to a storm and the occurrence frequency of such winds, rather than the amount of rainfall.
- さらに、寺町は、城下町の外郭に配されて広い寺院が建ち並び、都市防衛強化の一翼を担った。
- The Teramachi was located at the outer rim of the jokamachi and spacious temples formed part of the city defenses.
- 桓武天皇は中国皇帝にならい郊天祭祀を行うなど、中国への志向が強かったと考えられている。
- It is considered that Emperor Kanmu strongly admired China; he followed Tang emperors and performed Koten saishi (a sacred ceremony that acknowleges an Emperor as son of heaven).
- 台湾神社、朝鮮神宮等の建立や参拝の強制など、国家神道と宗教政策(日本の宗教参照)の推進。
- Promotion of the State Shinto and religions policies (refer to Japan's religion) such as the enforced establishment of Taiwan-jinja Shrine and Chosen-jingu Shrine.
- そのため、天平文化も周(武周)の武則天や唐の玄宗 の文化の影響を強く受けた文化であった。
- Accordingly, Tenpyo Culture was much influenced by the cultures of Empress Wu Zetian of the Zhou Dynasty and Emperor Xuanzong of Tang.
- また、大津を遷都先に選んだ理由については、対外関係上の危機感が強く働いていたと思われる。
- It is also believed that the reason why Otsu was chosen as a new capital was greatly influenced by a sense of crisis on foreign affairs.
- 戦後景勝は、腹心の直江兼続の弟、樋口与七を養子に入れて強引に小国氏を継がせ、大国と改姓。
- After the war, Kagekatsu had a younger brother of his confidant Kanetsugu NAOE, called Yoshichi HIGUCHI, adopted, whereupon he took on the Oguni clan and changed the name to Okuni.
- 西郷は新政府に必要なのは士族を中心とした軍備強化と農本主義的な国家経営であると主張した。
- Saigo argued that what was necessary for the new government was a strong military power based on samurai and an agriculture-oriented nation management.
- 当初ロシアは強硬姿勢を貫き下記のような主張を行っていたため、交渉は暗礁に乗り上げていた。
- Russia initially took a vigorous attitude, insisting the following opinions, and it hindered the negotiation process.
- それが5月20日の時点で列強への引渡しを求められ、なおかつ清朝側が拒否後攻め落とされた。
- The allied western powers demanded that the forts be handed over by May 20 but they attacked and reduced them to rubble after the Qing dynasty refused.
- 明治政府ではそれを回避するために富国強兵を推し進めて近代国家を整備することを掲げていた。
- In order to avoid the colonization, the Meiji government aimed to build a modern state by promoting fukoku kyohei (fortifying the country, strengthening the military).
- この結果、得宗家の勢力が強化され、それに伴い御内人も鎌倉幕府内で権勢を持つようになった。
- As a result, as the Tokuso family came to enhance their political power, Miuchibito also increased their political influence in the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun).
- 一方で、『吾妻鏡』や『平家物語』の記述どおりに逆落としの場所は鵯越であるとの説も根強い。
- On the other hand, some historians and experts continue to support the entrenched theory for the location of 'sakaotoshi' as Hiyodorigoe, as depicted in 'Azuma Kagami' and 'Heike Monogatari.'
- これから、子どもがよく勉強するようにと、女子の名前としてこれが用いられた例も少なくない。
- Due to this origin, the term was often used as a name for girls.
- 室町中期ごろ、商品経済の発達や農業生産の向上、惣結合の強化などに伴い社会情勢が変化した。
- In the middle of the Muromachi period, the social situation changed according to the development of a commodity economy, the improvement of agricultural production, the consolidation of so (peasants' self-governing association), and the like.
- 入鹿は猜疑心が強く日夜剣を手放さなかったが、俳優(道化)に言い含めて、剣をはずさせていた。
- Although Iruka was a very cautious man and always carried his sword day and night, they prepared an actor to convince him to take his sword off.
- また、この目的を達するための具体的なスローガンとして「富国強兵」「殖産興業」が頻用された。
- Also, 'Fukoku Kyohei' (enriching the country, strengthening the military) and 'Shokusan Kogyo' (encouragement of new industry) were often used as specific slogans in order to achieve this goal.
- 一時は大老井伊直弼の強行弾圧路線(安政の大獄)もあり不満「世論」も沈静化するかに思われた。
- For a short time the oppressive policy of the chief minister (tairo) Naosuke II (the Ansei Purge) seemed to quieten down the public's dissatisfaction.
- 土橋氏は根来寺に泉識坊を建立して一族を送り込んでいた縁もあり、根来寺との協力関係を強めた。
- The Dobashi clan strengthened its relationship with the Negoro-ji Temple, partly because it had Senshiki-bo Temple built in the Negoro-ji Temple and sent a member of the family.
- 今日で言う天文学に相当するが、内容的には占星術の色合いが強く、科学とは程遠いものであった。
- While it was equivalent to present-day astronomy, it was closer to astrology and was far from a science.
- 日清戦争中、日本の勝利が間近に迫ると、列強も事の重大性を認識するに至り、干渉を考え始めた。
- When Japan was a step away from winning the Japanese-Sino War, European powerful countries acknowledged the significant risk involved and started considering intervention in Japan.
- 政虎の強さを知る信玄はなおも慎重であり、山本勘助と馬場信春に上杉軍撃滅の作戦立案を命じた。
- Shingen, who knew the strength of Uesugi's forces, was still cautious, and ordered Kansuke YAMAMOTO and Nobuharu BABA to work out a plan to destroy Uesugi's forces completely..
- 義和団の源流は何かという問題と並んでよく論じられるのが、清朝の列強への「宣戦布告」である。
- The Qing dynasty's 'proclamation of war' toward the allied western powers was often debated alongside the search for the origin of the Boxers.
- これらは北京議定書に盛り込まれているように、列強各国の強い意向によって実現したものである。
- As these were included within the Boxer Protocol, they occurred due to strong demands from each of the powerful nations.
- 清盛は、若い頃から西国の国司を歴任し、父から受け継いだ西国の平氏勢力をさらに強化していた。
- Kiyomori held the position of Kokushi (provincial governor) in Western Japan since he was young, and he further strengthened the influence of the Taira clan in the west.
- しかし、依然として京都は鎌倉を凌ぐ経済の中心地であり、朝廷や公家、寺社の勢力も強力だった。
- Yet throughout the period Kyoto remained ahead of Kamakura as the dominant metropolis economically, and the court, the nobility, and the religious establishments retained considerable power.
- このため、重工業中心で「芋づる」方式と呼ばれる、企業間において関連性の強い生産関係を持つ。
- Accordingly, the major sector of the zaibatsu is heavy industry; they have strong production relationships among companies, which is called the 'Imozuru' system (one-after-another system).
- 仏教では鎮護国家思想が強まり、聖武天皇の発願で東大寺・国分寺が国家護持の名目で建立された。
- In Buddhism, the idea of national defense was strengthened, and the Todai-ji and Kokubun-ji Temples were constructed due to the wishes of Emperor Shomu on the pretext of kokka goji (defending and maintaining the nation).
- 朱熹は、心即理説を、社会から個人を切り離し、個人の自己修養のみを強調するものとして批判した。
- Hsi CHU criticized the Shinsokuri setsu in that the theory is to separate an individual from the society and emphasize only individual self-discipline.
- また、京や畿内に惣管・平城京以西の道ごとには鎮撫使、のちに節度使を設置し治安維持を強化した。
- They deployed a Sokan (a military authority) in Kyoto and Kinai region (provinces surrounding Kyoto and Nara), a Chinbushi (a temporary government post), later a Setsudoshi (a military governor), in every route in areas west of Heijo-kyo (the ancient capital of Japan in current Nara) to improve the maintenance of security.
- この琉球問題の決裂と日本の台湾への野心の疑いから清側ではこの後対日強硬論が唱えられるに至る。
- This breakdown in negotiations over the Ryukyu issue and the suspected ambition of Japan to rule Taiwan caused opinions supporting a hard-line policy against Japan.to increase in Qing.
- 既ニ町曲輪マテ乗崩ス間、強テ攻入ラハ、城ヲ落ト事、頃刻ナルヘシ、然レトモ、御人数多費ユヘシ。
- Katakura explained that the troops had advanced to the town wall and were about to seize the castle but there were many casualties.
- これに対して韓国統監であった伊藤をはじめとした日本政府首脳は激昂し、高宗を強制的に排除した。
- The Japanese heads of state, including ITO, who was the Inspector General of Korea, were enraged and forced Gojong out of office.
- 桂太郎は「欧州に並ぶ強国になるには新たな領土が必要だ」という見地からこれを強力に推し進めた。
- Taro KATSURA strongly moved ahead with this from the point of view that 'a new territory is required to be a powerful country comparable to Europe.'
- また欧米によって強制された条約が不平等条約だったことから「不平等条約体制」と呼ぶこともある。
- As the treaties forced by Europe and America were unequal treaties, it is also called 'unequal treaty system.'
- 1899年末、毓賢は欧米列強の要求によって更迭され、かわって袁世凱が赴任し義和団を弾圧した。
- Ikuken was reassigned due to the demands of the powerful European nations and the United States, and YUAN Shikai was assigned to suppress the Boxers at the end of 1899.
- しかし寄合所帯の憲政党内部では、旧進歩党 (日本)系と旧自由党 (日本)系の軋轢が強かった。
- However, inside the Constitutional Party, which was congeries of parties, conflict between the former Progressive Party (Japan) side and the former Liberal Party (Japan) side was serious.
- また近代以降は西欧の影響を強く受けているが、日本の風土・文化に合わせた独自な展開も見られる。
- Since the modern era, western culture has also had an influence, but at the same time, a unique Japanese style of architecture has developed that is integrated with the natural environment and culture of Japan.
- また、天皇権力が強くなる理由のひとつとして、壬申の乱の存在を考慮すべきとの考え方も存在する。
- In addition, there is a point of view that the presence of the Jinshin War should be considered as one of the reasons for strengthening of Emperor's power.
- そして次第に朝廷へ介入し、地頭は国衙領や荘園へ浸食し、武家政権は徐々に全国への支配を強めた。
- The bakufu gradually intervened in the Imperial Court and Jito eroded Kokugaryo (territories governed by provincial government office) and Shoen, resulting in acceleration of its nation-wide governance by the military government.
- 1207年(建永2年・承元元年)、鎌倉幕府が興福寺の強訴に従い、法然は譛岐国に流罪となった。
- In 1207, the Kamakura bakufu bowed to the demands from Kofuku-ji Temple and Honen was exiled to Sanuki Province.
- 守護が荘園領主から年貢徴収を請け負う守護請も活発に行われ始め、守護による荘園支配が強まった。
- Shugouke, where shugos undertook the collection of nengu from lords of shoen, started to be done actively and shugos' governance of shoens was strengthened.
- (訳:えみしを、1人で100人に当たる強い兵だと、人はいうけれど、抵抗もせず負けてしまった)
- (Translation: Although people have said that a person of the Emishi is equivalent to 100 soldiers, they were vanquished easily without resisting.)
- 各国に置かれた守護も半済等の経済的特権の公認や守護請の拡大などを通じて、国内支配力を強めた。
- The Shugo (provincial constable) placed in each province strengthened control of the province by obtaining economic privileges, such as hanzei (the system in the Muromachi period where the Muromachi bakufu allowed military governors, or Shugo, to collect half of the taxes from manors and demesnes as military fund) and through expanding Shugouke (the contract system that a manor's owner entrusted a provincial constable to manage his manor and pay the customs).
- 二の丸の埋め立てについては相当手間取ったらしく周辺の家・屋敷を破壊してまで埋め立てを強行した。
- The reclamation of Ninomaru seemed to have taken considerably much time and was forced even through destroying nearby houses and residences.
- 米騒動は移出の取りやめ、安売りの哀願から始まり、要求は次第に寄付の強要、打ちこわしに発展した。
- Initially, the rice riots started to ask to cancel the transportation of rice and to sell it cheap, but gradually led to the enforcement of donation and grew into Uchikowashi (it refers to an act where people destroyed residences of privileged merchants or officials who were involved in misgovernment).
- またこれらが満たされない場合、軍事行動も含む強硬な外交姿勢を取ることをも合わせて意見している。
- Also he advised that if these requirements were not accepted, Japan should demonstrate a hard diplomatic position which includes the use of military action.
- だが同月末には再度攻勢に出て、討伐に当たった杉若無心・桑山重晴・宇多頼忠らは苦戦を強いられた。
- However, it began to attack again at the end of November, and made Mushin SUGIWAKA, Shigeharu KUWAYAMA, Tadayori UTA and others face an uphill battle.
- (強いて言えば秤量貨幣に近く、現代的に解釈すれば、金地金(インゴット)に相当するものと言える。
- When you come right down to it, it was more like a currency by weight and modernly interpreted, it was equivalent to ingot.
- 世界のマスコミの予想に反する結果に、列強諸国を驚愕させ、ロシアの脅威に怯える国々を熱狂させた。
- The unexpected results caught the world's media by surprise, astonished the great powers, and enthralled countries that feared the threat of Russia.
- このため、景虎は残る長尾方の北信濃国人衆への支配を強化して、実質的な家臣化を進めることになる。
- Therefore, Kagetora strengthened the control of the remaining local samurai landowners in the northern Shinano area, and became to make efforts to make them retainers of the Nagao family.
- つまり清朝の宣戦布告以前より、列強は中国に軍隊を派遣し義和団掃討作戦を実施していたことになる。
- In other words, the allied western powers dispatched an army to China and implemented a clean up operation of the Boxers even before proclamation of war by the Qing dynasty.
- また列強各国領事と「東南互保」という了解を結び、義和団の騒擾を中国北部に限定するようし向けた。
- They also made an agreement with the embassy of the allied western powers called the 'Southeast Mutual Protection Movement' and tried to limit civil disorder of the Boxers to the northern region of China.
- 日本だけでなく、同じく大乗仏教の影響が強かった朝鮮半島においても、同様の法令が発布されている。
- Not only in Japan, but equally in the Korean Peninsula where the influence of Mahayana Buddhism was strong, a similar law was promulgated.
- その背景として独特の地理的歴史的環境から十津川は文化や言語の面でも特色が強いことが挙げられる。
- As the background of the sense of strong self-reliance, we can cite that Totsukawa has a strong characteristics in its culture and language due to the unique geographic and historical environment.
- ここから、重要な史料をいくつか引用していくが、登場する「会所」の語は、太文字にして、強調した。
- From here, several crucial historical documents are quoted, but the word, 'Kaisho' was stressed by making it bold-faced.
- ただし、この抗争は大内氏などを主体とする地方勢力が足利氏を利用して中央介入を試みた側面が強い。
- However, it seems that these struggles were caused by the local power mainly consisting of the Ouchi clan that used the Ashikaga clan to interfere with political affairs in the central government.
- 紀伊国では高野山・根来寺・熊野三山などの寺社勢力の力が強く、守護畠山氏の支配力は限定的だった。
- In the Kii Province, the power of temples and shrines, such as Koyasan, Negoro-ji Temple, Kumano Sanzan (three major shrines, Kumano-Hongu-Taisha Shrine, Kumano-Hayatama-Taisha Shrine and Kumano-Nachi-Taisha Shrine) and so on, was strong and power to control shugo, the Hatakeyama clan, was limited.
- 三世一身法・墾田永年私財法などの農地拡大政策もこうした律令制強化の一環だったと考えられている。
- It is considered that the policies to increase arable land, such as Sanze-isshin Law (a law allowing farmers who created new arable lands to own them for a period of three generations) and Konden einen shizai Law (a law allowing farmers who created new arable lands to own them permanently), were for supporting the strengthening the Ritsuryo system.
- 中国の影響が強かった奈良時代の文化(唐風)に対して、これを国風(和風・倭風)文化と呼んでいる。
- This culture is called Kokufu (or wafu)-bunka or Japanese-style culture, in contrast with the tofu-bunka, a culture in Nara period which was largely influenced by the Chinese culture.
- 中国では、春秋戦国時代に諸侯の国が行った政策を「富国強兵」といい、『戦国策』秦策に用例が見える。
- In China, the policies that were carried out in lords' countries at the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period were called 'Fukoku kyohei', and some examples were given in Shinsaku (Qin strategies) of 'Sengoku (warlike period) strategies'.
- 同じく京都では柳原において騒動が始まり、米問屋を打ちこわすなどして1升30銭での販売を強要した。
- At the same time, a riot started in Yanagihara, Kyoto City, which destroyed rice warehouse merchants and forced a sale of rice for 30 sen per 1 sho.
- 列強はこの干渉以降、阿片戦争で香港を得た英国の様に中国の分割を推し進めていた欧米に弾みを付けた。
- After the intervention, the world powers gained more momentum to divide and colonize China as the UK did with Hong Kong after the Opium Wars.
- 2月21日の夜半から22日の早暁にかけて薩軍の大隊は順次熊本に向けて発し、熊本城を包囲強襲した。
- From midnight of February 21 to dawn of 22, the battalions of the Satsuma army successively started toward Kumamoto, and pressed a siege vigorously against Kumamoto Castle.
- 幕府権威の低下を防ぐため、安藤らは将軍徳川家茂と皇女和宮の婚姻で公武合体による幕権強化策を図る。
- To prevent bakufu authority from declining, Ando and others tried 'kobu-gattai' (integration of the Imperial Court and the shogunate) through the marriage of Shogun Iemochi TOKUGAWA and Imperial Princess Kazunomiya.
- 以上に挙げた武術組織は、極めて強い宗教的性格を有し、内部ではシャーマニズム的な儀式も持っていた。
- The martial art organization previously mentioned started to have very strong sect like characteristics and practiced shamanistic ceremonies within the group.
- しかしこうした事態に変化をもたらしたのが、相次ぐ西欧列強との戦争とその後の不平等条約締結である。
- However, this changed due to the series of wars against powerful western European nations and the unequal treaties that followed.
- 1906年 サンフランシスコ学務局、公立学校在籍中の日系人子弟を強制的に中国人学校に移籍させる。
- In 1906, the San Francisco Board of Education ordered the forced transfer of Japanese children in public schools to local Chinese schools.
- 藩主も遠慮しなければならない家柄からその権力は強大であり、藩内は自然、成瀬派と竹腰派に分かれた。
- The family lineage, which even the lord of the domain had to show constraint, meant the very powerful authority and naturally the domain was divided into Naruse side and Takenokoshi side.
- 天武は、その強力な政治意思を執行していくために、官僚制度とそれを規定する諸法令を整備していった。
- In order to enforce his powerful political views, he established a bureaucratic system and various laws to regulate the system.
- 『万国公法』の日本における受容は、中国のそれ以上に自然法的性格が強調された理解が一般に通行した。
- With regards to acceptance of 'Bankoku Koho' in Japan, the understanding of 'Bankoku Koho'widely spread in Japan contained a characteristic of natural law, which was emphasized than that in China.
- 守護大名の権限強化と惣村・郷村の自立とによって、荘園は次第に解体への道を進んでいくこととなった。
- The shoens gradually collapsed with the aggrandizement of shugo-daimyo and the independence of sosons and gosons.
- そのため幕府は慶長14年(1609年)に灰吹銀輸出を禁止、慶長銀で決済するよう定め、監視を強めた。
- For this reason, the shogunate banned cupellated silver export in 1609, enforced trade in Keicho silver and strengthened surveillance.
- この時期、台湾総督府は軍事行動を全面に出した強硬な統治政策を打ち出し、台湾居民の抵抗運動を招いた。
- During this period the Taiwan Sotoku-fu (Government-General) took a hard-line policy backed up by military force, which caused the growth of resistant movements among the people in Taiwan.
- また、改革遂行のためにさらに列国や外国資本銀行の借款に頼り、外国への依存を更に強めることとなった。
- Moreover, China depended on the Powers and loans from foreign capital banks to perform reforms only to strengthen dependency on foreign countries.
- 新羅は日本の侵攻に備えて築城(723年、毛伐郡城)し、日本でも一時軍備強化のため節度使が置かれた。
- Silla built a castle (毛伐郡城) in 723 to prepare for a Japanese invasion and, Japan temporarily installed a setsudoshi (military governor) to strengthen armaments.
- 明治維新後の日本は不平等条約を改正し、欧米列強と対等の関係を築くために近代的憲法を必要としていた。
- After the Meiji Restoration, Japan needed to enact a modern constitution so that they could reform the unequal treaty and build a 50/50 relationship with the allied western powers.
- そのため、戦時中に増税による耐乏生活を強いられてきた日本国民が日比谷焼打事件などの暴動を起こした。
- The failure led to riots, such as Hibiya Incendiary Incident, by some Japanese nationals who had endured severe suppression and poverty due to increasing taxes during the war time.
- しかし、水替人足は非常に厳しい労役を強いられるものであり、更生というより懲罰という側面が強かった。
- However, Mizukaeninsoku demanded severe labor service, and it was more a punishment than a rehabilitation.
- が、考古学の成果は奈良盆地勢力が吉備政権などと連合してヤマト王権へ成長したことを強く示唆している。
- However, the results of archeological studies strongly indicate that the political power in the Nara Basin was joined to the political powers of the Kibi; later, these conjoined powers would form the basis of the Yamato sovereignty.
- この決定は義和団及び列強連合軍に対しどう対処するかについて、4度御前会議が開かれた末、決定された。
- The proclamation was decided after holding four conferences in the presence of the empress in order to determine how to handle the Boxers as well as the powerful allied nations.
- この「条款」は中国東南に位置する地方の総督や巡撫といった大官と列強との利害が一致したため成立した。
- This 'article' was established since the interests of the high local officials such as the governor-general and Junbu of southeastern China and the allied western powers matched.
- 一方の西園寺も、政友会の党務を事実上取り仕切り、地方利益の追求をすすめる原敬との確執を強めていた。
- On the other hand, Saionji was intensifying feud with Takashi HARA, who was practically controlling the affaires of the Seiyukai and pursuing local interests.
- 欧米社会にあっても、社会参加は男性が行い、女性は男性を支えていればよいとの意識が強かったのである。
- Western societies, like many societies elsewhere, were characterized by a strong belief that participation in the public arena was for men, and that women should be content to support men.
- 天皇の権限を強める修正案も出され、GHQの根回しを済ませていたともいわれたが、修正案は否決された。
- An amendment to strengthen the power of the Emperor was presented and it was rumored that behind-the-scenes work for the General Headquarters (GHQ) had been completed but the proposal was denied.
- 巡礼は宗教色が強く、巡拝はどちらかと言えば観光や娯楽の意味合いが強いとされるが、明確な区別はない。
- Junrei has a more religious aspect and Junpai is generally geared towards sightseeing and leisure, but there is no clear distinction in meaning.
- 「梅松論」は足利尊氏の正当性を強調して書かれた史書であるが、成立は太平記よりも早く、資料性は高い。
- The 'Baishoron' is a historical work written with special emphasis on supporting the legitimacy of Takauji ASHIKAGA's rise to power, but it was completed faster than the Taiheiki and relied on a rich assortment of documents.
- しかし、高度が高くなると偏西風の影響が強くなるため、上空高くに舞い上がった黄砂は東寄りに流される。
- However, dust at higher altitudes are affected by westerlies strongly, and the kosa that is flung up high into the air is moved to the east.
- 水稲農耕に必要な首長権力や、共同体の結束強化、内部と外部での階級差を反映しているとも考えられている。
- The different size of moats were probably representing how strong a chieftaincy's controlling power was over wet-rice cultivation in the area, how tight the community was united, or the difference in villager classes who lived inside and outside the moat.
- また、武田に処刑された鳥居強右衛門は後世に忠臣として名を残し、その子孫は奥平松平家家中で厚遇された。
- Suneemon TORII who was executed by Takeda earned his place in history as a loyal subject and his descendants were well treated by the Okudaira-Matsudaira family.
- その結合は必ずしも強固なものではなく、同等の力を持った政治勢力による同盟関係だったと推測されている。
- It is believed that this political union was not necessarily a solid one, but was established based on alliances between various political powers having equal powers.
- 朝貢国が政治的に中国に従属している度合いはきわめて多様であり、多くの場合は朝貢貿易の側面が強かった。
- The degree to which tributary countries politically depended on China greatly varied, and in many cases, tributary trading was a principal duty in the system.
- 清朝側が外交交渉を西欧列強のスタイルに合わせるのであれば、彼らの価値観・行動原理を知らねばならない。
- In order to follow the lead of the style of western counties in diplomatic negotiation, the Qing dynasty had to know their sense of value and principle of behavior.
- また軍隊からは、先にそちらの強化をおこなうべきだとして、西郷隆盛などを中心に反対の声も上がっていた。
- Moreover, military personnel such as Takamori SAIGO opposed the project, insisting that armaments should be strengthened first.
- その障害となったのが、列強と李鴻章や一部の親王であり、それらを排除するために義和団を利用したという。
- The plan was hindered by the powerful western nations, Li Hongzhang, and some imperial princes, so the Boxers were used to remove these groups.
- 非欧米圏で初めて近代化に成功し、列強としての地位を固めつつあった日本の文化は、欧米でも注目を浴びた。
- Japanese culture succeeded in modernizing first among the nations not included in the European and American bloc (the Western bloc), solidifying its status as a powerful country and attracting the attention of Europe and America.
- 朝鮮では、日清戦争で日本が清に勝利すると、王妃である閔妃が朝鮮で一層強化する日本の支配力を警戒した。
- In Korea, after Japan defeated Shin in Sino-Japanese War, Empress Myeongseong took precautions against Japan of which dominating power was further increasing in Korea.
- 当時の日本が日清戦争の勝利によって、世界の強国となったという自負を持ち始めたことが、その原因である。
- This was because Japan started to gain self-pride as one of the world's powerful countries after winning the Sino-Japanese war.
- 十津川郷士も半ば脅迫でかき集められたこともあり、天誅組の強引な指示には疑問を持つ者が少なくなかった。
- Since the samurai in Totsukawa Village had been conscripted by half-threat, there existed quite a few who questioned the coercive instructions made by Tenchu-gumi.
- 『平家物語』には、頼政方の五智院但馬や浄妙明秀、一来法師といった強力の僧兵たちの奮戦が描かれている。
- The 'Heike monogatari' depicts the fierce fighting of three mighty warrior-monks on Yorimasa's side, GOCHIIN no Tajima, Akihide JOMYO, and Priest Ichirai.
- この事件、ひいては足利義輝の幕権強化を考えるに当たって問題となるのが、義輝の三好家との距離感である。
- A major factor to be considered in discussing this incident as the attempt by Yoshiteru ASHIKAGA to strengthen the Bakufu's authority is his perceived sense of distance from the Miyoshi family.
- 大型地域集団は次第に政治的な結合を強めていき、倭国連合と呼びうる政治連合体を2世紀初頭頃に形成した。
- The large-sized communities were gradually united and a political confederation that could be called a union of Way nations was established during the early second century.
- 人道的措置の履行を義務づけるこの条項は、西欧列強の朝鮮に対する要望を日本が替わりに挿入したものである。
- This provision, which provided the obligation of humanitarian measures, was inserted by Japan as a requirement of the powerful countries of Western Europe toward Korea.
- 1873年に対外強硬派の大院君が失脚し、王妃閔妃一派が権力を握っても、日朝関係は容易に好転しなかった。
- The hard-liner Daewongun was disgraced in 1873, and the Empress Myeongseong group assumed authority, but relations between Japan and Korea did not turn better.
- 困窮した零細農民の土地を集積するなど地主的な側面の強くなる近世後期には後者の面を持つものが多くなった。
- In a second half of the early-modern times, as headmen (naushi or shoya) accumulated lands of impoverished petty peasants, their landowner-like character grew, and those with the latter aspcet increased.
- 当初、日本は外交努力で衝突を避けようとしたが、ロシアは強大な軍事力を背景に日本への圧力を増していった。
- At first, Japan sought to avoid a conflict through diplomatic efforts; however, Russia backed by its massive military force continued to increase its pressure toward Japan.
- 備中高松城は当時数少なかった低湿地を利用した平城(沼城、ぬまじろ)であり、鉄砲・騎馬戦法にも強かった。
- Bitchu Takamatsu-jo Castle was then one of the few hirajiro or numajiro (castles built on the level ground) which were based on swamps, and was suitable for firearms and cavalry operations.
- 1887年(明治20年)の保安条例では、民権運動家は東京より退去を強いられ、これを拒んだ者を拘束した。
- Regulations for the Reservation of Law and Order in 1887 enforced people-rights activists to leave Tokyo, and if activists refused, they were captured.
- 織田信忠の首こそ無事であったが、「荒木村重軍強し」との評判は京都まで伝わり今様が流行るまでにいたった。
- Although the head of Nobutada ODA was safe, news that 'Troops of Murashiga ARAKI was strong' was communicated even to Kyoto so that imayo (popular style of song since Heian period) became popular.
- それでも即位は説にすぎないから、伝を立てずにおく編集もありえたが、光圀の強い意向で大友紀が設けられた。
- Since the enthronement was just a theory, the history could be edited without mentioning it, but the history of Otomo was compiled according to the strong intention of Mitsukuni.
- 然るにこの『万国公法』では、ホイートン原著とは逆に自然法を強調して国際法を理解する姿勢が打ち出された。
- In this 'Bankoku Koho,' however, contrarily to the original text of Wheaton, the posture to understand international law attaching importance to natural law.
- 最も大きな影響は、民衆の不平不満の矛先が列強よりもむしろ清朝自体に向けられるようになったことであろう。
- The biggest influence was that the people's dissatisfaction was aimed not toward the allied western powers, but the Qing dynasty itself.
- しかし、言葉が通じず、強引に隊列を横切ろうとする水兵に対し、滝が槍で突きかかり軽傷を負わせてしまった。
- However, as the sailors could not understand his words and muscled to cross the array, TAKI slightly injured them by tilting with the spear.
- このため、欧米列強諸国はこぞって明治政府に対し、キリスト教の容認とともに賤民制廃止を要求したのである。
- Therefore Western countries all together demanded Meiji Government to approve Christianity and abolish the class system of lowly people.
- また、「源平合戦」の呼称は、氏族を強調するあまり、源氏と平氏の氏族内のねじれ関係をうまく説明できない。
- Also, the term 'Genpei Kassen' emphasizes the clans too much and does not explain the complicated relationships within the Minamoto and Taira clans.
- このことは、あるいは(その測量技術の精度の高さもあることから)古代朝鮮道教との強いつながりを窺わせる。
- This suggests a strong relation with ancient Korean Dokyo because of the highly accurate measurement technology.
- また、同法の画期的な部分は次回来航期限を定めた信牌交付や長崎の行政改革による貿易管理の強化の部分にある。
- One of the revolutionary points of this law was to issue Shinpai (信牌) (port-entry permit) which set the next port entry due date and the enhanced trading management through administrative reforms in Nagasaki.
- 正徳の治については新井、間部が幕政に参与した期間が短く、また家宣死去後は反甲府派や門閥の抵抗が強まった。
- Arai and Manabe's involvement in politics was very short and resistance from anti Kofu group and lineage were getting stronger after Ienobu's death
- アヘン戦争の衝撃は、日本各地を駆け巡り、魏源の『海国図志』は多数印刷されて幕末の政局に強い影響を与えた。
- The impact of the Opium Wars shook the whole country, and mumerous copies of 'Illustrated Treatise on the Marine Kingdoms' by Wei Yuan were published and influened greatly on the political situation during the end of Edo period.
- これに対して、新井白石や徳川吉宗ら歴代の幕府首脳はこうした動きにたびたび禁令を発して取締りを強めてきた。
- As a countermeasure, successive leaders of the Bakufu, such as Hakuseki ARAI and Yoshimune TOKUGAWA, often issued prohibitions on these acts.
- また、親政府勢力と見られた温和派(吏党)も国粋主義色を強めるにつれて政府と対決姿勢を見せる事例も現れた。
- In the meantime, some of the members of the Onwa faction (called Rito) that had been believed to be pro-government political force became strongly nationalistic and started to have conflicts with the government.
- 上からの「仁政」すなわち民に情け深い治政をすべきだとの強い儒教思想の持ち主で独自の県治方針を抱いていた。
- His strong belief in Confucianism was behind his philosophy of 'Jinsei' (benevolent rule) from above, that is to say, the rule of law for the people based on compassion, and held unique policies for prefectural administration.
- 閏7月20日 (旧暦)に、遂に政子と義時は協力して時政を執権から廃して、牧の方と共に強制的に出家させた。
- On September 12, eventually Masako and Yoshitoki worked together to get rid of Tokimasa from the post of regent, and forced him and Maki no kata to enter the priesthood.
- これらの戦国大名の中から強大化した織田信長が室町幕府を滅ぼし、強力な中央集権の基礎(織田政権)を築いた。
- Nobunaga ODA, who grew in strength among these daimyo in the Sengoku period, defeated the Muromachi bakufu and formed the foundation for a strong centralized system (the Oda government).
- 穏便に開国・倒幕を行いたかった海・陸援隊とは逆に、武力による倒幕を目指していた薩摩の仕業との声も根強い。
- There are also many who believe that it was the deed of Satsuma, aiming to overthrow the shogunate by force, which is the opposite to the peaceful approach taken by the Kaientai (an association of masterless samurai organized by Ryoma SAKAMOTO) and the Rikuentai (an association of masterless samurai organized by Shintaro NAKAOKA).
- 強力な指導力を持つ将軍がいたため、緊急時に管領以下の幕臣が指導力を発揮する機会が無かったということである。
- That is, due to the existence of the shogun who had strong leadership, vassals of the shogun under kanrei had no opportunity to show their leadership in an emergency.
- また、豊臣秀吉によりバテレン追放令(伴天連追放令)が出され、キリシタン大名に対する政治的な圧力が強まった。
- Along these lines, Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI issued the Bateren Tsuihorei (an edict expelling the Jesuit missionaries), putting Christian daimyo under intensified political pressure.
- 王政復古 (日本)により成立した明治新政府は富国強兵をスローガンに、積極的に自ら産業を興こす政策を取った。
- The new Meiji government, established by the Restoration of Imperial Rule in Japan, adopted a policy to promote industries actively, under the slogan of 'Fukoku-kyohei' (enriching the country and strengthening the military).
- 強いて類別すれば、条規そのものは日米和親条約にあたり、付録及び貿易規則・公文は日米修好通商条約に該当する。
- If it must be classified, the stipulation itself corresponded to the Treaty between the United States of America and the Empire of Japan, while the Appendix, and trade regulations and official documents corresponded to the Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the United States and Japan.
- この時期の東アジアは、日中朝そして西欧列強の間における複雑な絡み合いが相互作用する場が形成されつつあった。
- At that period, the stage of complicated interaction began to appear in East Asia, where Japan, China, Korea and the powerful countries of Western Europe got involved together.
- しかし、780年(宝亀11年)には陸奥国で伊治呰麻呂の反乱がおこるなど、東北地方では蝦夷の抵抗が強まった。
- However, resistance by Ezo in the Tohoku region became stronger as seen in the revolt of 780 by KOREHARI no Azamaro in Mutsu Province.
- これは、大名行列のために出費を強いることで諸大名が経済的実力を持つことを抑制しようとする政治的意図による。
- This was because of political intention to restrain territorial lords' financial power by forcing them to make a lot of expense for daimyo-gyoretsu.
- 江戸時代、尊皇家は天皇への尊崇と支持を高めるため、天皇家の大変な古さと不変性という「万世一系」を強調した。
- In the Edo period, the sonnoka (people with reverence for emperors) emphasized the 'unbroken line of emperors' which implied the incredibly long history and continuity of the imperial family, to heighten respect and support for emperors.
- そして、1898年には伊藤の強い支持の元に憲政党を主体とする第1次大隈内閣(いわゆる「隈板内閣」)が成立。
- In 1898, receiving strong support from Ito, the first Okuma Cabinet (so-called the 'Waihan Cabinet') was established with the Kenseito (憲政党) as its base.
- 皇帝派と革命政権派が激しい内戦が行われたが、世界の列強がチェコスロバキア軍救援を口実にシベリアに出兵した。
- The Emperor followers and revolutionary regime groups had the bitter civil strife, and world powers sent their troops to Syberia on the pretense of assisting Czechoslovakian military force.
- また列強を苦々しく思っていた点は西太后以下も同じであり、その点も義和団への対処に手心を加えることとなった。
- Even Empress Dowager Cixi was the same in resenting the powerful countries, and was lenient when handling the Boxers.
- 非存在説の主張は、律令制構築への動きについて、天智天皇よりも天武天皇の影響力の大きさを重視する傾向が強い。
- People who do not believe in its existence tend to insist that the Emperor Tenmu had more impact on the process of constructing the Ritsuryo system than the Emperor Tenchi.
- 以後、明治政府は殖産興業・士族授産の観点も含めた立場から生糸の増産・輸出政策への関与を強めていく事になる。
- After that, the Meiji government became more and more involved in increased production, and export policy of raw silk thread in terms of encouragement of new industry and Shizoku jusan (providing former samurai with employment).
- 伊藤博文の立憲政友会は軍備増強の必要性は認めたものの、桂の進める地租増徴ではなく行財政改革の徹底を求めた。
- Although Rikken Seiyukai led by Hirobumi ITO admitted the necessity of Japan's military expansion, they required a thorough administrative and financial reform, not increased land taxes, which Katsura was going to promote.
- これには当時最大の本所勢力であった延暦寺などは強く反発したが、当時の義満の勢いの前にはなすすべもなかった。
- Although Enryaku-ji Temple, the largest honjo power at the time, strongly opposed to these rules, they were helpless before the momentum of Yoshimitsu.
- このような中で延暦寺への恨みを抱く西光は後白河に、天台座主・明雲が強訴の張本人であり処罰することを訴えた。
- In this situation, Saiko, who had a deep resentment towards Enryaku-ji Temple, demanded that Tendai Zasu (Chief Tendai Abbot) Myoun was the leader of the direct petition and asked Goshirakawa to punish him.
- 会所の典型には方丈の影響が見えたが、会所泉殿は、方丈よりは、名の通り泉殿から強い影響をうけた建物であった。
- The formation of kaisho must have been influenced by hojo, but Kaisho Izumidono seemed to be a building that was greatly influenced by Izumidono as according to the name when compared with hojo.
- しかし、継体天皇の登場によりヤマト王権による列島支配が強まり、一方、朝鮮半島への進出傾向は大きく後退した。
- However, after Emperor Keitai was introduced, control over the islands of Japan by Yamato sovereignty became stronger, but on the other hand, the trend of advancing to the Korean peninsular became considerably weak.
- 当時、出挙という貸借制度があったが、国司や郡司は田租の稲を半ば強制的に百姓へ貸し付けて、利子の稲を得ていた。
- At that time, a government loan system called suiko existed, where provincial governors or provincial magistrates partly forced peasants to borrow rice from the rice tax and charged them interest on it.
- しかし支配への抵抗も強く、特に720年には7年前に新設された大隅国の国守陽侯麻呂が殺害される事件が起こった。
- However, resistance against such control was also strong and in 720, YAKO no Maro, the Governor of Osumi Province established seven years previously, was killed.
- 長年土佐の中央部で戦い抜いてきた歴戦の強者どもとまともにやり合えるわけもなく、たちまち総崩れとなり敗走した。
- There was no way that they could squarely fight with the veteran troops who had survived the various battles in central Tosa for a long time, and the Ichijo army collapsed immediately and was routed.
- しかし、それが他の列強に知られたために、この話に与れなかったドイツやロシア、フランスの姿勢を更に硬化させた。
- However, the other world powers, including Germany, Russia and France, noticed the demand and hardened their stance toward Japan even more.
- 江戸期の鋳造量は、小判金と一分判金を合わせた総量を「両」の単位をもって記録されており、本位貨幣的性格が強い。
- The total casting amount including koban and ichibu bankin was recorded in 'ryo' and they had a character of standard coin.
- 歴代将軍の中でも一番独裁性の強かった徳川家康の治世においても、諌言したり政策立案する幕閣は存在したのである。
- Even under the rule of Ieyasu TOKUGAWA, whose governance had the strongest aspects of dictatorship of all the shoguns, there were cabinet officials in the Shogunate who remonstrated against the shogun and were engaged in formulation of policies.
- 後三年の役が平定された後は、奥州藤原氏が奥羽一帯の実質的な支配者となり、陸奥国司は徴税官的側面が強くなった。
- After the Gosannen War was suppressed, the Oshu-Fujiwara clan became the effective ruler of Ou region and the position of kokushi of Mutsu Province became more like a revenue agent.
- しかし、室町時代はとかく守護の力も強く、武士が中心の社会であり、こうした慣行が取り締まられることはなかった。
- But this customary practice was not controlled as provincial military governors (shugo) were influential and samurai played a central role in society.
- しかし自然法といっても、『万国公法』のそれは、キリスト教的色彩をベースにしながら儒教的色彩も強く帯びている。
- Although we call it natural law, one in 'Bankoku Koho' shows, while it is based on Christian way of thinking, strong Confucian color.
- 江戸幕府は天皇の居住する京都に近い畿内は攘夷気分が強く情勢不穏であるとして、兵庫開港を延ばしに延ばしていた。
- The Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) repeatedly postponed the opening of the port in Hyogo, citing the fact that it was in the Kinai region (the five capital provinces surrounding the ancient capitals of Nara and Kyoto) and thus close to Kyoto, where the Emperor lived, and pointing out the region was dangerously unstable due to the strong joi ('expulsion of foreigners') sentiment there.
- 通商関係については欧米列強に準ずる待遇(最恵国待遇・協定関税率)をお互いに認め合うなどといった内容であった。
- Regarding trading relations, they approved each other the conditions for commerce (most-favored-nation treatments and agreed tariff rates) which were equal to that for the allied western powers.
- 1880年以後、定数は事実上無視されて知事や政府高官経験者が次の役職を得るまでの待機ポストの色合いを強める。
- After the year of 1880 the quota was ignored practically, it became a kind of waiting post for a prefectural governor and high officials of the government by getting a new post.
- この玄明はやはり受領と対立して租税を納めず、乱暴をはたらき、更に官物を強奪して国衙から追捕令が出されていた。
- Haruaki also opposed the Zuryo and was wanted by the Kokuga because of crimes he had committed such as evasion of land tax, acts of violence and stealing Kanmotsu (tribute goods paid as taxes or tithes).
- このような相違は、国家権力の強さ、土地私有性および交換経済の発展の状態などの相違を反映させたものとみられる。
- Such differences may have been a reflection of the strength in government power and the state of development of a system for private ownership of land and an exchange economy.
- 元寇の勝利によって民族的自覚が強まり、日本は神国であるという「神国思想」が発生し、神本仏従の習合思想が成立。
- After Japan's successful repulsion of the Mongol invasions, racial awareness strengthened among the Japanese, giving rise to the 'Shinkoku shiso,' the belief that Japan was a divine country, as well as the syncretic theory that Japan's kami (gods) were manifestations of Buddhas and bodhisattvas.
- また、一切衆生の救済を強く志向し、ハンセン病救済事業や、非人救済、橋の架橋を行うなど社会事業を熱心に進めた。
- Moreover, they strengthened their will to work for the salvation of all living creatures, giving aid to those afflicted with leprosy and to hinin (literally 'non-humans,' members of the outcastes) and other bridge-building efforts, and thus increasing their zeal for social and humanitarian work.
- 細川氏が内部の権力闘争により弱体化すると、足利氏を補佐するという名目で、近江国の六角氏による介入が強まった。
- When the Hosokawa clan was weakened because of an internal struggle of power, the Rokkaku clan in Omi Province increased its interference under the pretext of assistance to the Ashikaga clan.
- いわゆる『部落解体』を行い中央集権体制を作ろうとしたが、地方におけるまとまりが強く達成することができなかった。
- It was meant to establish the centralized administrative framework through the so-called 'hamlet demise,' which was not accomplished due to a strong connection local communities had.
- 改姓名は強制されなかったが、日本式姓名を持つことは社会的上昇に有利なこともあり、多くの台湾人が改姓名を行った。
- Though the change of family names was not forced, many Taiwanese changed their family names as it was advantageous to enhance social status.
- 特に20世紀初頭に中国接近の度を強めていたアメリカは賠償金を中国人留学生への援助や、大学の建設などに充当した。
- In particular in the early twentieth century the United States, which was coming closer to China, diverted the reparations to the support of Chinese students in the U.S. and the establishment of universities.
- 北京議定書は列強諸国によって清朝の国権や財政力をもぎとる、まさに当時の中国に対する侵略を象徴する内容であった。
- The Peking Protocol was really a symbol of the invasion of China by the Powers by depriving the state rights and financial power of the Qing Dynasty at that time.
- 現代では資本主義列強の日本に対する圧力や外資進出などこれまでの常識を覆す存在の代名詞的に用いられることがある。
- Today, the term is used at times to symbolize external pressure on Japan, such as by capitalist powers, or entry of foreign capital in the country that can destroy existing conventions.
- 一つは信長・秀吉の天下統一事業に代表される、強大な権力者を頂点とする中央集権体制、いわば「タテの支配」である。
- One was the centralized administrative framework in which an enormously powerful person was at the top such as Nobunaga and Hideyoshi's project to unify the country, what was called 'a vertical control.'
- 信長の後ろ盾を得た孫一主導の下、雑賀衆は織田信孝の四国攻めに船百艘を提供するなど、織田氏との関係を強めていく。
- The Saiga shu led by Magoichi who was supported by Nobunaga had strengthened the relationship with the Oda clan, for example, it provided 100 ships for the attack against the Shikoku region by Nobutaka ODA.
- 漂着同然で各地に入港する外国船からの伝染病の脅威は幕府施薬院の成立と共に検疫強化に踏み切ったという見方もある。
- Another viewpoint claims that the Bakufu embarked on strengthening its quarantine practices in addition to establishing the Bakufu Seyaku-in (Pharmacy Institution), citing the threat of infectious diseases brought in by foreign ships entering ports in various regions in conditions that were no better than drifting ships.
- だが、1792年のロシアのアダム・ラクスマンの来航以来、諸外国の船がたびたび来航して日本への開国要求を強めた。
- Since the arrival of the Russian named Adam Kirillovich Laksman in 1792, ships from various foreign countries frequently came and urged Japan to open the country.
- 相手の要素を補い、強める影響を与えるものを「相生」、相手の要素を抑え、弱める影響を与えるものを「相剋」という。
- Element which complement and have a strengthening influence on others are called 'Sosho' and elements which control and have a weakening influence on others are called 'Sokoku.'
- 具体的には不平等条約を砲艦外交(軍艦や大砲といった軍事力を背景に行われる恫喝的な外交交渉)によって強制された。
- To be more precise, such countries were forced to accept unequal treaties through gunboat diplomacy (threatening diplomatic negotiation backed with military force such as battleships and cannons).
- これには剛毅など西欧化に対し強く反対していた保守勢力が、北京議定書によって一掃されたことも大きく影響している。
- The Boxer Protocol swept away the strong resistance of conservative factions including Gangyi, against Western European influence, which had a great influence on this.
- これは、融解温度を下げ鋳造を易しくするとともに、完成品の強度を上げるために意図的に使用されたものと考えられる。
- It was used intentionally to decrease the dissolution temperature for easier casting and to increase the strength of the product.
- この頃になると、信長の領土は畿内の大半から北陸・中国・四国・東国の一部を支配するという強大なものとなっていた。
- By that time the territory of Nobunaga had become very large and included most of the Provinces around the ancient capitals of Nara and Kyoto, Hokuriku region (the northwestern part of the main island of Japan), Chugoku region (the westernmost region of the main island of Japan), Shikoku, and a part of Togoku (the eastern part of Japan, particularly Kanto region).
- 当時、国衙は在地領主・田堵農民層との闘争でその支配体制が危機に瀕していたため、武力による補強が求められていた。
- At that time, military reinforcements were necessary because the organizational system of Kokuga was threatened by conflict between local landowners and the Tato farmer class.
- 円勢は法勝寺・尊勝寺の仏像群の造立を主導しており、白河法皇への奉仕に対する論功行賞ともいえる強引な人事だった。
- Ensei led the construction of Buddhist statues at the Hossho-ji Temple and the Sonsho-ji Temple, and because of this, the aggressive appointment was processed as if it had been a reward for his service to the Cloistered Emperor Shirakawa.
- ところで、9世紀ごろから関東地方を中心として、富豪層による運京途中の税の強奪など、群盗行為が横行し始めていた。
- From the 9th century onwards especially in the Kanto region, millionaires who brought taxes to Kyoto were assaulted and robbed.
- 当時、明治政府は政府主導による憲法制定・国会開設を着々と準備する一方で、民権運動に対する弾圧政策を強化していた。
- At that time, the Meiji Government was promoting the preparation of the government-led formulation of a constitution and establishment of the National Diet while it was strengthening an ironfisted policy to democratic movements.
- 日本は候補の一つとして文川市郡松田里を強く推したが、その地は王陵(王家の墓地)があるために朝鮮側が難色を示した。
- Japan insisted that Songjon Village in Munchon City should be one of the possible sites, but Korea were reluctant because there was a royal tomb.
- しかし、大航海時代を経て強力な海洋技術を身につけた西欧諸国に対して対等に渡り合える力は当時のアジアにはなかった。
- However, many Asian countries during this time did not have the capability to compete on equal terms with West European countries that had already mastered strong oceanic technology through the Age of Geographical Discovery.
- これは単なる外国崇拝だけではなく、当時の極端に低い日本の国際的地位を上げるための苦渋の決断という側面も強かった。
- It was not only worship of foreign countries but also an agonizing decision to raise Japan's international status, which was extremely low at that time.
- 新たに成立した第2次桂内閣による取締り強化もこの流れに拍車をかけ、1910年の大逆事件(幸徳事件)へと発展した。
- This trend was further spurred by the stronger crackdown by the newly-formed second Katsura Cabinet, and developed into the Taigyaku Jiken (case of high treason) or the Kotoku Incident in 1910.
- 商人は一家一業を原則とし、全ての商品と蓄えられた米や金銀を半ば強制的に藩に納めさせ、改めて標符と商品を下付した。
- Each merchant was only allowed to run one business and was forced to give all his products and savings of rice, gold and silver to the domain first, then later, a hyofu and products were granted to the merchant by the domain.
- 集治監に少なからず思想犯が収容されたことから、次第に世間の注目を浴びるようになり、強制労働的な使役は廃止された。
- Since many ideological offenders were locked up in Shujikan, it gradually attracted public attention, which resulted in the abolition of forced labor.
- 従って日本は韓国政府が再度別の外国との戦争を日本に強制する条約を締結することを防がなければならない、と主張した。
- Therefore, he claimed that Japan must take steps to prevent the Korean government from making treaties again which would force Japan into fighting another foreign war.
- 西太后は北京から逃走する途中で義和団を弾圧する上諭を出したが、同時に列強との和議を図るよう李鴻章に指示を出した。
- Empress Dowager Cixi gave out an imperial order to suppress the Boxers in the midst of fleeing from Beijing, but instructed Li Hongzhang to compromise with the allied western powers at the same time.
- 光緒帝を同行させたのは北京に残しておくことで列強を後ろ盾にした皇帝親政が復活する可能性を彼女が恐れたためである。
- She made Emperor Guangxu accompany her fearing that if she left him behind in Beijing direct imperial rule may be revived with the support of the allied western powers.
- 三国干渉によってロシア帝国の東アジアへの影響力が強まったことで、日本への牽制を含めて親露政策を強めるようになる。
- The Russian Empire enhanced its clout to East Asia after the Triple Intervention, so Korea enhanced the pro-Russia policy including feint to Japan.
- 「であるから、信康が信長の処断要求に乗じた家康の命令で処断されたことに、数正は強い憤激を覚えていたはずである。」
- Kazumasa was therefore outraged that Nobuyasu had been killed by Ieyasu on Nobunaga's order.'
- 第一次世界大戦における日露の関係強化と第三国の中国支配阻止、極東における両国の特殊権益の擁護を相互に再確認した。
- They reassured each other that they should enforce the relationship between Japan and Russia at the First World War, stop the third party from controlling China, and protect the both countries' special interests in the Far East.
- 政権を牛耳るためとはいえ、時政と牧の方のこのようなあまりにも強硬な策は一族の北条政子・北条義時らの反感を招いた。
- Tokimasa and Maki no kata's action like this to take hold of the government was so aggressive that it provoked antipathy of Masako HOJO, Yoshitoki HOJO, and others in the family.
- この強訴では、重盛の兵が神輿を射るという失態を犯したことで延暦寺側に有利に事が運び、師高の配流で一旦は決着する。
- During this direct petition, Shigemori's forces made a mistake when they shot an arrow at a portable shrine, which led to an advantage for the Enryaku-ji Temple side and was settled temporarily by Morotake's exile.
- 律令制の最盛期とちがって、租税を強力な力なしには徴収できない階級関係の変化が、検非違使の機能の変化にも反映した。
- Unlike during the prime of the ritsuryo system, changes in class relationships made it impossible to collect taxes without enforcing power, and this was reflected in the changes in the function of kebiishi.
- 日本が最初に締結した日米和親条約や日米修好通商条約はその後に結ばれた西欧列強と締結した諸条約のモデルとなっている。
- The Treaty between the United States of America and the Empire of Japan which was the first treaty that Japan concluded, and the Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the United States and Japan were models for the treaties that Japan later concluded with the powerful countries of Western Europe.
- 784年(延暦3年)強まってきた寺社勢力からの脱却のため、桓武天皇が山背国長岡の地に新たな都(長岡京)を造成した。
- In 784, the Emperor Kanmu constructed a new capital (Nagaokakyo) in Nagaoka in Yamashiro Province in order to free himself from the influence of temples and shrines which had been getting more and more powerful.
- 朝鮮半島から暦法など中国の文物を移入するとともに豪族や民衆の系列化・組織化を漸次的に進めて内政面を強化していった。
- At the same time the Yamato Kingdom was importing Chinese culture, such as calendar making, from the Korean Peninsula, it was strengthening domestic administration by gradually organizing both the ruling elite and the common people.
- 参勤交代制度の目的は、諸大名に出費を強いることでその勢力を削ぎ、謀反などを起こすことを抑止するためだったとされる。
- The sankin-kotai system reportedly aimed to curb daimyo's power for uprisings or rebellious acts by putting financial burdens on them.
- まとまりを欠いた「散砂」のような中国の人々を強く結合させるためには、国民精神・道徳が不可欠だと梁啓超は考えていた。
- Liang Qichao thought that national spirit and morality were indispensable to strongly unite the Chinese people, who seemed like scattered sand lacking cohesion.
- 中世の武家社会においては後世ほど儒教の影響が強くなかったため、主君は家臣にとって必ずしも絶対的な存在ではなかった。
- In the samurai society of the medieval period, Confucianism was not so influential that vassals did not necessarily see their lord as all-important.
- 日本側は密輸行為を無視し、領海問題、日章旗問題を口実に中国と強硬な交渉を行い、謝罪と10万円の損害賠償を要求した。
- Japan, disregarding the act of smuggling, negotiated with China in hard-line manners under plea of the issues of territorial sea and of the Japanese (rising sun) flag, and demanded an apology and compensation for damage of a hundred thousand yen.
- 欧米列強が植民地戦争を繰り広げていた明治時代初期に、「富国強兵」と共に政府が実行した政策の根幹となった思想である。
- At the end of the 19th century, when the allied western powers were fighting colonial wars one another, the Japanese government carried out a new policy based on this thought with a slogan 'Fukoku kyohei' (fortifying the country, strengthening the military).
- 藩内においても長教の時代から藩財政の窮乏化が深刻化し、明和5年(1768年)末には年貢減免を求める強訴が発生する。
- From the time of Naganori, the impoverishment of the financial state aggravated within the Shibamura Domain, and in the end of 1768 a petition seeking land tax reduction or exemption occurred.
- 『江赤見聞記』は、吉良方に強者が広間に六人、台所に一人いたとしており、吉良家臣の清水一学は台所で討ち死にしている。
- 'Koseki Kenbunki' stated that there were six skilled men in the hall, and one in the kitchen where Kira's retainer Ichigaku SHIMIZU was killed.
- 戦国大名は領域の一円支配をさらに推し進める一方、家臣である配下の武士を城下町に集めて強い統制下に置く傾向が始まる。
- While the Sengoku daimyo further pushed to rule the whole region in their territory, they started to gather their vassals, samurai, in their castle town and bring the samurai under their tight control.
- ただし、当時すでに強固な主従関係が見られたわけではなく、流動的な側面を持つ主従関係だったことに注意する必要がある。
- Note, however, these subordinate-superior relationships were not necessarily rigidly established at that time; they seemed to also have flexible aspects.
- 検非違使をも動員して徴税を強行する造酒正と酒屋の座を支配下に置く延暦寺などの有力寺院との対立が生じることになった。
- However, conflict occurred between miki no kami, who enforced tax collection by pressing 'kebiishi' (a police and judicial chief) into service, and influential temples, including Enryaku-ji Temple, which had 'za' (a trade guild) of Sakaya under their control.
- 桓武天皇は歴代天皇の中でも遷都を二回も行うほどの強権を誇ったが、光仁天皇即位まではあまり恵まれた境遇ではなかった。
- Emperor Kanmu possessed enough authority to allow him to relocate the capital twice, although he had not experienced such privileged circumstances until Emperor Konin's ascension.
- これらの強硬意見の背景には、廃藩置県によって失業した40万~50万人に上る士族の不満のはけ口を探していたことがある。
- Behind those hard-line ideas was the fact that they were seeking a vent for dissatisfaction of 40 to 50 thousand warriors who had lost their position because of Haihan-chiken (abolition of feudal domains and establishment of prefectures).
- 多くの大名が改易、もしくは仏教か神道への改宗を余儀なくされ(強制改宗)、キリスト教の禁教と迫害の時代に入っていった。
- Many daimyo were forced to relinquish their samurai status and forfeit their hereditary territories, or were compelled to profess faith in Buddhism or Shinto (compulsory conversion), ushering in a period of anti-Christian edicts and persecution of Christianity.
- また、李氏朝鮮も徹底した文治主義をとり、非常に形式主義的な性格の強い朝鮮使節の応接は勅旨以上に気を使うものであった。
- Since the Joseon Dynasty was the government by law and reason rather than by military force, the envoy observed formalism so strictly that the Japanese government had to treat them more carefully than the Imperial order.
- キリスト教の指導者の総数140人は、萩市(66人)、津和野市(28人)、福山市(20人)に分けて強制的に移住させた。
- 140 Christian leaders were forced to move to Hagi-city (66 people), Tsuwano-city (28 people), and Fukuyama-city (20 people).
- 開港開市の規定などについては、英仏などの欧米列強は既に最恵国待遇を得ていたので、日本も同じ恩恵に預かることが出来た。
- Regarding opening ports and cities, Japan was able to receive the benefits from most-favored-nation treatment, which the western powers including England and France had already acquired.
- ヤマト王権による支配が強まり、壮大な古墳(前方後円墳・円墳)が盛んに作られ、古代国家の基礎が整えられた時期にあたる。
- The period is marked by a strengthening of Yamato royal authority and control, the frequent construction of grand burial mounds (round burial mounds, and those square at one end and rounded at the other), and the settlement of the basis of the ancient Japanese state.
- さらに同年には袁世凱の北洋軍閥の一部が満洲に駐留し、警察力・防衛力を増強するとともに、日露の行動への歯止めをかけた。
- Furthermore, in the same year, part of the Beiyang Military faction led by Yuan Shikai was deployed to Manchuria to reinforce policing and security, and offer a bulwark against Japanese and Russian movements.
- 安政5年(1858年)4月大老に就任した井伊直弼(彦根藩主)は、条約問題と将軍継嗣問題を強権的に一気に解決をはかる。
- In April 1858, Naosuke II, the lord of the Hikone clan, assumed the position of Tairo (Chief Minister) and tried to decisively settle the disputes over the treaties and the struggle for succession.
- また、儒教的世界観では、支那の帝国が周辺の野蛮人の国よりも勢力も強く、倫理的にも優れるという中華思想が根本にあった。
- In addition, the Confucianism's view of the world is based on the Sinocentrism that the Chinese empire is stronger than any other nearby barbarian countries and that the Chinese people are ethically superior to the barbarian.
- しかし、戦後もフィリピンや香港で日本軍が発行した軍票に強制的に両替させられた住民による、戦後補償を求める訴えがある。
- However, even after the WWII, in the Philippines and Hong Kong, some residents who were forced to change their money into the Japanese military currency demanded individual compensation from the Japanese government.
- 平氏は福原に陣営を置いて、その外周(東の生田口、西の一ノ谷口、山の手の夢野口)に強固な防御陣を築いて待ち構えていた。
- The Taira clan set their military camp in the Fukuwara region and built a strong defensive army in the surrounding areas (the Ikuta fortress entrance for protection of the East; the Ichinotani fortress entrance would protect the West, and the Yumeno fortress entrance would protect the hilly section of the city), and they waited for the arrival of the Kamakura (Minamoto) army.
- これは政府予算が議会側によって人質に取られて妥協を強いられる事の無いようにという趣旨で井上毅が提案したものであった。
- This article was drafted by Kowashi INOUE in order to prevent the administration from having to compromise on political policies in order to have the budget plan approved at the Diet.
- 公家の乱脈ぶりが白日の下にさらされただけでなく、江戸幕府による宮廷制御の強化、後陽成天皇の退位のきっかけともなった。
- The incident not only disclosed the wild license of court nobles but even triggered tightened control of the Imperial Court by the Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a Shogun) and abdication of Emperor Goyozei.
- 律令法の継受法としての性質を強調するあまり、それが日本法制史上に果たした役割を過小に評価するのは、事実と合致しない。
- It would be unfaithful to the factual evidence to underestimate the role of ritsuryo law in the history of the Japanese legal system by placing too much emphasis on the philosophy behind ritsuryo law as an adopted law.
- 武士は発生当初から血縁的要素よりも地縁的要素の強い集団であったが、この乱は日本を一層の地縁社会へと導くことになった。
- Since their start, bushi had stronger ties with their regions than blood relatives, and this rebellion led to the strengthening of regional ties within society in Japan.
- 信長は、本来であれば虚勢を張ったりして自軍を強く見せるのが戦の常であるにも関わらず、逆に弱いと吹聴して回ったとされる。
- Nobunaga spread the rumor that his army was weak in defiance of his usual tactics in which he made his army appear stronger than it was with a show of bravado.
- その観点からであれば、墾田永年私財法は、律令を否定するものというより、律令の法目的を補強するものだったとの見方もある。
- It may be said from this standpoint that there is a view that rather than denying the Ritsuryo Codes, the Konden Einen Shizai Law was reinforcing the aim of the law of the Ritsuryo Codes.
- 根来寺は室町時代においては幕府の保護を背景に紀伊・和泉に八か所の荘園を領有し、経済力・武力の両面において強力であった。
- The Negoro-ji Temple held eight shoen (manor in medieval Japan) at Kii and Izumi Provinces on the background of the support of the bakufu in the Muromachi period and had strong economic and military powers.
- しかし、西欧列強や日本は朝鮮半島の鎖国状態が続くことを許さず、日本は江華島事件を機に李氏朝鮮と日朝修好条規を締結した。
- However, West European powers and Japan did not accept the continued isolation of the Korean Peninsula, and Japan took advantage of Ganghwa Island incident to conclude the Japanese-Korea Treaty of Amity with the Yi Dynasty Korea.
- 阿部はとりあえず、諸大名へ江戸湾警備を増強すべく、砲撃用の台場造営を命じたほか、11月14日に持ち場の変更を行わせた。
- Meanwhile, he had the daimyos (territorial lords) build forts to strengthen the security of Edo Bay, and on November 14, changed each daimyo's duty post.
- 出港を強行したのも日本に留まりつづけることでオスマン帝国海軍の弱体化ぶりが喧伝されてしまうことを恐れたのだと言われる。
- It is said that the return sail was carried out because he was afraid that the reputation of the weakened Ottoman Empire Navy would spread.
- この鉄道の建設は国策的要素が強く、また仙台駅以北が過疎地であり、完成後も赤字が見込まれることから、手厚い援助を受けた。
- The construction of this railroad was in line with the national policy and because of its anticipated financial red ink from the operation in the remote area north of Sendai Station, it received a generous government subsidy.
- 家老を設置した将軍家の旗本は、およそ250家(2%未満)であり、その家老は80石から、多くても100石強程度であった。
- The number of Hatamoto families who appointed Karo was roughly 250 (less than 2%), and the earnings of these Karo officers was from 80 to 100 koku.
- 官田の消滅には、明代後半期から長江デルタ地帯を中心に各地で強まった、土地に対する公課負担均等化への社会的要請が大きい。
- The disappearance of kanden was mainly due to societal demand for equalization of taxes on land which spread through various regions around the delta of the Yangtze River in the late Ming period.
- しかし、『平家物語』や上記『吾妻鏡』では義経の戦った場所は鵯越(一ノ谷から東方8キロ)となっており鵯越説も根強くある。
- However, according to 'Heike Monogatari' (The Tale of the Heike) and the above mentioned 'Azuma Kagami,' Yoshitsune fought at Hiyodorigoe (eight kilometers to the east from the Ichinotani region), so some historians and experts still strongly support the Hiyodorigoe theory.
- しかし、人望のあった重忠を強攻策をもって殺したことは、時政と牧の方に対する反感を惹起することになった(畠山重忠の乱)。
- However, killing through the hard-line tactics Shigetada who was respected caused antipathy to Tokimasa and Maki no kata (the War of Shigetada HATAKEYAMA).
- 郡の分置廃合への反対が強かったため、全府県に郡制が施行されたのは1899年(明治32年)に郡制が改正されてからである。
- As there had been a strong opposition against separation, installation, abolition and amalgamation of Gun, it was not until 1899 when Gunsei was revised so that Gunsei became effective in all the prefectures.
- 大名の勢力(軍事力)を統制して徳川家による全国支配を強化することを目的としており、特に外様大名の多い西国に徹底させた。
- Its purpose was to strengthen the Tokugawa family's domination of the entire country by regulating the power (military force) of the feudal lords; it was focused in particular on the western provinces, where there were a lot of nonhereditary feudal lords.
- 新たに発足した室町幕府は、戦乱を抑えることを目的として、在地武士を組織するため、国単位におかれる守護の権限を強化した。
- The newly inaugurated Muromachi bakufu strengthened the power and authority of shugo positioned in each province in order to prevent the maelstrom of war and organize the local samurais.
- 文化の担い手としての天皇や公家は、この戦乱の時代には、文化の相伝に存在意義を見出すことを強いられ、自らも見出していた。
- Emperors and court nobles as supporters of culture were forced to find their significance of existence in handing down culture and they themselves did so.
- そのため、家康側が全面的に銘文の字句を口実としたものではなく、豊臣側の軽率な行為に乗じたものというという性格の方が強い。
- Therefore, the incident was not essentially the one that the Ieyasu side used the phrases in the inscription for the full excuse for attacking the Toyotomi's side, but took advantage of the thoughtlessness of the Toyotomi side.
- 新羅は自前の律令は制定せず、唐律令を採用していたが、独自色の強い格を多数制定することにより、新羅独特の国家体制を築いた。
- Silla adopted the Tang Luli, and did not enact Lilu that they created from scratch, but by enacting various Ge which had characteristics strong of Silla, it established its own form of government.
- このうち、中書省は天子とのつながりが強かったが、門下省は貴族層の意思を代表する機関であり、中書と門下の力が拮抗していた。
- The Secretariat was closely connected with the emperor, whereas the Chancellery represented the intentions of the noble class; the Secretariat competed with the Chancellery for influence.
- そのため、鎌倉幕府が強権をもって法律を制定したというよりも、むしろ御家人の支持を得るために制定した法律という性格を持つ。
- Accordingly, its characteristic is more of a law that was established to be supported by shogunal retainers than that which was established by the Kamakura bakufu with an iron fist.
- こうした中、薩摩藩や長州藩など「雄藩」と呼ばれる有力藩では財政改革に成功し、幕末期の政局で強い発言力を持つことになった。
- Under such circumstances, powerful domains called 'Yuhan,' such as Satsuma Domain and Choshu Domain, succeeded in financial reform and began to influence more and more in the political situation during the end of Edo period.
- しかし、可成の部下である各務元正らが城兵と共に強硬に抵抗し、24日に信長が大津市が救援に現れるまでついに落城しなかった。
- However, Motomasa KAGAMI, Yoshinari's subordinate, and others strongly fought back along with the castle garrison, and tenaciously held out until Nobunaga arrived in Otsu City to help them on the November 2.
- しかし、北条庶流の反発は強く、「仰せ」によって時村を誅殺した実行部隊を「此事僻事(虚偽)なり」と処刑して収めようとした。
- However, branch Hojo families rebelled strongly against the situation, and Sadatoki tried to get the situation under control by killing the persons of the group having executed the killing actually according to 'an order,' saying that 'there was no such order.'
- 翌年、対外政策の紛糾により、再度老中に任命されたものの、相変わらず幕閣・大名の不信は強く、1年にして辞任に追い込まれた。
- In the next year, the complication of foreign policy pushed him up to 'roju' once again, but the distrust toward him from the cabinet officials of the shogunate and from 'daimyo' was so strong that he was forced to resign in a year.
- 戊申詔書による風紀引き締めと同時に社会主義運動を弾圧、幸徳事件の摘発や南北朝正閏問題への介入、出版物の取締強化を行った。
- The cabinet not only enforced discipline by Boshin Shosho (imperial edict, decree issued in 1908) but also cracked down on socialism, conducted the prosecution of Kotoku Incident (The High Treason Incident), intervened the legitimacy of the Northern and Southern Dynasties and strictly regulated publishing.
- こうしたトラブルでは、常に国際法や条約を楯に有利に事を運ぼうとする列強との交渉に、中国官僚は神経を尖らせる必要があった。
- Because of these troubles, the bureaucracy of China had to be cautious about negotiation with powerful countries which always tried to make profits shielding themselves behind international law and treaties.
- 「照会」問題―この「照会」とは列強が西太后に引退を求めたとされる文書であり、これを見て激昂した彼女が宣戦を決めたという。
- The 'reference' problem: This 'reference' was the document from the allied western powers demanding the retirement of Empress Dowager, and she decided to declare war after being enraged by it.
- ラザフォード・オールコックら英米外交団は条約の規定と違うと強硬に抗議したが、幕府は横浜も神奈川の一部であると押し通した。
- Rutherford Alcock and other members of the diplomatic corps in England and the United States protested strongly that this change violated the treaty provisions, but Bakufu pressed its case by insisting that Yokohama was also a part of Kanagawa.
- しかし、これらは次第に考慮されなくなってきており、平成の大合併期には、強引な名称決定に論争が起きた事例も少なくなかった。
- However, these conditions have not come to be considered gradually, and at the time of big consolidation in Heisei period, controversies occurred in many cases in which municipality names were forcibly decided.
- 翌年正月には早くも義親の首を携えて華々しく凱旋し、白河は正盛を但馬守に任じた(ただし、その後も義親生存説が根強く残る)。
- The next month, he returned victoriously with Yoshichika's head, and Shirakawa named Masamori as Tajima no kami (chief officer of Tajima Province) (However, a rumor that Yoshichika still lived persisted).
- 江戸時代の鎖国が原因で欧米列強に国力で大きな差をつけられ、これが安政五カ国条約という新国家を後々まで苦しめる結果となった。
- Japan, which fell far behind the Western powers due to its national isolation policy in the Edo era, was heavily burdened by the Ansei Five-Power Treaties long after its start as a renewed nation.
- また中国(清朝)でも阿片戦争での敗北後、長期にわたって列強とさまざまな不平等条約を締結し、経済的な植民地に転落していった。
- China, too, concluded various unequal treaties with powerful countries over a long period after the defeat in the Opium Wars and fell to the position of their economic colony.
- 天理や性が天から賦与されたものであることを想起させる言葉であるのに対し、「良知」は人が生来もつものというニュアンスが強い。
- In contrast to 'tenri' and 'sei', which remind people that they are given by Heaven, 'ryochi' contains a strong nuance of that which is endowed to people by nature.
- 特に泰時の次弟・北条朝時を祖とする名越家は北条氏嫡流(のち得宗と呼ばれる)に対抗心が強く、名越光時らは不満を募らせていた。
- Particularly, the NAGOE family which was the descendent of Tomotoki HOJO, was in strong rivalry with the main branch of the Hojo clan (later called Tokuso), and Mitsutoki NAGOE and others aggravated discontent.
- しかし、外様大名や朝廷の介入による幕政改革の強制は幕府権威をいっそう低下させ、これにより幕府崩壊の方向性は決定的となった。
- However, intervention of 'tozama daimyo' and Imperial Court in politics of the Edo bakufu and their enforcement of reforms on it further decreased its authority, so its collapse became almost inevitable.
- その後も一君万民論は朝野における思想的底流として根強く、断続的に天皇の権威強化と皇室以外の身分特権の縮小がなされていった。
- Meantime, as the Ikkunbanmin-ron theory was still robust as an undercurrent ideology at the court and among ordinary people, the authority of the emperor was consequently reinforced, and the privileges to the nobles other than the Imperial Family became gradually reduced.
- 困難にぶつかりながらもマーティンが訳業を放棄しなかったのは、単なる名誉欲だけではない、彼なりの強い信念があったためである。
- The reason why Martin did not give up translating work although there was difficulties was not only simple honor but he had s strong belief of his own.
- 8月11日から14日までは再び清朝軍の攻勢が強まったが、8月14日の午後ついに援軍が来て2ヶ月弱の籠城戦は終わりをつげた。
- The offensive movement of the Qing dynasty army strengthened once again between August 11 to 14, but reinforcements finally arrived during the afternoon of August 14 to end the besiegement that lasted slightly less than 2 months.
- だが伊賀の場合、実力者である上忍三家(服部氏・百地氏・藤林氏)の発言力が強く合議を開いても彼らの意見に従うことが多かった。
- In case of Iga, however, the forcefulness of speech by powerful Jonin Miyake (Hattori clan, Momochi clan, and Fujibayashi clan) was so strong that people followed their opinion most of the time when a reunion took place.
- 2度の内閣を組織し、明治天皇から強い信頼を得ていた桂太郎は、「桂新党」の設立と山県系官僚閥を改革する新政策を模索していた。
- Taro KATSURA, who led the Japanese government twice and won the strong trust of Emperor Meiji, sought to establish a new party 'Katsura Shinto' and reform the clique of bureaucrats connected with Yamagata.
- 実際には、両者の共同謀議の痕跡はなく、むしろ自らの地位向上を目指しているうちに武装蜂起に追い込まれてしまった色合いが強い。
- In fact, there is no real evidence of such a conspiracy, but there is a strong probability that Masakado and Sumitomo were pushed to military action while trying to improve their social status.
- 強硬論の平野、河上らに圧されて解散は思いとどまるが、13日夜に肝心の主将の沢宣嘉が解散派とともに本陣から脱走してしまった。
- Dissolution of the army was desisted by the pressures from hard-liners like Hirano and Kawakami but the crucial commander-in-chief Nobuyoshi SAWA, together with the pro-dissolution-party, fled from the headquarter on the night of 13.
- さらに和田合戦、宝治合戦、平禅門の乱などにより北条氏以外の他氏族を幕府から排除し、権力を北条氏に集中させる動きも強まった。
- And with the Heizenmon Rebellion and the battles of Wada and Hoji, the Hoji clan was able to purge the bakufu of all the non-Hojo warrior clans, stepping up their efforts to concentrate all power in their own hands.
- 戦国大名は、ほぼ恒常的に相互間の戦闘を繰り返すとともに、領国内の土地や人を一円支配(一元的な支配)する傾向を強めていった。
- Sengoku daimyo repeated battles among them almost constantly and strengthened the tendency to rule monitically (centralized control) land and people in their own territory.
- その後政府の強硬姿勢は、頃まで続いたが、税収の見込みがつくようになると徐々に緩和されていき、に耕地宅地の改正作業が完了した。
- The hardline stance of the government continued through 1878; but the strict stance was gradually eased as the government was able to have the prospect of receiving revenue from tax and the work of reformation of arable land and the residential land was completed in 1880.
- しかし、富国強兵を目的とする近代国家建設を推進するためには、中央集権化による政府の地方支配強化は是非とも必要なことであった。
- However, the government desperately needed strong control over the provinces in order to develop the construction of modern state, to enrich the country and to strengthen the military.
- 新政府にとって、最大の目標は欧米列強に追いつくことであり、そのためにも旧幕府時代に締結された不平等条約の改正が急務とされた。
- The biggest goal for the new government was to catch up with powerful western countries, and for this reason, they had to solve the problem of the unequal treaty signed in the Shogunate era as soon as possible.
- しかし鎖国政策をおめるにつれてキリスト教の弾圧が強化され、には長崎市西坂で「元和の大殉教」として知られる大量処刑が行われた。
- However, along with the reinforcement of the seclusion policy, the crackdown on Christianity was strengthened, and a mass execution known as 'mass martyrdom in Genna era' was executed in Nishizaka of Nagasaki City in 1622.
- 氏による反証では、強制執行は行われておらず、洞村の人々が陵墓への畏怖心などから自主的に移転を決めたとの事実が明らかにされた。
- According his rebuttal, the people in Hora Village was not enforced to move but voluntarily decided to relocate in awe of the imperial mausoleum and so on.
- 時代的変遷を総じていえば、文人の要素として時代を遡るほど徳(道義)を強調する傾向があり、時代が下ると風流に傾倒するといえる。
- In general, going back farther in time, virtue (morality) was more emphasized as an important element of Bunjin, and in more recent years, refined taste was more emphasized.
- 生き残った信徒たちは流罪の苦難を「旅」と呼んで信仰を強くし、1879年(明治12年)、故地浦上に聖堂(浦上天主堂)を建てた。
- The surviving Christians strengthened their religious faith while calling their suffering during deportation 'journey,' and built a church (Urakami Cathedral) in Urakami with which they had been associated in 1879.
- だが、宣戦布告後2ヶ月も経たないうちに欧米列強国軍は首都北京市及び紫禁城を制圧、清朝は莫大な賠償金の支払いを余儀なくされる。
- However, the forces of allied western powers took over the capital Beijing as well as the Forbidden City within two months of the proclamation of war, and the Qing dynasty was forced to pay an enormous amount of reparations.
- 一揆は、旧暦4月4日から6日にかけて柏崎県庁へ強訴を行った一行と、4月6日から8日にかけて新潟県庁へ向かった一行とから成る。
- The uprising was comprised of two groups; one directly petitioned Kashiwazaki Prefectural Office from April 4th to 6th (lunar calendar) for reduction of peoples' burdens of the construction, and another went to Niigata Prefectural Office from April 6th to 8th (lunar calendar) to protest the construction.
- しかし、増上寺の献納は予定通り進められ、なかば強引に増上寺本堂は大教院として召し上げられ、大教院神殿の拝殿として用いられた。
- However, the plan of the contribution of the facilities of Zojo-ji Temple was pursued according to schedule, and the main hall of the temple was almost forcefully taken away and used as the haiden (a worship hall at a Shinto shrine) of Daikyoin Shrine.
- ただ同時に見逃せないのは、この事件の背景に専制を強める将軍およびその近臣勢力と東国有力御家人との対立が考えられることである。
- One thing that should not be ignored at the same time is that, behind this incident, there could be a conflict between the shogun trying to strengthen a tyrannical control and his trusted vassals and the senior vassals in the togoku (the eastern part of Japan, particularly Kanto region) existed.
- 織豊政権は戦国大名の統治機構を母体とする強力な中央集権体制であり、その裏づけに天皇・朝廷の権威を利用するという形式を執った。
- The Shokuho government was a strong centralized administrative framework whose parent structure was the governing system of daimyo (Japanese territorial lord) in the Sengoku Period, and to support the structure, the government took advantage of authorities of the Emperor and the Imperial Court.
- 海外での市場を狙い、日産コンツェルンは満州で、日窒コンツェルンは朝鮮で鉱山などの事業を展開し、現地社会にも強い影響を残した。
- Aiming for overseas markets, Nissan Konzern Company Group and Nicchitsu Konzern Group developed their businesses such as mining ventures in Manchuria and Korea respectively, which left a strong mark on modern society.
- 国際競技大会でスポーツ選手の応援として自発的に『君が代』が歌われる光景については、強制していない面で問題視しない意見がある。
- There is an opinion that scenes in which 'Kimigayo' is sung voluntarily as encouragement for sports persons in international competition is not problematic because it is not done unurged.
- さらに、戦後大きく後退していた日本の歴史の独自性を強調する立場が、平成初年頃から自由主義史観と称してその主張を展開している。
- In addition, the power of strongly insisting on the uniqueness of Japanese history, which has become considerably weaker after the war, has insisted its views as liberalism-based views of history.
- 義教は、将軍の権力強化をねらって、斯波氏、畠山氏、山名氏、京極氏、富樫氏の家督相続に強引に介入し、意中の者を家督に据えさせた。
- Yoshinori planed to consolidate the power of shogun and intervened in the succession to family headship of the Shiba, Hatakeyama, Yamana, Kyogoku, and Togashi clans in a high-handed manner and made those in his mind take over the clan.
- さらに持氏は関東管領の上杉憲実とも対立し、上杉氏庶流の上杉定頼・上杉憲直や直臣の一色直兼を重用するなど、独裁色を強めていった。
- Besides, Mochiuji was also confronted with Norizane UESUGI, Kanto Kanrei, and strengthened his dictatorial color including giving important positions to Sadayori UESUGI and Norinao UESUGI, branch families of the Uesugi clan, and Naokane ISSHIKI, his great vassal.
- 高島秋帆の西洋砲術、江川英龍(太郎左衛門)の韮山反射炉、勝海舟の長崎海軍伝習所など、幕府洋学は軍事的実学性の強いものであった。
- Bakufu Yogaku such as Western gunnery of Shuhan TAKASHIMA, Nirayama Reverberatory furnace of Hidetatsu (Tarozaemon) EGAWA, and Kaigun Denshu-sho (The Nagasaki Naval Training Center) of Kaishu KATSU were highly practical for military purposes.
- 注意しておきたいのは、「相生」は相手を強めるので常によい、「相剋」は相手を弱めるので常に悪い、という捉え方ではないことである。
- However, attention should be paid to the fact that 'Sosho' is not necessarily good simply because of it strengthens just as 'Sokoku' is not always bad simply because it weakens.
- またロシアに勝利したことは、列強諸国の日本に対する評価を高め、明治維新以来の課題であった不平等条約改正の達成に大きく寄与した。
- Japan's victory over Russia raised the repute of Japan among the great powers and greatly contributed to Japan's objective to revise the unequal treaties which had been a priority issue for the Japanese government since the Meiji Restoration.
- 李完用らの協力もあり、7月20日には半ば強制的に高宗は退位に追いこまれ、純宗_(朝鮮王)が第2代の大韓帝国皇帝として即位した。
- With Lee Wan-Yong's cooperation, Gojong was half-compelled to abdicate from the crown on July 20th, and Sunjong (Korean King) acceded to the throne of the second emperor of the Korean Empire.
- いずれにしても連合軍の歩みは緩慢であったため、それだけ北京で救援を待つ人々に苦渋を強いることになり、後々批判されることになる。
- At any rate, the allied forces marched slowly causing further trouble to those in Beijing waiting to be rescued, and they were later criticized for this.
- 今日、勲等に叙す慣例がなくなり勲章の授与を叙勲と称することになったことで、叙勲は勲章を授与すること自体を指す意味が強くなった。
- Since the institution of bestowal of the medals for merit has been abolished and bestowal of the decoration is called 'the bestowal of the medals for merit' instead, 'the bestowal of the medals for merit' has increasingly come to mean the bestowal of the decoration.
- 大正末年から昭和初期にかけての政党政治の成熟期には、これらの会派の一部が衆議院における政党と結び、政党色を強めることもあった。
- From the final years of the Taisho era to the early years of the Showa era when party government was mature, some of these groups had connections with political parties within the House of Representatives and strengthened the influence of the political party.
- 伏見城は豊臣秀吉が築き上げた巨郭であったが、兵力差から考えれば短時日で決着するはずの戦いであったが、攻城側は苦戦を強いられた。
- Fushimi-jo Castle was a huge building built by Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI, and the battle should have come to an end in a short period of time given the difference in the size of the forces; however, the attacking force faced a hard time against the defensive force.
- 継受法としての律令法が7世紀以降長期にわたって強行されたことについては、国家権力の強大さ、人民一般の政治的無権利が第一にある。
- The primary reason why the adopted ritsuryo law was enforced for a long period of time since the seventh century was the tremendous power of government and the lack of political rights for the general public.
- この条約が締結される頃の東アジア世界は、近代的国際法を掲げながら、実際には弱肉強食を旨とする西欧列強が浸透してくる時期にあたる。
- When this treaty was concluded, the powerful countries of Western Europe were spreading into East Asia, holding up the modern international law on one hand but practicing the principle of survival of the fittest on the other hand.
- 今日の日本においても影響力が強く、結婚式は大安がよい、葬式は友引を避けるなど、主に冠婚葬祭などの儀式と結びついて使用されている。
- Now in Japan, rokuyo has a strong influence mainly on ceremonial occasions, for example, it is better to have a wedding on taian and to avoid a funeral on tomobiki.
- 河内王朝は、瀬戸内海の海上権を握ったことと奈良盆地東南部の有力豪族葛城氏の協力を得たことが強大な河内王朝をつくったと考えられる。
- It is thought that strong Kawachi Dynasty were built by holding the maritime power of the Seto Inland Sea and having the cooperation of the Katsuragi clan, an influential local ruling family in the southeast part of Nara basin.
- 江戸幕府が市場の米を買い上げ貯蔵して米価の引き上げを促すとともに、諸藩や江戸・大坂の有力商人達にも強制的に同様の措置を行わせた。
- The Edo Shogunate purchased rice from the market and stored it away to regulate rice prices, and required all the domains and influential merchants in Edo and Osaka to do the same..
- この間、社会は幕府の強大な支配に置かれたが、逆に言えば安定した社会が築かれ、経済活動が活発化して庶民が台頭、町人文化が花開いた。
- During this time, society was put under the great power of Bakufu; however, a stable society was established, the economy was stimulated, the common people rose in stature, and mercantile culture bloomed.
- 長元2年(1029年)2月、朝廷は東海道、東山道、北陸道の諸国へ忠常追討の官符を下して討伐軍を補強させるが鎮定はすすまなかった。
- In February, 1029, the Imperial Court issued a kanpu (official document from Dajokan, or Great Council of State) to strengthen the punitive force, but the suppression did not made progress.
- このとき、時政の息子である北条義時は、重忠とは友人関係にあり、あまりに強引な畠山氏排斥を唱える父に対して反感を抱く(吾妻鏡より)
- At that time, Tokimasa's son, Yoshitoki HOJO, maintaining friendly relationship with Shigetada, felt antipathy toward his father who urged the rejection of the Hatakeyama clan too agressively (from 'Azuma Kagami' [The Mirror of the East]).
- 陽明学や古学、尊王論などの反朱子学的な(反幕藩体制につながりかねない)動きを抑圧するために強硬策を採った事も考えられるのである。
- It may have led the shogunate to take stern measures to suppress the activities of anti-Confucianism (which could trigger an anti-shogunate system) such as Yomei-gaku (neo-Confucianism based on teaching of Wang Yangming), Kogaku (classical study) and Sonno-ron (theory for the advocate of Imperial Rule).
- また、国家への強制に基づく条約調印を無効とする国際慣習法上の規範もしくは規則が1905年にはなかったと考える立場からの主張もある。
- There is also a claim from the position in which they think that in 1905 there were no norms or regulations in the international common law which could invalidate a conclusion of a treaty based on compulsion against a state.
- このような危機に対応すべく、家斉死後の、老中水野忠邦が幕府権力の強化のために天保の改革と呼ばれる財政再建のための諸政策を実施した。
- After Ienari died, in order to cope with these crises, Senior councillor Tadakuni MIZUNO implemented various policies called the Tenpo Reforms to reconstruct financial affairs for the purpose of strengthening the power of the shogunate government.
- 755年、安史の乱が起こり唐で混乱が生じると、新羅に脅威を抱く渤海との関係強化を背景に藤原仲麻呂は新羅への征討戦争を準備している。
- In 755, when the Anshi Rebellion occurred and Tang was thrown into disorder, FUJIWARA no Nakamaro made preparations for a punitive war against Silla, based on Japan's strengthening relationship with Balhae (who posed a serious threat to Silla).
- そこで、薩軍は南下してくる官軍、また上陸してくると予想される官軍、熊本鎮台に対処するために、熊本城強襲策を変更して長囲策に転じた。
- Then, as countermeasures against the government army that was approaching from north, the government army that was going to disembark, and Kumamoto Garrison, the Satsuma army changed its plan of storming Kumamoto Castle to the drawn-out siege plan.
- 7月21日薩軍は再び高原を攻撃するため官軍を攻撃するが、官軍の強固な守備と援隊の投入により、高原奪還は果たせず、庄内へと退却した。
- On July 21, aiming at attacking Takahara again, the Satsuma army attacked the government army but was unable to recapture Takahara and retreated to Shonai because the defense of the government army was strong and it was further reinforced.
- 古来、攻城側は守城側の10倍は必要とされていることからすれば、いかに剽悍な薩摩兵とはいえ、1対3での包囲強襲は無謀な作戦と言える。
- Traditionally, it had been said that the besiegers had to be ten times as strong as the defenders; therefore, the plan to press a siege against the castle with the ratio of 1:3: would have been reckless for the Satsuma soldiers however fierce and cunning they were.
- 当時、欧米列強の支配下にあり、後に独立した国々の指導者達の回顧録に下記のような、植民地時代における感慨の記録が数多く見受けられる。
- Many of the memoirs written by the leaders of countries formerly colonized by western countries refer to the Russo-Japanese War with great excitement.
- しかし総じて明初期の思想界は朱子学的側面が強く、呉与弼や陳献章にせよ、本人としては朱子学の実践を行っているつもりであったのである。
- But in general, ideological circles in the Ming period were largely under the influence of Shushigaku, and even Wu Yubi (Kangzhai) and Chen Xianzhang must have thought they were practicing Shushigaku.
- たとえば『万国公法』の翻訳認可を上奏した恭親王奕訢は、西欧列強側の外交要求を論破する根拠として『万国公法』を求めていたにすぎない。
- For example, Grand Prince Yixin, who asked permission from the throne to translate 'Bankoku Koho,' needed 'Bankoku Koho' only to enable him to refute the arguments made by powerful western countries in their diplomatic requests.
- 近年の研究には、公使館の人々を人質として生かし、列強との外交交渉を有利に運ぶ材料として清朝が考えていたという主張をするものもある。
- Some modern studies state that the Qing dynasty was planning to keep people of the legation alive as hostages and use them to make profitable diplomatic deals.
- 戦国時代 (日本)、伊賀は伊賀守護・仁木氏の傘下に属しながらも、「伊賀惣国一揆」と呼ばれる合議制の強い自治共同体が形成されていた。
- In the Sengoku period, Iga Province formed a self-governing community with a strong council system called 'iga sokoku ikki' while being affiliated to Niki clan, the Iga Shugo.
- これは、公地公民の原則が、当時の社会へ強力に貫徹していた訳ではなく、あくまで理念として掲げられていた側面が強かったことを示唆する。
- This suggests that the Kochi Komin principle did not penetrate into the society at that time but that the principle was rather used as a banner in advocating the ideal.
- 中でも日清戦争、日露戦争の勝利により世界的に影響力を強めつつあった大日本帝国に注目・接近し、日本政府・日本軍の特別の庇護を受けた。
- They especially paid attention to and approached to Empire of Japan which was increasing the influencial power in the world after the victory of Sino-Japanese War and Russo-Japanese War, and they came under the patronage of Japanese Government and Japanese Army.
- この時期、後白河は院政の強化を図っており、清盛の子の平重盛に軍事警察権を委任し、東海道・東山道・山陽道・南海道の追討を担当させた。
- At this time, Goshirakawa was trying to strengthen the cloister government and gave Kiyomori's son, TAIRA no Shigemori the rights to the military and guards to police the Tokai-do, Tosan-do, Sanyo-do, and Nankai-do routes.
- 礼銭が賄賂とみなして厳しく禁じられるのは統一的権力を打ちたて、強力な財政基盤と武士道の涵養に尽力した江戸幕府の成立以後の事になる。
- It was not until the establishment of the Edo bakufu, which formed a unified government and was engaged in creating a sound financial footing and the samurai code, that the reisen was considered to be a bribe and strictly prohibited.
- その後、日本と清国の間で領土問題(台湾出兵参照)が発生し、日本の強硬な態度に驚いた清国は朝鮮に国書の受け入れ交渉をするよう指示した。
- Afterward, the territorial problem occurred between Japan and Qing (see also The Taiwan Expedition), then Qing feared Japan's strong attitude and they directed the Joseon Dynasty to receive the letter.
- さらに幕府は後嵯峨上皇没の直後の二月騒動で時宗の庶兄北条時輔等を粛正し統制を強化、さらに諸国への異国警護、異国降伏の祈祷を行わせる。
- Bakufu also purged Tokimune's older brother by a concubine, Tokisuke HOJO, and others, in order to strengthen its leadership through Nigatsu-sodo (February rebellion) just after the death of the retired Emperor Gosaga, and in addition, ordered various provinces to guard against foreign attacks and held prayer services for the surrender of foreign enemies.
- 津田が切りつけた理由は、本人の供述によれば、以前からロシアの北方諸島などに関しての強硬な姿勢を快く思っていなかったことであるという。
- The reason why TSUDA attacked Nicholas, according to his statements, was that he had been opposed to hard-line attitudes of Russia such as their policy of the northern territories.
- しかし、逆の見方をすれば、日本は明治維新によって列強と化した事により、アジア諸国では数少ない植民地にならなかった国となったのである。
- However, because Japan became one of the powerful countries due to the Meiji Restoration it was one of few Asian countries which didn't become a colony.
- 一方城の北東には以前から治水及び防御施設として堤(以下これを横堤と呼ぶ)が築かれており、籠城が始まると城方によってさらに補強された。
- On the other hand, another bank (hereinafter this is called the side bank) had been built for flood control and defense before that, and it was reinforced by the castle side after it began to hold the castle.
- 土井家は河内、摂津の農民に借金があり、農民達は上知と同時に借金が踏み倒されるのではと恐れ、土井家に繰り返し上知反対の強訴が発生した。
- The DOI family had borrowed money from farmers in the provinces of Kawachi and Settsu, and the farmers, fearing that the family might repudiate its debt at the time of confiscation of territories, repeatedly petitioned the DOI family directly for opposition to the confiscation.
- 近年、李栄薫らは李氏朝鮮時代の資料を調査し李氏朝鮮時代の末期に朝鮮経済が急速に崩壊したことを主張し、近代化萌芽論を強く否定している。
- Recently, Lee Yong-hoon studied materials from the Yi Dynasty Korea period, and stated that the Korean economy rapidly collapsed at the end of the Yi Dynasty Korea period, strongly denying the modernization germination theory.
- 1890年(明治23年)9月16日夜半、エルトゥールル号は折からの台風による強風にあおられ、紀伊大島の樫野崎に連なる岩礁に激突した。
- In the middle of the night on September 16, 1890, the Ertuğrul was pushed by a strong wind in a typhoon and hit the rocks at Kashinozaki, Kii-Oshima Island.
- 清朝の歳入が8800万両強であったにもかかわらず、課された賠償金の総額は4億5000万両、利息を含めると9億8000万両にも上った。
- While the annual revenue of the Qing Dynasty was slightly more than 88 million taels, the reparation was 450 million taels, rising to 980 million taels with interest.
- 戦国時代 (日本)には、各地の戦国大名が領国の一円知行を強めた結果、多様な主体が銘々に設置する関所は否定され、次第に減少していった。
- During the Sengoku Period (Period of Warring States) (Japan), the sengoku (warring) daimyo ruling the various parts of Japan intensified their complete proprietary control over their own domains, and as a result the barrier stations that had been erected by all the various influential players lost their significance, and gradually fell into decline.
- 国際博覧会への参加自体は幕末から始まっていたが、明治の世になると富国強兵の手段として盛んに「内国勧業博覧会」というものが開催された。
- As Japan had participated in international exhibitions since the end of the Edo period, it began to actively hold 'the National Industrial Exhibitions' as a means of fukoku kyohei (fortifying the country, strengthening the military) in the Meiji period.
- 1911年、1921年、1925年、1929年の改正で、自治権の強化と公民権の拡張が進むが、この制度の基本的な性格は変わらなかった。
- Although the revisions of the law carried out in 1911, 1921, 1925 and 1929 had increased the autonomy and expanded the civil right, the basic character of this law remained unaltered.
- それに対して府県会は財政議決権を持つだけで与えられた権限の及ぶ範囲は狭く、自治体としてよりも国の行政区画としての意味合いが強かった。
- On the other hand, the Fukenkai (prefectural assembly) only had a voting right on finance and had limited authority, and thus it was more like an administrative district than an autonomous body.
- 宗教については、日蓮宗や浄土真宗といった厭世気分と免罪への求心から発しその後救世への渇望と強い結束を見せた宗派の布教が成功している。
- With respect to religion, propagation of religious schools that started with a pessimistic way of thinking and desire for indulgence and later showed anxiety for salvation and strong solidarity such as the Nichiren sect and Jodo Shinshu (the True Pure Land Sect of Buddhism) succeeded.
- 「砂の壁」の中に入ると、急激に周りを飛ぶ砂の量が増え、(昼間であれば)次第に周囲が黄み・赤みを増しながら暗くなり、風も強まってくる。
- Entering within 'a sand wall,' the amount of sand flying around increases suddenly, and (when it is daytime), the surrounding area becomes darker while becoming more yellowish and reddish and the wind becomes stronger as well.
- 移配された俘囚は、7世紀から9世紀まで断続的に続いた大和と蝦夷の戦争で、大和へ帰服した蝦夷男女が集団で強制移住させられたものである。
- the Fushu who were sent to the Japanese territory were a group of Emishi men and women who had yielded to the power of Yamato (Japan) during the wars that occurred intermittently between Yamato and Emishi between the seventh century and ninth century and thus were forced to emigrate to the Japanese territory.
- 教育ニ関スル勅語の「奉読」、奉安殿の設置などによる学校教育での天皇崇拝の強要、日の丸掲揚や君が代斉唱などを通じ日本人意識を植え付けた。
- Japanese consciousness was indoctrinated such as worshipping the Emperor by 'reverentially reading' ordinance on Education and setting hoanden (premises where an imperial portrait and the Imperial Rescript on Education are housed before and during the war) as well as hoisting Hinomaru (national flag of Japan) and singing Kimigayo (Japan's national anthem).
- 当時の国際慣習を知らない明治政府は、この出兵の際に清国への通達をせず、また清国内に権益を持つ列強に対しての通達・根回しを行わなかった。
- The Meiji Government with no knowledge of international customs at that time not only hadn't notified Qing before dispatching troops but neither informed the great powers with interests in Qing nor laid the groundwork.
- なお急速な西洋化の一端には、西洋列強国が当時盛んに植民地経営で、莫大な富をアジア諸国から吸い上げていたことに対する危機感も見出される。
- The rapid and drastic Westernization was promoted also because of the notion of impending crisis, by seeing the act of the Great Powers of the West exploiting Asian countries to acquire a vast wealth through the management of colonized countries.
- 明治維新の諸改革は、新たな制度で生じた矛盾をいくらか孕みながらも、おおむね成功を収め、短期間で立憲制度を達成し、富国強兵が推進された。
- The reforms of the Meiji Restoration were more or less successful and the Japanese government established the constitutional government and promoted Fukoku Kyohei (enriching the country and strengthening the military) although there were some contradictions in these reforms.
- また、紀伝道に求められるものも、天皇や公卿からも強い関心を抱かれていた漢詩などの文学の材料としての歴史的知識に移るようになっていった。
- Also, what was required of kidendo changed to the historical knowledge that could be used in Chinese poetry and therefore drew much attention from the emperors and the nobles.
- だが上洛も家康面会の資料も存在せず、事実は家中の統制を強めていた輝元により、要地でもある三刀屋を我が物とするべく追放されたと思われる。
- Since no documents proving that Hisasuke visited Kyoto or met Ieyasu exists, Hisasuke was supposed to be expelled by Terumoto, who had strengthened control over his retainers and had ambitions to own Mitoya which was a strategic point.
- 開戦初期は極東に対し消極的であったが、戦局の推移や列強の動向の変化により、極東に自国の拠点を得る機会が到来したと認識するようになった。
- Although Germany was not very passionate about expanding to the Far East at the beginning of Japanese-Sino War, it began to acknowledge that it was the right time for Germany to obtain a foothold in the Far East amid a changing course of the war and also changing stances of the other world powers.
- 香港では中国中に流通していた日本軍の軍票が一挙に流入させられたため、前述のように強制的に両替させられた住民は大きな経済的損害を受けた。
- Since Hong Kong had to accept the Japanese military currency circulated in China a brust, the residents who were forced to change their currency into the Japanese military currency were financially damaged.
- 独立後の韓国の歴史学者・学会は、日本による統治を正当化する日本側の歴史研究を「植民地史観」と呼び、これを強く批判することから出発した。
- Calling the Japanese historical research justifying the Japanese rule 'colonial historical view,' South Korean historians/academic societies started their research from the strong criticism of that after Korea's independence.
- なお、公式文書などでは、幕府が直接行う買い上げは「かいまい」、商人達に強制的に行わせるものは「かわせまい」と呼称させて区別されている。
- In the official documents, when the government purchased rice it was referred to as 'Kai-mai', while rice purchases by merchants was referred as 'Kawase-mai'.
- まもなく伊藤は侍補の廃止を決断する一方、高まる自由民権運動に対抗するために道徳教育の強化には同意して政府の教育政策の継続が認められた。
- Soon Ito decided to abolish the role of jiho but agreed to strengthen moral education to hold out against the Jiyu Minken Undo (Movement for Liberty and People's Right) and decided to allow the continuation of the government's education policy.
- このうち、列強側の維持費の都合から長崎では1876年、横浜では1877年に居留地の返還が行われたが、他の居留地は依然として継続された。
- Among the various settlements, two were restored to Japanese sovereignty due to escalating maintenance costs for the great powers maintaining them, namely Nagasaki in 1876 and Yokohama in 1877, but the other settlements continued unchanged.
- 「保護」の名目で西海岸地域に住む日系人全員、およびハワイの日系人のうち主だった人々計約11万人が収容所に送られる(日系人の強制収容)。
- About 110,000 Japanese, including all the Japanese living on the West Coast and the majority of the Japanese living in Hawaii, were sent to concentration camps officially for the sake of 'national security' (Japanese American Internment).
- さらに、鏡の鈕孔を長方形に作る癖を持つ、ある中国工人群が三角縁神獣鏡を製作しており、その手法が魏の官営工房に繋がる可能性が強いという。
- Besides, a group of Chinese craftsmen that made bodkins of the mirrors in a square shape made the Sankakubuchi Shinjukyo Mirror and their skills could lead to government-operated crafts in the Wei dynasty.
- この法令は、江戸問屋の保護と物価高騰の抑制を目的としていたが、すぐに列強各国から、条約に規定する自由貿易を妨げる、と強い反発を受けた。
- Although this law was intended to protect warehouse merchants in Edo and to control steep price rise, it immediately met with strong opposition from powerful countries insisting that the law would hamper free trade policy as specified in the treaties.
- このため領民に重税を敷いたが、第10代藩主・織田秀綿の代である明和6年(1769年)1月には百姓が重税に反対して強訴を起こすに至った。
- For this reason, the farmers of the domain were levied heavily, leading the farmers petitioning the shogunate in February 1769 against the tenth lord Hidetsura ODA.
- 10月1日に同党が結成されると、前首相山縣有朋が結党直後の同党を揺さぶるために総裁に就任した伊藤に強引に政権を押し付ける形で成立した。
- This party was formed on October 1, and the cabinet was established by ITO who assumed the party president and imposed the Government by the previous Prime Minister, Aritomo YAMAGATA to disturb this party just after formation.
- また、さらに強い風によって、中国語で沙塵暴(簡体字で「沙暴」、読みは「シャチェンバオ」)と呼ばれるような激しい砂塵嵐になる場合がある。
- Furthermore, when the wind strength is greater, a violent sandstorm called shachenbao in Chinese (沙塵暴 or 沙暴 in simplified Chinese characters) may be developed.
- これは、御家人の所領の分散を阻止するために、惣領による悔返権の強化や他人和与の禁止を進めてきた鎌倉幕府の土地政策の延長上にあると言える。
- It is possible to say that this provision was an extension of a land policy taken by the Kamakura bakufu which enhanced the right of kuikaeshi (the right of claim for return) of soryo (heir) and prohibited the donation of land to others, so as to prevent dispersion of Gokenin's shoryo.
- 雍正帝以降、朱子学の正学化確立、乾隆・嘉慶 (清)の考証学全盛期(いわゆる乾嘉の学)到来によってさらにその傾向を強め、陽明学は衰微した。
- After the reign of Emperor Yongzheng, with Shushigaku officially authorized and Koshogaku at its height under Emperors Qianlong and Jiaqing (known as Qian-Jia teachings), Yomeigaku went into decline.
- 特に幕府・関白を介さず、朝廷から直接水戸藩へ勅書が出された件(戊午の密勅参照)は井伊ら幕閣の警戒感を強め、水戸藩への弾圧は苛烈を極めた。
- Among others, an incident in which the imperial court sent an imperial order directly to the Mito clan (Boshin no Micchoku) made Ii and the cabinet officials of the shogunate stay alert, and they clamped down on the Mito clan severely.
- 特に義兵活動が盛んなところでは村の大部分を焼き払う等の方法を用いた強引な弾圧を推し進める(吉田光男_2004134頁)などしていたこと。
- Particularly, they were conducting aggressive oppression, using measures such as burning down large parts of villages in the area where gihei (irregular armies that fought against Japanese invasions into Korea) actions were active (Mitsuo YOSHIDA, 2004134 Page).
- 戦闘において圧倒的な強さを示した連合軍であったが、その後の占領地支配には手を焼き、中国の領土支配の困難さに嫌でも気づかざるを得なかった。
- The allied army showed extreme strength during battles, but they found occupation challenging, and were made aware of the difficulty in conquering Chinese territory.
- 9世紀後半頃、国司の権限が大幅に強化され、受領化するとともに、郡司の権限は大幅に縮小され、全国的に郡衙が衰退したことがわかってきている。
- These remains were proof that around the late ninth century, the kokushi (provincial governors) acquired greater authority and significant power and began to administrate like a Zuryo (the head of the provincial governors) in their actual practice, and the effect of this fact upon the Gunji was a dramatic reduction in power and authority so the Gunga system declined in Japan.
- また条約改正の分野でも、メキシコとの間に平等条約である日墨修好通商条約を締結することに成功、列強との条約改正交渉も順調に行くかに見えた。
- As for the revision of treaty, he achieved to conclude Japan-Mexico Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation which was an equal treaty with Mexico, so the negotiation for the unequal treaty with the powerful countries seemed to be going well.
- 例えば、毛利氏が蘭奢待の切屑を天皇から下賜されるだけで狂喜するなど、コンプレックスの中で京風の公家文化も武家に浸透し天皇崇拝が強まった。
- The Kyoto-style court noble culture penetrated the samurai families and the adoration of Emperor became stronger in the complex, as seen in the fact that the Mori clan fell into raptures over receiving a woodchip of ranjatai (a fragrant wood which is said to have the best aroma) from the emperor.
- これは保元の乱,平治の乱から治承寿永の乱と続く、戦乱の時代により厭世観(末法思想)が強まり、魂の救済が求められるようになったためである。
- And as the Hogen Rebellion led to the Heiji War, which blossomed in turn into the Genpei War (the war between the Minamoto (Gen) and Taira (Hei) clans, known as Jisho-Juei no ran in Japanese for the two eras in which it occurred), this age of wars and rebellions only reinforced a pessimistic view of the world (based on the idea of Mappo, the final and worst age in Buddhist theology), and led to many seeking salvation for their souls.
- 律令の規定上、上皇は天皇と同等の権力行使が可能であり、天皇の実父であるという強みも得て、政治権力は摂政・関白から上皇へシフトしていった。
- As a retired emperor he was able to use power equal to an emperor under the provisions of the ritsuryo system, and had the advantage of being the real father of an emperor, so political power shifted from the regents and chancellors to the retired emperors.
- 平成8年(1996年)頃から、教育現場において、当時の文部省の指導で、日章旗(日の丸)の掲揚と同時に『君が代』の斉唱の通達が強化される。
- Since around 1996, in the field of education, under guidance by the Ministry of Education at that time, the instruction for the chorus reading of 'Kimigayo' together with raising of the Japanese (rising sun) flag (hinomaru) were strengthened.
- この事実等から『「一宮記」の諸系統』では、選者は『延喜式神名帳』の式内社であることを強く意識して編纂に当たったのではないかと考察している。
- Therefore 'The Various Lines of Ichinomiya-Ki' concludes that the writer of 'Dainihonkoku Ichinomiya-Ki' intended to classify shrines based on whether it had been listed in 'Engi-shiki Jinmyocho' or not.
- 倭国軍の戦闘構想は、先ず扶余豊璋を帰国させて百済復興軍の強化を図り、新羅軍を撃破した後、後続部隊の到着を待って唐軍と決戦することにあった。
- Wakoku's military strategy was first to bring home King Hosho to strengthen the Kudara restoration force, then, after crushing the Silla force, to wait for the arrival of the reinforcements to fight against the Tang forces.
- 1901年の北京議定書締結後もロシアの満洲占拠が続いたために、張之洞や袁世凱は東三省の行政体制を内地と同一とするなどの統治強化を主張した。
- The Russians continued their occupation of Manchuria even after the Boxer Protocol was concluded in 1901, prompting Zhang Zhidong and Yuan Shikai to assert Qing sovereignty over Dongsan Province by claiming that it should treated as an internal affair.
- また大杉は、待ち伏せた警官が「旗を巻け」と叫んで赤旗を奪おうとしたので、「理由なく所有権を取るのは強盗である」と叫んで争った旨を主張した。
- OSUGI insisted that, as the policemen who had been waylaying him and his comrades tried to take away red flags, violently ordering them to roll up the flags, they resisted the policeman shouting, 'It is a robbery to take away people's possessions without reason.'
- 江戸幕府はキリスト教禁止を国策とし、全国でキリスト教宣教師・信徒を徹底的に捕縛、仏教へ強制改宗させ、改宗しないものは処刑する政策をとった。
- Under the national policy of banning Christianity, the Edo bakufu tried to capture Christian missionaries and believers across the country without fail, force them to convert to Buddhism, and execute those who refused to change their faith.
- 列強が勢力を模索する時代の中で、韓国には日本が、フィリピンにはアメリカが影響力を持つと、日米首脳が相手国の権利を認め合った協定といわれる。
- It is assumed that in this agreement, which was entered into at a time when powerful countries were trying to extend their power, the heads of Japan and the United States agreed to the following rights for each other: that Japan had the right to influence South Korea and that the United States had the right to influence the Philippines.
- その後混乱は続き、まずは細川澄之が、続いて細川澄元が討たれて、最終的に政権を奪ったのは本願寺に対して一番の強硬派であった細川高国であった。
- The disturbance continued in which Sumiyuki HOSOKAWA was killed first and then Sumimoto HOSOKAWA was slew, and the one who finally took the administration was Takakuni HOSOKAWA, the toughest hard-liner against Hongan-ji Temple.
- そして第二次世界大戦時の日系人の強制収容という悲劇を乗り越え、1960年代以降のアメリカ社会における地位向上の時代を経て現代に至っている。
- And after surviving the tragedy of Japanese American Internment during the World War II, they have seen the improvement of their position in American society since the 1960s.
- 明治日本の「文明」日本という自己表象に、西欧列強との同化願望があったことは否定できず、その点で差別主義的であったことは夙に指摘されている。
- It is not to be denied that Japan in Meiji period, which represented itself as being 'civilized', desired to assimilate into the powerful countries of Western Europe, and it has been pointed out that this attitude was discriminatory.
- 倭国における王権形成期とされる弥生時代中期には防御的性格を強め、高地性集落とともに、王権形成過程の軍事的動向を反映していると考えられている。
- As Wakoku was strengthening its position as a kingdom during the mid-Yayoi period, the defensive aspect of moat settlements as well as upland settlements became more evident to reflect the kingdom's military trend.
- 無効論者の多くは本協約について、国家(大韓帝国)と個人(皇帝・高宗 (朝鮮王))の両方に強制と脅迫が加えられたために無効であると考えている。
- Many of the advocates of invalidity think it is invalid because compulsion and a threat were imposed both on the state (The Korean Empire) and the individual (Emperor Gao Zong [Korean King]).
- 日本國政府及韓國政府ハ兩帝國ヲ結合スル利害共通ノ主義ヲ鞏固ナラシメムコトヲ欲シ韓國ノ富強ノ實ヲ認ムル時ニ至ル迄此目的ヲ以テ左ノ條款ヲ約定セリ
- The Governments of Japan and Corea, desiring to strengthen the principle of solidarity which unites the two Empires, have with that object in view agreed upon and concluded the following stipulations to serve until the moment arrives when it is recognized that Corea has attained national strength: -
- 版籍奉還は次の廃藩置県までの過渡的措置であるが、当時藩に対する明治政府の権力は脆弱で、諸藩への命令も強制力のない太政官達で行うしかなかった。
- The return of lands and people to the Emperor is a transitory measure until Haihan-chiken, but the Meiji government's authority over the han was weak at the time so orders to each han had to be made by Dajokan tasshi (proclamation by the Grand Council of State) which did not have binding power.
- また元禄年間を過ぎた頃から銅の産出に陰りが見え始め、輸出用の御用銅が不足し始めたことも鋳銭事業に対する幕府の管理体制を強化させた一因である。
- After the Genroku era (from 1688 to 1703) production of copper began to decline and the bakufu was running out of copper for export, which was one of the reasons the bakufu strengthened the control of mintage.
- これを農民らに負担を強いるようしむけたものだと考える研究者もいるが、差し戻し審を前回と別の裁判所で行うのは当時の慣例だったという主張もある。
- Some researchers say the trial was held at a court different from the previous court because that would put a greater burden on peasants, but other researchers say it was customary to hold trials at a different court in those days.
- さらに北京議定書によって定められた巨額の賠償金を支払うために、過大な負担を民衆に強いたことは、人々が清朝を見限るのに決定的な理由となりえた。
- The ultimate reason why people gave up on the Qing dynasty was the fact that a huge load was imposed upon commoners in order to pay the huge reparation determined by the Boxer Protocol.
- アヘン戦争・アロー戦争後に締結された不平等条約によってすでに多くの実利を得た列強にとって、清朝が国際法を学ぶことは無論望ましいことであった。
- For powerful countries which had acquired a lot of practical advantages by unequal treaties concluded after the Opium War and the Arrow War, it was needless to say desirable that the Qing dynasty would learn international law.
- 神戸に領事館を持つ列強諸国は、同日中に、居留地(外国人居留地)防衛の名目をもって神戸中心部を軍事占拠し、兵庫港に停泊する日本船舶を拿捕した。
- The powerful countries which had consulates in Kobe executed military occupation at the center of Kobe on that day in the name of the guard of the settlement (foreign settlement), and seized the Japanese ships anchoring at Hyogo port.
- なお、この条約の特異性から一部欧米列強から軍事同盟の密約の疑惑を持たれるなどしたことや、治外法権の存在などに対する反対論があり批准が遅れた。
- Because of the uniquness of this treaty, a part of the allied western powers had a suspicion that they made a secret agreement on the military alliance, or had an opposing argument on the exterritoriality, so the ratification was delayed.
- 比叡山座主であった足利義教がくじ引きで将軍になると、土岐氏・赤松氏・大内氏らの有力守護大名の後継争いに積極的に干渉し将軍権力の強化に努めた。
- When Yoshinori ASHIKAGA, the head priest of Enryakuji on Mt. Hiei, was chosen by lot to become Shogun, powerful daimyo families like the Toki, Akamatsu, and Ouchi clans actively interfered in the shogunal succession, trying to shore up the shogunal authority.
- 元寇を機に幕府は非御家人を含む日本全国の武士へ軍事動員をかける権限を得たほか、鎮西探題や長門探題などの出先機関を置き、西国への支配を強めた。
- Using the Mongol invasions as an opportunity, the bakufu seized the authority to issue military mobilizations of all warriors throughout the country, including non-gokenin, and also worked to solidify its control over western Japan by creating offices such as Chinzei tandai (military commissioner of Kyushu) and Nagato tandai (military commissioner of western Honshu).
- これを受け三条は「貿易の催進を要する為、彼我共に輸出入税を徴するなし。是通商章程中の要旨なり」(句読及び強調、加筆者)と使節団に訓示している。
- In response to this, Sanjo instructed the envoy 'In order to promote trade, export and import duties will not be imposed on both sides. This is the point of the provision of trade (punctuation and emphasis were improved by a writer).'
- それでも、いよいよ財政的に行き詰まった旧幕府軍首脳は、箱館の豪商から金品を徴収しようとしたが、これは土方歳三が強硬に反対して取り止めになった。
- When the financial situation finally got to the deadend, the leaders of the Old Bakufu planned to collect money and valuables from wealthy merchants in Hakodate, but Toshizo HIJIKATA was strongly againt it, and the plan was turned down.
- ただし、養子縁組とは違い、契約関係によって成立し、子供の姓は変わらないなど親子関係の結びつきが弱く擬制的な側面(その子の後見人となる)が強い。
- Unlike adoption, however, Yushi was based on a contract and had a weak connection, and a child's surname was not changed, so it was rather a fictitious parent-child relationship (in which a parent became guardian in many cases).
- そもそもは後述するように、西欧列強を説き伏せる道具として『万国公法』を受容したのであり、その道具としての活用そのものは、早期からなされている。
- As described later, 'Bankoku Koho' was accepted as a tool to convince Western countries and use as a tool was conducted since the early period.
- ホイートンの箇所で述べたように原著は元々自然法と実定法双方に軸足をおいた著作であったが、第三版において実定法的性格を強める増訂が為されている。
- As mentioned in the section for Wheaton, at the beginning, the original text was based on both of natural law and positive law, but enlargement to strengthen the nature of positive law side was made in its third edition.
- そこで「延久の荘園整理令」では従来の荘園整理令よりも強固に実行するためにそれまで地方諸国の国司達に依存していた職務を全て中央で行うようにした。
- Therefore, in the 'Enkyu-no Shoen Seiri-rei,' for a more solid execution compared to traditional Shoen Seiri-rei, all duties that depended upon the kokushi in provinces were performed centrally.
- 徳川家としては、今後の遠江攻略を視野に入れると、今回是非とも合戦を発生させて、強力な織田の援軍のいる時に武田を叩いておきたいという考えがあった。
- Seeking to acquire Totomi Province in future, the Tokugawa family was in desperate need of the battle in which to defeat the Takeda family while Oda's powerful reinforcements were still available.
- 明治新政府が推進した殖産興業や富国強兵・脱亜入欧などの一連の政策の推進や西洋建築(→西洋館・擬洋風建築)、散髪、洋装、洋食などの奨励がみられる。
- The new Meiji government promoted the policies of industrial development, wealth and military strength of Japan, leaving Asia and entering Europe, while the government also promoted the adaptation of Western culture and customs, such as Western-style architecture, (=>Western style building and pseudo Western style architecture) short-cut hair removing the topknot of a man, Western style clothing, and Western style food and cooking.
- そのうち11件は1911年の辛亥革命の後に発生し、そのうち辛亥革命の影響を強く受けた抗日運動もあり、4件の事件では中国に帰属すると宣言している。
- Of them, eleven uprisings occurred after the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, and some anti-Japanese movements were strongly influenced by the Revolution and four of them declared that Taiwan would belong to China.
- 再び軍部の影響力が強まった1936年(昭和11年)に軍部大臣現役武官制は復活し、1945年(昭和20年)の終戦後、軍部大臣が消滅するまで続いた。
- When the military influence came back in full force in 1936, Gunbu Daijin Geneki Bukan sei was revived and continued until the Military Minister's role became extinct after the end of the World War II in 1945.
- 律令制では民衆に支給する(班田収授する)農地の面積を一律に定めていたことから、整然とした条里区画は班田収授との強い関連が想定されていたのである。
- Because the area of agricultural land issued to the people (handen shuju) was determined in a single uniform way under the ritsutyo system, a strong relation between orderly jori sections and handen shuju was assumed.
- この論争の意義については、かつては学問的な論争と考えられていたが、実際には言いがかり的な論争も多く、中心は政治的・派閥的な争いとする見方も強い。
- The significance of the disputes was once regarded as an academic one; however, in fact, there were so many arguments just for objection that many people take the disputes mainly as political and sectional conflicts.
- このことから、当時の実態はヤマト王権が他の首長より優越はしているが強い支配関係にはなく、ヤマトと他地域の連合政権的な性格だったと考えられている。
- From these records, it is thought that although the Yamato Kingdom was superior to other chiefs, it was not a strongly dominant relationship, but rather more like a coalition government.
- 鎌倉時代以降は御家人に列し、初代・重長の娘が鎌倉幕府2代征夷大将軍源頼家の室となり公暁を儲けるなど幕府との強固な繋がりを有したことが想定される。
- Since the Kamakura period, its name was listed among the vassals and seemed to have such a strong relationship with the shogunate that the daughter of the first-generation Shigenaga became a wife of the second shogun of the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun), MINAMOTO no Yoriie, who had a child called Kugyo with her.
- 1953年、日本国内の大学は戦争による被害から未だ立ち直っておらず、朝鮮戦争や再軍備にともなう財政切りつめにより貧弱な教学環境を強いられていた。
- In 1953, the Japanese universities hadn't recovered yet from the damage during the War, and as the Korean War started, the education budget was cut for re-buildup of armaments, so universities students had to bear poor conditions for studies.
- 西鄉小兵衛・浅江直之進・相良吉之助三小隊も敵前渡河を強行したりして高瀬奪回を試みたが官軍の増援に押され、日没もせまったので、大浜方面へ退却した。
- Also the three platoons of Kohei SAIGO, Naonoshin ASAE, Kichinosuke SAGARA crossed the river under enemy fire and took other attempts to recover Takase, but the reinforcements of the government army pushed them back and it was nearing sunset, thus, the platoons retreated toward Ohama.
- 高家が饗応役を命じられた大名から進物をもらうことは、賄賂というよりも授業料や必要経費の性格が強く、当時は別に卑しまれている類のものではなかった。
- For koke to receive gifts from feudal lords who appointed them as attendants, it was considered more as tuition and necessary expense and nothing greedy at that time.
- ところが、多聞山城は強固でしかも松永軍の士気も高かったために2年にわたる睨み合いを続け、あるいは畿内の各地で衝突を続け、次第に小康状態に陥った。
- However, as Tamonyama-jo Castle was a solid fortress and the troops of Matsunaga were high in morale, the battle fell into a two-year stalemate, accompanied by minor collisions here and there in the areas surrounding the capital and followed by a gradual calming-off process.
- だが、余りにも強硬な政治姿勢が人々に「恐怖政治」との反発を抱かせ、やがて赤松満祐により義教が暗殺された(嘉吉の乱)をきっかけに将軍の力は衰えた。
- But his mercilessly political stance caused a backlash among many, who harbored resentment against his 'reign of terror,' and in the end he was assassinated by Mitsusuke AKAMATSU (in the Kakitsu Rebellion), which led to a steep decline in shogunal power.
- 荘園を構成する田畠は主に皇帝よりの恩賜地や墾田、質入や買入による購入、寄進、更には暴力を伴う強奪などの手法によって獲得されたものも含まれていた。
- The fields (of rice and other crops) which made up the shoens included the land from the Emperor, the new rice field, the land by purchase or by pawning or donation and also land acquired by robbery with violence and so on.
- この傾向は平安時代に一層強まり、802年(延暦21)良岑安世(桓武天皇の皇子)が良岑朝臣姓を賜ると、皇族や真人姓の中からも朝臣賜姓を望む者が増加。
- This trend strengthened in the Heian period and when YOSHIMINE no Yasuyo (the prince of Emperor Kanmu) was given the kabane of YOSHIMINE no Ason in 802, the number of people who were from the Imperial Family or had the kabane of Mahito increased who wanted to be given the kabane of Ason.
- 後に日本は林子平著『三国通覧図説』の記述を根拠として領有を主張し、八丈島住民などを積極的に移住させることで、列強から領有権を承認されることになる。
- Later, Japan would confirm its territorial right to the islands among the powerful countries of the world--the basis of the approval lay in the 'Sangoku Tsuran Zusetsu' (Illustrated General Survey of Three Countries), written by Shihei HAYASHI after Japan forced the residents of Hachijo-jima Island to immigrate to the Ogasawara Islands.
- 脱亜入欧(だつあにゅうおう)とは、「第三世界であるアジアを脱し、ヨーロッパ列強の一員となる」ことを目的とした、日本におけるスローガンや思想である。
- Datsua Nyuo (Leave Asia, enter Europe) is a Japanese slogan or thought that 'Japan should get out of Asia which belongs to the Third World, and catch up with European powers.'
- 大阪府警本部からの応援も駆けつけ、逃亡したと思われる金剛山に非常線を張ったが、二人はなかなか捕まらず、食料を強奪されたとの報告が来るばかりだった。
- With support coming from Osaka prefectural police headquarters, the police cordoned Mt. Kongo where they were believed to have escaped, but only to receive report that they robbed of food.
- 徴税(民部省)と財政(大蔵省)機構の一体化による中央集権体制の確立を主張する大隈重信(民部大輔)、伊藤博文(大蔵少輔)が強く推進した結果であった。
- This merger resulted from the strong pressure exerted by Shigenobu OKUMA (Minbu-no-Taifu) and Hirobumi ITO (Okura-no-Shofu) aiming to establish the centralized administrative framework by integrating a tax collection system (Minbu-sho) and a financial system (Okura-sho).
- 当時、武士身分の領地所有は不安定であって頼朝軍への急速な武士の集結の背景には、武士による権利確立への強い希求があったのではないかと考えられている。
- In those times, the ownership of land by members of the warrior class was uncertain and it is suggested that the reason for the rapid gathering of bushi under Yoritomo's troops was because there was a strong wish for a government controlled by bushi.
- それを封じるため、治承4年(1180年)12月、平重衡は東大寺・興福寺を焼き討ちにした(南都焼討)が、より一層、平氏への抵抗を強める結果となった。
- To suppress this movement, in December 1180, TAIRA no Shigehira burned down Todai-ji and Kofuku-ji Temples (Nanto Yakiuchi), resulting in strengthening of the resistance against the Taira clan.
- 中唐以後均田制が崩壊すると、宮廷や貴族、武人、地方の豪族などが個人で田畠を財産として私有する風潮が強まり、各地で荘田・荘園が形成されるようになる。
- After the middle of Tang dynasty the equal-field system collapsed and the imperial court, aristocrats, warriors, local ruling families and so on increasingly tended to own the fields (of rice and other crops) as their asset and in various regions shoden (field within a manor) and shoen came to be formed.
- 京都における官衙を含めた領主権力が強化され、座の権威を無視して営業税をかけたり、地方の商工業者が地元の領主と結びついて座の権威打破を図ろうとした。
- The power of feudal lords including government offices in Kyoto was increased, which made it possible for them to impose business taxes without the consent of za; further, local merchants and manufacturers tried to destroy the authority of za in cooperation with local lords.
- 通説では織田・徳川連合軍3万8000(うち鳶ヶ巣山強襲部隊3000)、武田軍1万5000(うち鳶ヶ巣山に残した部隊3000)となっているが諸説ある。
- A standard theory is that the Oda-Tokugawa allied forces comprised 38,000 men (of which 3,000 took part in the raid on Mt. Tobigasu), whereas the Takeda force was made up with 15,000 (of which 3,000 were left on Mt. Tobigasu) although there are other theses.
- 日本では、唐の脅威にさらされた7世紀後期、国力の充実強化を目的として、律令の概念が積極的に受容され、まず先駆的な律令として飛鳥浄御原令が制定された。
- In Japan, the concept of Ritsuryo was actively adopted in order to reinforce and substantiate national power against the threat of the Tang during the late seventh century, and Asuka Kiyomihara Ryo was first established as the pioneer of Ritsuryo.
- これらの真偽はともかくとして、天皇および朝廷に仕えるために必要不可欠とされた氏(ウヂ)・姓(カバネ)が復古的に用意されただけ、という意味合いが強い。
- Whether those names were true or not, it is said that uji and kabane were only used since it was necessary when serving the emperor and the Imperial Court.
- 日本の伊藤博文内閣は議会との激しい対立(5月30日、内閣弾劾上奏案可決)により政治的に行き詰まっており、対外的に強硬にでて事態打開をはかろうとした。
- The Japanese Hirobumi ITO cabinet had run out of policies during the fierce confrontation with the Diet (because the bill of the cabinet impeachment report to the throne was adopted on May 30) and tried to break the deadlock by resorting to an external hard-line policy.
- ところが、超勝寺は先の一件に恨みを抱く本覚寺蓮恵の救援を受けた上、更に北陸各地にいる両寺の門徒を蜂起させたために賀州三ヶ寺は思わぬ苦戦を強いられる。
- However, Chosho-ji Temple was reinforced by Rene of Hongaku-ji Temple, who held grudge since the above matter, and made the followers of the two temple all over Hokuriku rise up in revolt, which made Gashu Sanka-ji Temples suffer beyond their expectations.
- 工場法(こうじょうほう)は産業革命期において苛酷な労働を強いられた工場労働者、特に幼年労働者及び女子労働者を保護することを目的として制定された法律。
- The Factory Acts were a series of acts designed to protect factory workers, children and women in particular, who were forced into hard work during the Industrial Revolution.
- 麹座と酒屋、そして背後の北野社と延暦寺の対立はエスカレートし、文安元年(1444年)延暦寺は西塔釈迦堂に立てこもり、次いで京都に向けて強訴を行った。
- The conflict between the koji za and the sakaya and between Kitano-sha Shrine and Enryaku-ji Temple escalated resulting in Enryaku-ji Temple barricading themselves in Saito-Shakado, and petitioning Kyoto in 1444.
- 今日の日本では嫡流という価値観や概念は日常的なものとしては存在していないが、それでも本家や長男を中心に家の祭祀や家名存続を考える志向が強いといえる。
- The values and concepts of chakuryu no longer exist in the daily life of today's Japan, and yet there is a strong tendency to consider the family's religious services and the continuation of the family name mostly in terms of honke and the eldest son.
- 大宰大弐を務めた時は日宋貿易に深く関与し、安芸守・播磨守を務めた時は瀬戸内海の海賊を伊勢平氏勢力下の水軍に編成して瀬戸内海交通の支配を強めていった。
- He was deeply involved in Japan-Song trade when he was Dazai no daini (the next seat position of Dazaifu), and he organized the pirates in the Seto Inland Sea as a naval force under the Ise Heishi (Taira clan) when he was governor of the Aki and Harima Provinces and strengthened his control over Seto Inland Sea transportation.
- 敵の侵攻を妨ぐために、川など地形を巧みに利用するとともに、堀を掘り、土塁や石垣を築き、要所には時として桝形門のような強固な城門を設けることもあった。
- To prevent the invasion of enemies, they cleverly used geographical features such as rivers and dug moats, built dirt mounds and rock walls and in important places, there were strong castle gates such as Masugata-mon style gate.
- 寛政12年(1800年)の銀座改革により勘定奉行による統制が強化され「御勘定附切り」となり、それ以降、文政丁銀から糺吹は必要なしと判断され廃止された。
- With the ginza reform of 1800, control by the kanjo-bugyo was strengthened, placing coin minting an operation directly done by the shogunate and making tadashifuki no longer necessary from the Bunsei chogin.
- 政党に不信感を持っていた明治天皇は伊藤の政党結党に対して強く反対したが、伊藤は議会の中に天皇と国益を重んじる政党が必要であることを力説して了承を得る。
- Although the Emperor Meiji, who had distrust toward political parties, strongly opposed Ito's establishment of a political party, Ito insisted on the necessity of the political party within the diet which respect the emperor and the national interest, and then Ito gained the Emperor's acknowledgement.
- このため政府は、、に内務省及び大蔵省の両省間に地租改正事務局を設置し、これを中心として改租を強力に進めるよう方針転換した(明治8年太政官達第38号)。
- For this reason, the government founded the Land Tax Bureau between the Ministry of Home Affairs and the Ministry of Finace in1875 and changed its policy to moving agressively for advancing the land-tax reform centering on the newly created Land Tax Reform Bureau (No. 32 of the Transmittal of Dajokan [Grand Council of State] of 1875).
- 倭国(後の日本)にとって百済は同盟国であり、当時の倭国の政治指導者である天智天皇(後の天智天皇)は、百済復興を強力に支援しようと、朝鮮半島へ出兵した。
- Kudara was an ally of Wakoku (later Japan), and Naka no Oe no Oji (later Emperor Tenchi), who was the political leader of the country at that time, dispatched troops to the Korean Peninsula in an effort to vigorously back up Kudara to restore.
- これらは最恵国待遇により他の列強にも適用され、以後日本のみならずイギリスをはじめとする西欧列強の清への経済進出と領土分割がより加速されることになった。
- The most-favored-nation treatment forced China to approve other powers of similar conditions, which allowed not only Japan, but also Britain and other western powers to expand economically and divide the territory of Qing later among them.
- 法律も国民の行いによって変わるもので、単に学ぶ事を知らず無知であるのに強訴や一揆などを行ったり、自分に都合の良い事ばかりを言う事は恥知らずではないか。
- Laws and regulations are also changed by the activities of people; if the ignorant people who have no interest in learning resort to direct petitions or uprisings and always make it work to his advantage, I think this is shameless; and
- しかし五人組制度が存在することによって、間接的に名主・庄屋の権威を裏付け、住民の生活を制約すると同時に町村の自治とりまとめを強化することには役立った。
- However, the Gonin-gumi system indirectly helped to give Nanushi/Shoya authority, control the life of the citizens, and reinforce autonomy of the villages and towns.
- 付言すれば、漢民族である袁世凱が衰退した清朝にあって最強兵力を保持し続けること自体が、やがて満漢対立という民族間の軋轢を増す不安定要因となっていった。
- Additionally, Yuan Shikai, who was a member of the Han race, held the greatest military power in the weakened Qing dynasty, and this in itself eventually brought about unrest and confrontation between the Manchu and Han ethnic groups.
- またこうした自然法を強調する翻訳傾向は総理衙門から派遣され訳書を校訂した4人の章京たちによる語彙選択も影響していると考えられている(張嘉寧1991)。
- It is believed that selection of vocabulary by four government officials who were dispatched from sorigamon and revised translation also affected to this tendency of attaching importance to natural law (張嘉寧1991).
- 4月3日夜、早鐘を合図に現在の巻潟東インターチェンジ付近に千数百名の一揆勢が集結し、道々周辺の農民を糾合しながら柏崎県庁(現柏崎市)へ強訴に向かった。
- On the night of April 3rd, more than a thousand uprising people concentrated around the present-day Makikata Higashi interchange at the sound of a fire bell, and marched toward Kashiwazaki Prefectural Office (present-day Kashiwazaki City) to file a direct petition, while peasants in the neighborhood joined the march.
- 一方で、征夷大将軍徳川家定の後継者問題を巡る対立で水戸藩が中心となっていた、いわゆる一橋派に加担していた人物への弾圧を強めていった(「安政の大獄」)。
- Meanwhile, the main group of the bakufu also put more oppression to the persons who took part in the Hitotsubashi group (group supporting Yoshinobu from the Hitotsubashi-Tokugawa family) in which the Mito Domain was playing the central role regarding the problem of a successor of the Seii Taishogun Iesada TOKUGAWA (Ansei no Taigoku [suppression of extremists by the Shogunate]).
- 特に、北米、及び南米へ移民した日系人の中には、第二次世界大戦中に日系人の強制収容をされたり、戦後暫くも激しい民族差別を受ける立場にあった者が多かった。
- Many of the Japanese who immigrated to North and South America were sent to concentration camps during World War II and many suffered severe discrimination for a short while even after the war.
- その結果、本願寺の権力は年々増大し、11世の顕如が門跡(門跡は皇族・貴族が僧籍に入り住職となる際の呼称)になるなど、中央権力との結びつきが強くなった。
- As a result, the Hongan-ji Temple power grew year by year and strengthened a connection with the central authority when the 11th chief priest Kennyo became Monzeki (this title was basically given to the Imperial family and nobility who entered into priesthood and became a chief priest).
- 大河ドラマ『元禄繚乱』などもこの説を採っており、吉良が田舎大名が困るのを面白がるような描き方をして、サディスト的な性格を持っていたことを強調している。
- Taiga-dorama (NHK Historical Drama), 'Genroku Ryoran' (Genroku profusion) adopted this theory, and it emphasized Kira's sadistic personality by portraying Kira entertaining himself by watching the feudal lord from the country being in trouble.
- これは、文化を取り込んで箔付けするという面が強いが、動乱の時代に文化によって心を休めるという、安らぎを求める思いのあらわれとしても捉えることができる。
- This was done mainly with the aim to make themselves look important by taking culture in, but it can be also understood as an expression of their wish to obtain consolation to ease their spirit by culture in an age of disturbance.
- ちなみに1970年代のヤクザ映画全盛期には、莫大な興行収入を得ながらもスタッフやキャストへの金払いが悪かった事、強引なブッキングを強いた事などがあった。
- During the heyday of Toei's yakuza films in 1970s, despite the company making enormous box-office profits it was reluctant to pay its staff and performers well and forced them to accept difficult commissions.
- 多くの有力寺社は京都など政治の中枢から遠くない場所にありながら、政治的中立、軍事的不可侵に守られて商工業や金融の拠点として強い経済力を持つようになった。
- Many influential temples and shrines came to have a strong economic power as the base of merchants, traders and finance, because they were guarded by political neutrality and nonaggression although they were located in not so far places from the center of politics such as Kyoto.
- また、津和野藩の大国隆正らによって、欧米列強の圧力を排するためには一時的に外国と開国してでも国内統一や富国強兵を優先すべきだとする大攘夷論が唱えられた。
- Some samurai such as Takamasa OKUNI of Tsuwano Domain supported the principle of Daijoiron, which was the concept that, to resist pressure from the allied western powers, it would be best to temporarily open the country to the world and give priority to uniting the whole country and fukoku kyohei (strengthening the military).
- その際、隋唐以前の訓詁的研究を行いつつも、より率直に聖人と解釈者との一体性を強調し、解釈者の心と聖人の心とが普遍であるという前提を構築することになった。
- To that end, while continuing to read the classics according to the study of kunko handed down from before the Sui and Tang periods, they more straightforwardly emphasized the oneness of the sages and the reader to build the assumption that the minds of the reader and the sage are uniform.
- この法令を施行し、それに反発する者を取締る為、今までの威圧的・牽制的な警察体制はますます強化され、戦前の警察による市民弾圧の側面もよりいっそう強まった。
- In order to enforce this law and to crack down on the opposition, as the coercive and alerting police system was reinforced, the aspect of the police repression against citizen was also strengthened.
- だが、管領細川政元はこれに強く反対し、間もなく義尚自身も病死したために本願寺討伐の件は中止されて幕府から要求されていた加賀門徒の破門も有耶無耶とされた。
- However, since Shogunal Deputy Masamoto HOSOKAWA objected to it and also Yoshihisa died from a disease, subjugation Hongan-ji Temple was canceled, and the excommunication of the Kaga-monto (Kaga-sect) was left up in the air.
- 1988年 ロナルド・レーガン大統領が『市民自由法』に署名し、人種差別に基づく日系人強制収容の事実の謝罪と一人につき2万ドルの補償をおこなうことを決定。
- In 1988, Ronald REAGAN signed the 'Civil Liberties Act,' deciding to apologize for the Japanese American Internment based on racial discrimination and to grant the survivors 20,000 dollars per person in compensation.
- だが、これを政権復帰の好機と見た桂・「桂園時代」により政権から遠ざかっていた薩摩閥両者の思惑が上原を強硬な態度へ導いたことで大きな問題となったのである。
- However, Katsura, who regarded the situation as an opportunity for him to return to the government, and the Satsuma clique, which had been swept away from power during the Kei-En era, set out to take advantage of this situation and obliged Uehara (the minister of army) to take the hard line, provoking serious repercussions.
- 1905年10月、日本政府は韓国保護権の確立の方針を閣議決定し、翌11月には伊藤博文を特使として派遣し、11月28日に第二次日韓協約の締結が強行された。
- In October 1905, Japanese Government made a cabinet decision on the policy to build the protection right for Korea, and in November, Hirobumi ITO was sent as a special envoy, and on November 28, the Eulsa Treaty was forced to be concluded.
- しかし、両家は織田信秀(信長の父)と松平広忠(家康の父)が宿敵関係で戦っていた経緯から、両家の家臣団の間での遺恨も強く、同盟はなかなかまとまらなかった。
- However, among the vassals of both families there existed a strong grudge because Nobuhide ODA (father of Nobunaga) and Hirotada MATSUDAIRA (father of Ieyasu) fought and were old enemy relation for each other, thus the alliance was not formed easily.
- このため、鎌倉期以前の荘園では、住居がまばらに点在する散村が通常であったが、室町期に入ると、民衆が自己防衛のため村落単位で団結する傾向が強まっていった。
- For this reason, in the shoen before the Kamakura period, the dispersed rural settlements where the houses were sparsely scattered were normal, but in the Muromachi period the common people increasingly tended to consolidate as a village unit for self-defense.
- 後に藤原緒嗣により「今天下の苦しむところは軍事と造作なり」と指弾されることとなる対蝦夷戦争は、「天皇の政治的権威の強化に大きな役割を担っていた」のである。
- FUJIWARA no Otsugu criticized this war against Ezo, saying, 'The causes of suffering in today's world are military affairs and construction,' and that it had 'played a great role in enhancing the Emperor's political power.'
- 強攻ではなく持久戦を選択した理由として、兵力の損耗を防ぐこともさることながら、犠牲が増えることによって苦戦の印象が広まるのを回避するためだったと思われる。
- It seems that the reasons why he chose a long drawn-out battle instead of hard-line tactics were not only to prevent damage of the military force but also to avoid the image of hard fighting being spread.
- 世論においてはロシアとの戦争も辞さずという強硬な意見も出たが、当時の日本には列強諸国と戦えるだけの力は無く、政府内では伊藤博文ら戦争回避派が主流を占めた。
- Although Japanese public opinon was strongly in favor of declarling war on Russia, Japan still did not have the strength to fight a great power such as Russia, and a faction opposing war prevailed in the government.
- 将軍が諸大名に対して強大な権力を誇示したように、藩内においては藩主自らを頂点とした体制を固めさせられることになったのである(「藩体制の成立」と呼ばれる)。
- Just as the Shogun had enourmous authority over the territorial lords, the lords of the domains were required to establish the system with themselves ruling at the top (called 'the establishment of the Domain System').
- これによって市場に流通する米の量を減らして米価を強制的に引き上げさせ、米価の低落によって年貢収入の換金に支障を来たしていた武士階層を救済することを図った。
- The intent of this law was to raise the price of rice by decreasing the amount on the market, which would help the samurai class who had a problem converting their yearly income into cash if the price of rice was low.
- つまり列強との戦争の雲行きが怪しくなった場合に備え、「東南互保」を暗黙裡に認め、敗戦の総責任を負うことを求められないようにした政治的駆引きの一つであった。
- With a tacit understanding of the 'Southeast Mutual Protection Movement,' this was one of the political bargains she made in case the war with the allied western powers looked threatening, so as to not be persecuted for complete responsibility of a lost battle.
- これは後述する 北京議定書(辛丑条約)によって過大な賠償金を強いられることになった清朝が、その負担を庶民に転嫁せざるを得なくなったことも大きな理由である。
- The biggest reason for this was that the Qing dynasty was forced into paying huge reparations by the Boxer Protocol (Xinchou Protocol; Xinchou was a name of the year in Chinese Sexagenary cycle), and had to pass this burden on to commoners.
- その後、神祇官末期に設置された宣教使による大教宣布を強化するために、わずか半年で教部省に改称され、宮中祭祀は分離されて宮内省式部寮に移されることとなった。
- Following the creation of the Ministry of Divinities, a mere six months later its name was changed to kyobusho (Ministry of Religion) in order to disseminate further the Imperial Edict (of 1870) for the Establishment of Shinto through the efforts of the senkyoshi (Shinto missionaries) who had been established in the final days of the Department of Divinities; the religious services of the Imperial Court were separated from this Ministry's jurisdiction and placed under the control of the shikiburyo (Bureau of Rites) of the Imperial Household Agency.
- 1862年(文久2年)には抜け道として生糸の代わりに輸出が増加した原料である蚕紙の輸出禁止を命じたものの、こちらも列強の圧力によって1年で廃止されている。
- In 1862 instead of raw silk thread, its material a silkworm-egg card, which increased in exports, was prohibited from exporting as a secret passage, but this was also abolished under the pressure from powerful countries in a year.
- この幽閉劇は、毛利氏による旧尼子家臣団への締め付けと出雲国の支配強化が狙いであり、三沢氏同様、旧尼子家臣団でもあった三刀屋久扶も追放の憂き目にあっている。
- This dramatic confinement was designed by the Mori clan to increase its pressure on the retainers of the old Amago clan and strengthen its lordship over Izumo Province, such that Hisasuke MITOYA who had been a member of the old Amago's retainer group also suffered exile in the same manner as those of the Misawa clan.
- 当時の日本国内では、対元戦争を日本の神と元の神の争いと見る観念が広く共有されており、歌詠みや諸社による折伏・祈祷は日本の神の力を強めるものと認識されていた。
- In Japan at that time, people had a common idea of seeing the war against the Yuan Dynasty as the war between the Japanese gods and Yuan gods, and believed that the power of the Japanese gods would be strengthened by creating poems and performing shakubuku and prayers in shrines.
- 主に男性を対象とした刑罰であったが、女性に宮刑を科す場合には、代わりに幽閉して強制労働させたとも言われているが実際に去勢された事例も若干数あったようである。
- This penalty was mostly conducted against male criminals, but it was also applied to female criminals in some cases such as confinement and forced labour instead; however, it also appears to be true that even female criminals were sterilized in some cases.
- 朝鮮は頑としてこれに応じることなく、明治6年になってからは排日の風がますます強まり、4月、5月には、釜山において官憲の先導によるボイコットなども行なわれた。
- The movement of anti-Japanese became more active in 1873 instead of accepting the delegates from Japan, and then Korean officials led a boycott of Japanese goods and people in April and May.
- 短期間のうちにほぼ独力で近代国家を整備し、西欧列強に比肩する国家を築き上げたことは諸外国からは奇跡と見られ、とくにアジア諸国にとって近代革命の模範となった。
- People in foreign countries thought it a miracle that Japan organized a modern state mostly on their own in such a short period and built a country which had almost the same power as any Western European country, and it served as a model for the modern revolution especially for other Asian countries.
- 経済産業分野では、富国強兵・殖産興業のスローガンの下、富岡製糸場を初めとする官営工場が作られるなど、政府主導の産業育成が始まり、西洋式工業技術が導入された。
- In economic and industrial areas, the government began leading industrial development, and Western industrial technology was adopted, such as the establishment of government-owned factories including Tomioka Silk Mill under the slogans 'Fukoku Kyohei' (enriching the country and strengthing the military) and 'Shokusan Kogyo' (encouraging building of new industries).
- 一揆の際には農村側に立って先導するような百姓側の代表としての意識の強いものと、支配機構の末端をになう下級官吏の面が強く一揆などの際に標的となる場合もあった。
- Some headmen (nanushi or shoya) had a strong sense of being a representative of the peasants, who led riots on farmers' side, while others became a target in uprisings because of their being the rank and file of the government in direct contact with the public.
- このうち、日本国国憲按は、皇帝の国憲遵守の誓約や議会の強い権限を定めるなど、ベルギー憲法(1831年)やプロイセン憲法(1850年)の影響を強く受けていた。
- Japan's national constitution draft was strongly influenced by the constitutions of Belgium (1831) and Prussia (1850), and insisted the emperor's compliance with the constitution and the strong authority of the assembly.
- のちの大蔵卿松方正義によって増税・官営企業の払い下げ・通貨整理がなされ、兌換紙幣の発行が出来るようになり、日本が欧米列強に並ぶ近代国家になる下地が作られた。
- Through tax increases, transfer of government-owned companies to private ownership, and sorting out of currency, Masayoshi MATSUKATA, later Okura-kyo (Minister of the Treasury), made it possible to issue convertible currency, establishing a base on which Japan could become a modern nation ranked with European and US powers.
- しかし、望郷の念は強く、カリフォルニアの金鉱で働き得た資金により、捕鯨船を確保し、ハワイに残された土佐の清水中浜村の漁師仲間と共に、日本に帰るべく出航した。
- Eventually, unable to forget his homeland, he got a whaling ship with the money earned by working in a California gold mine and set sail for Japan with his fishermen friends from Nakahama Village, Tosashimizu.
- 縄文式土器、弥生式土器は地域色が強かったのに対し、土師器では、厳密に言えば地方色もあるが、同じような意匠・技法による土器が本州から九州までの規模で分布する。
- In contrast to Jomon and Yayoi types that were strongly regional in characteristic, Haji is found distributed widely from Honshu to Kyushu islands, based on identical design and production method, although some regional traits can also be found if scrutinized closely.
- この時点で大和の天誅組は壊滅しており、挙兵中止も議論され、平野は中止を主張するが、天誅組の復讐をすべしとの河上ら強硬派が勝ち、挙兵は決行されることになった。
- The Tenchugumi in Yamato was annihilated by then and some argued to give up, but while Hirano insisted to postpone, the hard-liners like Kawakami, who wanted to take revenge for the Tenchugumi, won the argument and it was decided to raise an army.
- 生野天領では豪農の北垣国道が農兵を募って海防にあたるべしとする「農兵論」を唱え、生野奉行の川上猪太郎がこの動きに好意的なこともあって、攘夷の気風が強かった。
- Xenophobia was strong in Ikuno tenryo, as the wealthy farmer Kunimichi KITAGAKI proclaimed the 'Noheiron' (Farmers to the arms doctrine) which said that conscripted farmers should defend the coast and the magistrate of Ikuno Itaro KAWAKAMI favored this movement.
- 天皇の寵愛を受けて専横を極めていた内侍司藤原薬子とその兄藤原仲成は極力反対するが、天皇の意思は強く、同年4月13日に譲位して神野親王が即位する(嵯峨天皇)。
- Although FUJIWARA no Kusuko of the Handmaid's Office (Naishi no Tsukasa), who had been in the emperor's favor and extremely domineering, and her brother FUJIWARA no Nakanari opposed it tooth and nail, the emperor's will was so strong that he abdicated the throne on April 13 of the same year, and Imperial Prince Kamino acceded to the throne.(Emperor Saga)
- これを契機に北面武士の規模は急激に膨張し、元永元年(1118年)延暦寺の強訴を防ぐため賀茂河原に派遣された部隊だけで「千余人」に達したという(『中右記』)。
- From this point onwards, the number of Hokumen no Bushi grew quickly and it was said that the number of troops sent to defend the Kamo Kawara from the monks of Enryaku-ji Temple in 1118 numbered 'around 1,000 or so' ('Chuyuki' (Diary of a court official)).
- この時期の清盛の出世について「当時の貴族社会の中では清盛を白河上皇の落胤とする説が信じられており、このことが清盛の異例の昇進に強く影響した」という説もある。
- Regarding the rapid progression of Kiyomori's career at this time, there is a hypothesis that 'many within the aristocracy believed the theory that Kiyomori was retired Emperor Shirakawa's illegitimate child and this led to his rapid promotion.'
- 特に、戦後の歴史学に強い影響を及ぼした唯物史観は、発展史観の度合いをさらに強め、古代アジアの社会はアジア的生産様式の中で総体的奴隷制度が行われたと考えていた。
- In particular, historical materialism, which strongly influenced the Japanese post-war historical school, further advanced the historical view of development to consider that ancient Asian society was generally based on slavery in the Asiatic mode of production.
- 貨幣経済の浸透や百姓階層の分化とそれに伴う村落社会の形成といった13世紀半ばから進行していた日本社会の変動は、元寇の影響によってますます加速の度合いを強めた。
- Changes in Japanese society having been progressing since the middle thirteenth century, such as the development of the monetary economy, hierarchization of the peasant class and formation of rural communities, were further accelerated by the influence of Genko.
- その強い姿勢は「西洋蛮人の侵犯に戦わない事は和議をする事であり、和議を主張することは売国行為である」と書かれた斥和碑を朝鮮各地に建てたことに窺うことができる。
- His firm attitude can be seen written on monuments which were erected throughout Korea, reading 'No fighting against encroachment of the Western barbarians means doing peace negotiations, and doing negotiations is selling our nation.'
- なお、諸般の事情により大名脇坂氏2代の脇坂安元が堀田氏から養嗣子を迎えたことで、血統では初代からの連続性は早々と絶えており、その後も堀田氏とのつながりが強い。
- However, due to various reasons the second generation of the daimyo (Japanese territorial lord) Wakisaka clan, Yasumoto WAKISAKA, took an adopted heir from the Hotta clan; the bloodline from the first generation died out in the early stage, and the relationship with the Hotta clan became stronger.
- しかし第二次日韓協約の締結を認めない高宗は条約締結は強制であり無効であると訴えるため、1907年第2回万国平和会議に密使を派遣した(いわゆるハーグ密使事件)。
- However, Gojong, who did not accept the conclusion of the Eulsa Treaty, dispatched secret envoys to the second Hague Peace Conference in 1907 in order to denounce the conclusion of the treaty as compulsive and invalid (so-called Hague Secret Envoy Incident).
- 対外対策では、林子平の蝦夷地対策を発禁処分として処罰し、漂流者大黒屋光太夫を届けたロシアのアダム・ラクスマンに対し交易を完全に拒絶するなど、強硬姿勢で臨んだ。
- In the field of foreign policy, he was a hawk, for he prohibited the sale of books written by Shihei HAYASHI about the need to protect 'Ezochi' from the Russian Empire and punished Shihei, and bluntly rejected the request for trade of Adam Kirillovich Laksman, the Russian who saw Kodayu DAIKOKUYA - Kodayu had been drifted away to Russia by accident - back to Japan.
- 流域の村々には重労働の提供が求められ、更には工事の為の移転を余儀なくされる者、水位の低下による水不足を心配する者もあり、分水工事反対の声が逆に強まっていった。
- The watershed villagers were requested to provide hard physical labor, and in addition, some were forced to move from their own houses due to the construction and some were concerned about the water shortage caused by the lowered water level, which led to a surging opposition movement against the diversion contraction.
- また、幕府の公式の監察官である大目付が伝令を主たる職務とする儀礼官になるなど将軍直属の監察能力の形骸化があり、これを補って将軍権力を強化する意味あいもあった。
- He also wanted to make the shogun power stronger by compensating the lack of inspection ability under the direct control of shogun because Ometsuke, the official senior inspector of the bakufu, actually acted as the ceremony officer whose main duty was conveying commands.
- 幽斎は頑強に抵抗したものの、やはり援軍の見込みのない籠城戦の上、兵力の差がありすぎたため、7月19日から始まった攻城戦は、7月末には落城寸前となったのである。
- Despite the intense resistance of Yusai, it was unlikely that Yusai and his soldiers would have been able to fight equally against ISHIDA's army due to the lack of hope of support and the visible difference in force size, and accordingly, the battle to capture the castle started on July 19, and the castle was nearly captured by the end of July.
- 室町時代以降、武家においては次第に惣領制が強化されつつあり、嫡流の家系が宗家・本家を形成し、庶子家が次第に庶家として、宗家の家臣として編入される例もみられた。
- Since the Muromachi period, the soryo system (a system in which the shoryo of a clan were inherited by clan members, but they and their shoryo were ruled by the soryo) was gradually enhanced; the family line of chakuryu formed the soke and honke, and the shoshi-ke (families other than the chakuryu in a clan) as shoke (branch families) were integrated as its vassals, in some cases.
- 周囲を山脈に囲まれたタクラマカン砂漠などの高低差が大きい発生地では、ほぼ毎日同じ時間帯に山谷風と呼ばれる強風が吹き、これが砂塵を舞い上げているとの指摘もある。
- It is also pointed out that, in areas where kosa can originate that are surrounded by mountain ranges, for example, the Takla Makan Desert, a strong wind called yamatanikaze (mountain-valley wind) blows at the same time every day, making dust fly up.
- 本論争は直接的には、この動きを信長の強制と見るか否かを争うものであるが、その論を立脚点とした織田政権の将来構想や本能寺の変の背景に対する考察を含むものである。
- The point of the argument is whether the move was forced by Nobunaga or not, while other issues which could be derived from the main argument include considerations to the grand plan of the Oda administration and the background of the Honnoji Incident.
- この時代は、守護大名や守護代、国人などを出自とする戦国大名が登場し、それら戦国大名勢力は中世的な支配体系を徐々に崩し、分国法を定めるなど各地で自立化を強めた。
- During this period, Sengoku daimyo (the daimyo, that is Japanese territorial lord in the Sengoku period) who came from the Shugo daimyo, Shugodai (deputy of Shugo, provincial constable), or from Kokujin (local samurai) appeared, and the power of the Sengoku daimyo destroyed the medieval control system, raising their levels of independency, for example, by establishing bunkokuho (a law that individual sengoku-daimyo enforced within their own domains).
- この中では、上に挙げた富国強兵の一環で西洋軍事技術の導入も盛んに行われ、軍隊では兵隊の腕力や体力を強化する目的で、提供される食事(軍隊食)までもが西洋化された。
- As the principal part of the wealth and the military strength policy, the introduction and adaptation of Western-style military technologies and skills was strongly promoted; even the food service provided in the military (military ration) was Westernized in order to strengthen the physical power and stamina of soldiers.
- 19世紀から20世紀初頭にかけて、帝国主義列強はアジア諸国に対して、条約港の割譲や在留外国人の治外法権承認、領土の割譲や租借など不平等な内容の条約を押し付けた。
- From the 19th century to the early 20th century, powerful imperialist countries imposed on Asian countries treaties containing unequal provisions including the cession of treaty ports, approval of extraterritoriality of foreign residents, and cession or lease of territory.
- だが、この事態に危機感を抱いた薩摩藩の暗躍に幕府側の強硬派が乗せられ、慶応4年1月3日 (旧暦)(1868年1月27日)に鳥羽・伏見の戦いに突入することになる。
- However the clandestine activities of the Satsuma Domain, who felt very much threatened by this development, successfully agitated the hard-liners of the Shogunate supporters, leading to the Battle of Toba and Fushimi on January 27, 1868.
- 幕府は特に精錬した鉄地金を用いた精鉄四文銭(せいてつよんもんせん)であることを強調したが、評判は悪く、鋳銭に関して損失が出るなどしたため発行は少数にとどまった。
- The bakufu insisted that the four-mon iron coin was a four-mon refined-iron coin which was especially made of refined iron ingots, but only a small quantity was issued because of bad reputation and loss caused by the minting of coin.
- 近代以後、日本の中国思想研究は、哲学(西欧の哲学)を模倣する必要に迫られた結果、朱子学の思弁的側面を強調し、これを以て哲学と比較可能であると見なすようになった。
- In the modern era, Japanese scholars of Chinese ideology have been required to follow philosophy (Western philosophy), and have therefore emphasized the speculative side of Shushigaku and considered it as comparable with the philosophy.
- また理学がその成立当初から禅宗の影響を強く受けていることは、宋代より言われ続けてきたことであるが、陽明学左派はとりわけ仏教の、そして老荘思想の影響が顕著である。
- It had been said from the Song period that from its establishment, Rigaku was strongly influenced by Zen Buddhism, and the left-wingers of Yomei-gaku were especially influenced by Buddhism and Taoism.
- 他方大名に囲米を義務づけ、江戸へ流入した百姓を出身地へ強制的に帰還させ(旧里帰農令)、また棄捐令を発して旗本・御家人らの救済を図るなど、保守的な傾向が強かった。
- On the other hand, he implemented various conservative policies, such as compelling 'daimyo' to take 'kakoimai' (rice storage system in case of emergency), issuing 'Kyurikino-rei' (the decree that forced peasants flowing into Edo to return to their hometowns) and 'Kien-rei' (the decree to relieve 'hatamoto' and 'gokenin' [an immediate vassal of the shogunate] from their economic difficulties).
- そもそも当時、公地公民制という概念が存在していなかった可能性が高く、また三世一身法・墾田永年私財法は、むしろ律令制を補強することを目的として制定されたのである。
- There is a high possibility that the notion of Kochi Komin sei did not exist at that time and therefore, institution of Sanze-isshin Law and Konden Einen Shizai Law were rather aimed at reinforcing the Ritsuryo system.
- 整備なった大輪田泊をそのうちに取り込む「和田京」造営計画は地形的制約もあって計画のみに終わったが、清盛は、大輪田泊を見下ろす山麓に福原京を築いて遷都を強行した。
- The construction plan of 'Wada-kyo', including Owada no tomari in good condition, ended in just a plan because of geographical constraints, but Kiyomori forced the capital relocation by building Fukuhara-kyo in the foothills overlooking Owada no tomari.
- しかし、この時期も含めて義輝は度々長慶暗殺を試みており、その試みが自身の権力基盤を強化するどころか突き崩すものである事に考えが至らなかった事を強く示唆している。
- However, Yoshiteru made many attempts to assassinate Nagayoshi, including some in this period, and this fact strongly suggests that he did not realize such attempts would rather undermine the basis of his power than strengthen it.
- 忠盛は他の院近臣受領と同じく院への経済奉仕に励む一方で、荘園の預所・受領・追討使の地位を利用して在地勢力を自らの私兵に編成するなど、武士団の増強も怠らなかった。
- As with other In no Kinshin (the retired Emperor's courtier) and Zuryo (the head of the provincial governors), Masamori worked for the In's financial gain but also did not forget to strengthen the bushi group by using his positions as the Azukaridokoro of shoen, Zuryo, and Tsuitoshi to organize local forces into his private troops.
- また、城砦としての防衛能力を重視した場所は必ずしも交通の便が良いところではなく、交易都市の色彩を強めるにつれ城が放棄され陣屋などに行政中心が移ったケースも多い。
- Additionally, places that placed an emphasis on defensive ability as a castle retreat were not in places with good transportation, and as they started to increasingly become trade cities, Jinya instead of castles became the center of government.
- 上記に類似するが、後に織田家の権力を乗っ取った徳川家としては、信長を一流の武将でないと喧伝する必要があり、その事情から織田軍の劣勢を強調する必要があったとする説。
- Similar to the above, a theory suggests that, for the Tokugawa clan, which took over the authority of the Oda clan, it was necessary to trumpet Nobunaga as not a top grade samurai, and in the light of the circumstances, they had to emphasize Oda troops was on the backfoot.
- しかし、鎌倉幕府との結びつきが強かったことを理由に新政府に冷遇され、第14代石川貞光の時、陸奥守北畠顕家は古来から石川氏が治めていた領地を結城家や和地氏に与える。
- Nevertheless, the Ishikawa clan was treated coldly by the new government for the reason that it was tied closely with the Kamakura bakufu, and in the time of Sadamitsu ISHIKAWA, the fourteenth head of the family, the Governor of Mutsu Province, Akiie KITABATAKE, distributed the fief traditionally succeeded and controlled by Ishikawa clan to the Yuki family and the Wachi clan.
- 4月6日の時点では講和条件に異議なしと日本に伝えたが、首相クロートヴィヒ・ツー・ホーエンローエ=シリングスフュルストや外相マーシャルは列強との共同行為を提案した。
- Germany once conveyed its consent to the peace conditions to Japan on April 6, but Germany's then-prime minister, Chlodwig Karl Victor Fürst zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst, and then-foreign minister, Marshall, proposed a concerted intervention in Japan's affairs with other world powers.
- 日本統治時代を韓国側が日帝強占期(韓国の公営放送KBS=韓国放送公社=ではこの呼称に最近統一しようとしている)、日帝時代または日政時代などと呼ぶ事が知られている。
- It is known that the period of Japan's rule is called the Japanese forced occupation period (Korean public broadcasting, KBS, Korean Broadcasting System is trying to unify the names into this), the Japanese Imperial period, or Japanese administration period by South Korea.
- 内容は第1次桂内閣の外交を軟弱であると糾弾して「バイカル湖まで侵攻しろ」と主戦論を唱え、対ロシア帝国武力強硬路線の選択を迫ったものであり、世論の反響も大きかった。
- It condemned the foreign policy of the First Katsura Cabinet as wimpy and pressed the Cabinet to take a hard line on the Russian Empire advocating war and saying 'Invade as far as lake Baikal,' to which the public reaction was huge.
- 列強との交渉は愛新覚羅奕キョウ及び直隷総督兼北洋大臣に返り咲いた李鴻章が担ったが、敗戦国という立場上列強の言いなりとならざるを得ず、非常に厳しい条件が付せられた。
- The negotiations with the allied western powers were carried out by Aisin-Gioro Yìkuāng and Li Hongzhang, who came back to power as Governor General of Zhili and superintendent of trade for the northern ports, but being the losing nation he was obliged to the allied western powers, and met demands with very strict conditions.
- イギリスや日本が北京の公使館を少しでも早く解放すべきと主張する一方で、北京進攻はかえって公使館に対する清朝・義和団の風当たりを強くするという意見もあったのである。
- While Great Britain and Japan stressed that embassies should be freed before arrival, there was a view that progressing toward Beijing would strengthen the resentment of the Qing dynasty and the Boxers towards embassies instead.
- 1863年から李朝第26代高宗 (朝鮮王)(在位1863年 - 1907年)の父で摂政の興宣大院君による政権時代、迫り来る帝国主義列強を排除する政策をとっていた。
- In 1863, Heungseon Daewongun, regent of the regime of the father of the 26th king of Yi Dynasty of Gao Zong (reign 1863 – 1907), implemented a policy to exclude the coming powerful countries of imperialism.
- また、徳川綱吉の側用人であった柳沢吉保の日記には、生類憐みの令に関する記述があまりなく、重要な法令とは受け止められていなかった可能性が強いのではないかと推論する。
- Moreover, there are few records regarding the law in the diary of Yoshiyasu YANAGISAWA, lord chamberlain of Tsunayoshi TOKUGAWA, suggesting that there is a high possibility that the law did not have a high importance attached to it.
- 1890年(明治23年)11月25日に召集された第1議会において、山縣は自己の信条である「主権線の守護と利益線の防護」という観点から大幅な軍事予算増強を提案する。
- In the first Diet convened on November 25, 1890, YAMAGATA proposed substantial military budgets increase from the standpoint of his own belief, 'Protection of sovereignty and defense of benefit line'.
- 桂はこの事態を乗り切るために外交では日英同盟を締結してロシア帝国との対決姿勢を強め、内政では伊藤博文を枢密院議長に祭り上げて政友会総裁を辞めさせることに成功した。
- In order to weather that crisis, Katsura took a more clearly adversarial stand against the Russian Empire by concluding the Anglo-Japanese Alliance; he also succeeded in having Hirobumi ITO resigning his position as the president of the (Rikken) Seiyu party by kicking him up to chairman of the Privy Council.
- そこで名主仲間(宮座仲間)は、かつての荘園「山国庄」の時代と同様に天皇から正式に官位を授かることなどで地域の一円禁裏御料化を目指し、宮座の結束強化をはかっていた。
- At this point the council of village headmen (who were also comrades from the shrine organization) began to set their sights on the entire region remaining under the control of the imperial house, arguing that, much like during the days the area was a shoen, 'Yamaguni estate,' they had received an official position and rank from the emperor and should have control over the whole area, thereby aiming to fortify the unity of the shrine organization.
- 寛平・延喜年間(9世紀末期-10世紀初期)になると、板東において、中央へ進納する官物を強奪するといった「群盗蜂起」が頻発した(しゅう馬の党・寛平・延喜東国の乱)。
- In the Kanbyo-Engi period (from the end of the 9th century to the beginning of the 10th century), there were frequent 'outbreaks of banditry' (Shuba-no-to and Kanbyo-Engi-Togoku-no-ran (disturbances by banditry in Togoku during the period between Kanbyo and Engi)) in which Bando were robbed of kanmotsu (tribute goods paid as taxes or tithes) to be offered to the central government.
- 有力な家臣を排除することで自身の権力を強化しようする藩主がいる一方で、家臣にとって不利益だったり、無能な主君を隠居や押込などの手段で廃立しようとする家臣も存在した。
- There were lords who aimed to strengthen power by eliminating top retainers, as well as retainers who sought to do away with lords who behaved against their interests or who were incompetent by means of coercive retirement, house arrest, etc.
- このころ、山縣有朋は近衛都督として近衛兵を統括する立場にあったが、近衛兵内部の薩摩系軍人には長州人である山縣を近衛都督としていただくことを不服とする空気が強かった。
- At this time, while Aritomo YAMAGATA was on the position of supervising imperial guards as the commander, there was a strong dissatisfaction among those guards from Satsuma against YAMAGATA, who was from Choshu.
- 対外対策では、林子平の蝦夷地対策を発禁処分として処罰し、漂流者大黒屋光太夫を送り届けたロシアのアダム・ラクスマンの通商要求を完全に拒絶するなど、強硬な姿勢で臨んだ。
- He took strong foreign policies, for example, the punishment of Shihei HAYASHI for his opinion about measures toward Ezo by banning his book, and the flat refusal to Adam Laksman who requested commerce with Russia while brought back a castaway, Kodayu DAIKOKUYA.
- 交戦状態でもないにもかかわらず、また義和団に占拠されていたのでもないにもかかわらず、列強がこの挙に出たことが、清廷内の排外主戦派を勢いづかせ、西太后の決心を促した。
- The fact that the allied western powers used force despite not being at war or being conquered by Boxers motivated the anti-foreign war party within the Qing dynasty and led to the decision made by Empress Dowager.
- 城将の鳥居元忠とその兵達が予想外の奮戦を見せ、また包囲軍の内部にも三成らに強制的に西軍として与させられた者がおり、戦意が上がらなったなどの要因があったためとされる。
- The reasons for this include the facts that Mototada TORII, the commander-in-chief, and his troop fought back unexpectedly against the attacking force and that the besieging army had some soldiers who had been forced to join the western army by Mitsunari and some other people and thus had little will to fight.
- 「神皇正統記」は、南北朝時代に南朝の北畠親房が関東で勢力を集めるために南朝の正統性を神代から記した所で、のちの皇国史観に繋がるイデオロギー的性格の強い史書であった。
- The 'Jinno shotoki' (Record of the Imperial Succession) was a work written by Chikafusa KITABATAKE and argues for the legitimacy of the Southern Court line of succession, that it was unbroken since the age of myth, in an attempt to drum up support for the Southern Court in the Kanto; in later times, it was to have a powerful influence on ideologues trying to promote a historiographic view of Japan as divine and Emperor-centered.
- 農奴の保有財産は、名目上は領主と借地人(農奴)との合意に基づくものとされていたが、実際には、ほぼ強制的に世襲させられていた(相続時に領主への支払が課せられていた)。
- The estate owned by serfs was notionally based on the agreement between the lords and the tenants (serfs), but in fact was obligatorily succeeded by heredity (on succession, the payment to the lords were imposed).
- ただし、武装した私兵集団が全て武士であるとは言えず、公的な軍事警察力の担い手としての社会的な公認がなければ武士と認められなかったこともまた、強調しなければならない。
- However, all the private army groups of armed fighters are not said to have been bushi and it must be emphasized that they were not approved as bushi without the social authorization as the bearer of public military police.
- 特に下克上が一般化する以前においてこの認識が強く、戦国時代 (日本)の豊臣秀吉のように、百姓その他武士身分以外出身の人物は当然、武士として認められるはずがなかった。
- Especially before gekokujo (an inverted social order when the lowly reigned over the elite) became common, such a point of view dominated and thus, like Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI in the Sengoku period (period of warring states) (Japan), a person originating from farmers or from a status not of samurai status could not admitted as bushi by definition.
- ただし、この朱雀大路は後の平城京や平安京のような幅70メートル以上の大きなものではなく幅24メートル強(側溝中心間)の後の朱雀大路と比べて非常に狭い幅のものであった。
- This Suzaku-oji Street was very narrow with a width a little bit longer than 24 meters (between the center of side ditches), compared to the one with a width of 70 meters in Heijo-kyo and Heian-kyo.
- 世界巡遊中の前合衆国大統領ユリシーズ・グラントが明治天皇との会見で西欧列強の介入を防ぐための日清両国の譲歩を助言したこともあり、1880年北京で日清の交渉が行われた。
- In 1880, negotiations were held in Beijing through the arbitration of ex-US President Ulysses Grant, who had a meeting with Emperor Meiji during his world tour and advised that both Japan and Qing compromise to prevent the intervention of western powers.
- 改革の必要があったとはいえ、外様大名の父の圧力、およびそれまで政治的実権を有していなかった朝廷の圧力により改革を強要されたことは、幕府の権威に著しいダメージを与えた。
- Even though there was a need for reform, the fact that the reform was forced under the pressures from the father of a tozama daimyo as well as the imperial court that had had no real power in politics until that time gave a tremendous damage to the bakufu's authority.
- というのも西欧列強との交渉においては、清朝がいくら「天朝の定制」(中華思想的慣例)を持ち出しても議論が噛み合わず、列強側の要求を拒絶することはできなかったためである。
- The reason for it was that in the negotiation with western countries, discussions did not mesh even if the Qing dynasty refer to 'Fixed Rule of the Dynasty (precedents based on Sinocentrism)' and requirements of the western countries could not be refused.
- 府県知事は選挙投票者による分類とされ、政党内閣または政党の影響の強い内閣の時期も含めて多くは内務省 (日本)の官僚が任命され、また内務大臣の監督に服するものとされた。
- Fuken chiji (Prefectural governor) was categorized as being elected by voters; and during the time of the party cabinet or the cabinet strongly influenced by the political party, mostly government officials from the prewar Ministry of Home Affairs were assigned to be Fuken chiji and were supervised by the prewar Minister of Home Affairs.
- 清盛は、後白河との関係を放棄する一方で高倉天皇との関係を強化し、高倉もまた後白河院政からの独立を志向し、翌治承2年(1178年)、両者は連携して新制17条を発布した。
- Kiyomori dropped his relationship with Goshirakawa, and strengthened his ties with Emperor Takakura, and Takakura was interested in becoming independent of the Goshirakawa cloistered government, leading to a joint issuance of the 17 New Rules in 1178.
- 従前の高官に代わって平氏一族や親平氏的貴族が登用され、また知行国の大幅な入れ替えもあって中央・地方の両面において平氏一門を中心とする軍事的な支配体制が強化していった。
- Members of the Taira clan and pro-Taira aristocrats took the places of previous high officials and there was an extensive replacement of province governors, leading to the strengthening of military control organization on the central and local level by the members of the Taira clan.
- 「天皇(大帝)」は中国古代の宇宙の最高神天帝の名で、道教思想と深い関わりを持つが、天武の施政には道教的色彩が認められ、天武が天皇表記を用い始めたとする説を補強している。
- The 'tenno (great emperor)' is the name of the supreme god of space in ancient China and has a deep relationship with Taoism thoughts, and also during the administration of Emperor Tenmu the Taoism influence was accepted, which supports the theory that the Emperor Tenmu started using the notation of tenno.
- こうした「値下げを強要すれば安く米が手に入る」という実績は瞬く間に市から市へと広がり、8月17日頃からは都市部から町や農村へ、そして8月20日までにほぼ全国へ波及した。
- Thus this achievement which was 'if we enforce price reduction, we can get rice at a low price' spread from city to city immediately, and from around August 17, riots spread from urban areas to town or agricultural community and then reached almost everywhere in the country by August 20.
- 明和2年(1765年)以降は金座および銀座 (歴史)が鋳銭事業を兼任することになり、定座としての銭座が確立し、鋳銭に対する幕府の支配が強化され、銭貨の均質化が図られた。
- As kin-za (an organization in charge of casting and appraising of gold during the Edo period) and gin-za concurrently took charge of mintage of coins after 1765, zeniza was established as a fixed guild and the bakufu strengthened the control of mintage and tried to homogenize coins.
- しかし馬子の死後に、蘇我氏に対する皇族や諸豪族の反感が高まって蘇我氏の政治基盤が動揺し、それを克服しようとして入鹿による強権政治に繋がった、という見方も少なからずある。
- However, there are also those who view Iruka's hard-line politics as having been motivated by his desire to overcome the weakness of a political base undermined by antipathy among the Imperial family and other influential families towards the Soga clan after the death of SOGA no Umako.
- 宣長は、日本は古来から独立を保った国という考えを強く持っており、「魏志倭人伝」の卑弥呼が魏へ朝貢し、倭王に封じられたという記述は、宣長の受け入れられるものではなかった。
- Norinaga strongly believed that Japan had been an independent country since ancient times, and therefore to him, the article in the Record of Japan in the History of Wei that described Himiko's tribute to Wei as a fiefdom and appointed her as Queen of Wa was not acceptable.
- 幕府は守護大名庶家や足利氏譜代から奉公衆を編成し、在京奉公を課したが、一方で守護大名は国内の在地領主(国人)に対する支配を強め、その所領に応じた軍役を課すようになった。
- The Muromachi bakufu formed the military guard of the shogunate from branch families of the territorial lords as provincial constable and hereditary vassals of Ashikaga clan and imposed service in Kyoto on them; on the other hand, the territorial lords as provincial constable tightened control over the local lords in their provinces and imposed military services on them according to their territories.
- 第一に、欧米列強の圧力に対抗するための根本的な法整備や国力増進のためには、天皇の権威のもとで薩長が権力を集積し、一貫した政策を継続できる現体制のほうが現実的であること。
- First, in order to establish a basic legal system and increase national power to resist the pressures of the Western powers, the existent system was more practical as it would enable them to consolidate the powers of Satsuma and Choshu factions to carry out consistent policies under the authority of the emperor.
- 厳復が『天演論』(1898年刊)というタイトルで翻訳紹介したこの思想は、瞬く間に世紀末の中国を席巻し、「弱肉強食」「適者生存」「優勝劣敗」ということばが流行語となった。
- Yan Fu introduced the thought by his translation, titled '天演論' (translation of 'Evolution and Ethics' by T.H. HUXLEY) (published in 1898), and it dominated China in end of the century making phrases such as 'The best always win' (弱肉強食), 'the survival of the fittest' (適者生存)' and 'struggle for existence' (優勝劣敗) famous.
- 旧国鉄では飯山鉄道を戦時買収により接収して飯山線とした際に信濃浅野駅など「信州」を冠する3駅をすべて「信濃」に改称させるなど「〜州」の名称を忌避する傾向が強いとされる。
- The old Japanese National Railways (JNR) requisitioned a private company Iiyama Railways by the war time acquisition and made it into the Iiyam Line; at that time JNR made the three stations that had the 'Shinshu' in front of the station name into 'Shinano' like Shinano Asano Station; it is said that the National Railways tended to avoid the station name with 'Shinshu' in front of the station name.
- 持氏も幕府中央の混乱に乗じて関東・奥州各地に発生した武装蜂起に対して自己の政権の権限と基盤の強化に乗り出して幕府中央の権威を否定する動きを以前から見せていたからである。
- This is because Mochiuji also had started to deny the authority of the central bakufu by strengthening the power and basis of his regime against the armed uprisings which were breaking out in various areas in Kanto and Oshu regions during the confusion of the central bakufu.
- 通説では、当時最新兵器であった鉄砲を3000丁も用意、さらに新戦法の三段撃ちを実行した織田軍を前に、当時最強と呼ばれた武田の騎馬隊は成すすべも無く殲滅させられたとされる。
- A standard theory is that Takeda's cavalry which was regarded as the most powerful at that time was overwhelmingly defeated by the Oda forces which were equipped with 3,000 then state-of-art teppo (matchlock guns), and which employed a new tactics of 'sandan-uchi' (in which the gunners were arranged in three lines).
- ただしこの条文は自動参戦規定との矛盾を抱えていたため、実質的な効力は期待できなかったが、これは日本、イギリス、ロシアの3国を強く警戒するアメリカの希望によるものであった。
- This provision was contradictory to the provision for automatic participation in the war so that there was no expectation of its substantial effect, but it was added at the request of the US which was increasing its vigilance against the three countries: Japan, Britain and Russia.
- 江戸時代の中ごろになると、強引な客引きや飯盛り女を嫌ったり、一人旅をする行商人などから、安心して泊まれる宿が欲しい、という要望が増えたため、各地で旅籠による組合が出来た。
- In the middle of the Edo period, there was an increasing demand from guests who disliked aggressive runners or meshimori onna and peddlers who traveled alone for the inn where guests could stay in peace and as a result association of hatago was established in various places.
- ロシア公使シェービッチは以前から日本に対して恫喝的な態度をたびたび取っており、この事件に関しても事件の対処にあたった青木周蔵、内務大臣・西郷従道らに死刑を強硬に要求した。
- The Russian envoy Schaevitz had always adopted harsh attitudes since before the incident, and in this case, he also strongly required Shuzo AOKI and the Minister of Home Affairs, Tsugumichi SAIGO to execute the death penalty.
- ヤマト王権と朝鮮半島諸国との交易が活発化した背景には、北方の高句麗から圧迫を受けつつあった百済が対抗のために近隣諸国(新羅・加羅諸国)と連携を強めていたことが挙げられる。
- It is thought that trade between Wakoku and the Korean kingdoms increased as Baekje, under pressure from Goguryeo to the north, began strengthening alliances with neighboring kingdoms such as Silla and Gaya.
- また国外的には、ハーバード大学の朝鮮史教授カーター・J・エッカートも韓国での萌芽論は「論理ではなく日本を弾劾することが目的のもの」としており、近代化萌芽論を強く否定した。
- Furthermore, outside the country, Carter J. Eckert, a Korean history professor, Harvard University, regarded the germination theory in South Korea as 'not logical, but a theory for the purpose of impeaching Japan,' and strongly denied the modernization germination theory.
- 当初頑なだったプロシア側も、奕訢が新任のプロシア公使との接見を拒絶するなど、清朝が強硬姿勢を示すと折れ、1500ポンドの賠償金を支払い、拿捕したベルギー船を解放している。
- Prussia took a severe attitude at first, but changed it after the Qing dynasty took a tough stance and Grand Prince Yixin rejected a meeting with new minister of Prussia, then Prussia paid 1,500 pounds of reparation and released the Belgian vessels.
- 『万国公法』はまず国家には主権というもの備わっていること、主権とは国家という体裁に必要不可欠な要件であることを強調し、書の前半は主権に関する部分に最も紙幅を費やしている。
- 'Bankoku Koho' attaches weight to that each nation has sovereignty and the sovereignty was an indispensable requirement for the appearance of nation and in the first half of the book, spaces were spent most for sovereignty.
- そこで義尚は本陣を栗太郡に位置する鈎の安養寺へ移し、甲賀城を攻めてこれを落城させるのだが、脱出した六角父子は配下の甲賀武士達に命じ、山中でゲリラを展開して頑強に抵抗した。
- Then, Yoshihisa moved the headquarter to Magari no Anyo-ji Temple located in Kurita-gun County and attacked the Koka-jo Castle, and the Koka-jo Castle fell, but the father and the son Rokkaku escaped and ordered the Koga warriors who followed them to resist adamantly against Ashikaga by guerrilla warfare in the mountains.
- そして最後には信輔が摂関家筆頭としての近衛家の立場を強調すれば、昭実も正平の一統後の混乱下での二条家による後光厳天皇擁立の功績をあげるなど議論は泥沼化の様相を見せ始めた。
- In the end, Nobusuke emphasized the position of the Konoe family as the head of the sekkanke (family lines of regents and chief advisors) while Akizane pointed out the Nijo family's success in supporting Emperor Gokogon amid the turmoil after the Shohei no Itto (temporal unification of the Northern and Southern Courts by the Southern Court); their arguments were getting more and more chaotic.
- 降水量が少なく地面が乾燥する冬は、シベリア高気圧の影響で風があまり強くない穏やかな天候が続くうえ、ほとんどの乾燥地帯の表土は積雪に覆われてしまうため、黄砂が発生しにくい。
- Kosa is less likely to originate in the winter when rain falls little and the land surface becomes dry, because the weather during that season stays mild with no strong wind, due to the Siberian high pressure, and in addition, the surfaces of almost all of the dry areas are covered with snow.
- これを教訓とした日本は、地租改正や殖産興業で経済力をつけ(=富国)、徴兵制や軍制改革により軍備を増強(=強兵)して、列強に追いつくことにより条約改正と国家の保全を目指した。
- Learning a lesson from this, Japan aimed to revise the treaties and improve national security by strengthening its economic power with land-tax reform and encouragement of industries (national enrichment), and military power with the conscription system and reformation of the military system (strengthening of the military) to catch up with other great powers.
- 西郷軍の白兵戦が強かったのは、地の利が西郷軍にあったことと、幼い頃より刀剣に慣れ親しんでいた士族と、訓練されたとはいえ数年程度の徴集兵では錬度に雲泥の差があったからである。
- The reasons why Saigo's army was stronger in hand-to-hand fights are considered as follows: Saigo's army occupied a vantage ground, and there was a tremendous difference in the sword-handling ability between the warrior class, who had been familiar with handling swords, and the conscripted soldiers, who had had only a few years of sword-handling training.
- これに対し、一朱金、二朱金、二分金は、純金量が額面に比して少ないことから補助貨幣の性格が強かった(ただし、元禄期に発行された二朱判金は、一分判金と同様に本位貨幣的である)。
- On the other hand, isshu kin, nishu kin, nibu kin were more like subsidiary currencies having less purity compared to the face values, however, nishu bankin issed in the Genroku period had a character of standard coin like ichibu bankin.
- 戦後における明治日本への関心の高まりと、それに比例して起こった日本への留学ブームによって、近代国際法の受容と富国強兵の間には密接な関係があることが大陸へと伝えられていった。
- Because of increase in interest after the War on Japan in the Meiji Period and resulted booming of study in Japan, it was disseminated to the continent that there was a close relationship between acceptance of modern international law and fukoku kyohei (fortifying the country, strengthening the military).
- 内閣総理大臣は「内閣ノ首班トシ機務ヲ奏宣シ旨ヲ承テ大政ノ方向ヲ指示」(2条)し、また「行政全部ヲ統督」(4条)すると定められ、少なくとも形式上は強力な権限を与えられていた。
- The Naikaku-shokken stipulated that the Prime Minister 'shall report state affairs to the Emperor, receive the Emperor's instructions, and direct the course of policies as the first among ministers' (Article 2) and 'maintain unity among the different branches of the administration' (Article 4); the Prime Minister, therefore, possessed extensive authority, at least formally.
- 豊臣秀吉死後の豊臣政権においては五大老の徳川家康が影響力を強め、慶長5年(1600年)に元五奉行の石田三成らが蜂起した関ヶ原の戦いで家康は東軍を指揮して三成ら西軍を撃破する。
- After the death of Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI, Ieyasu TOKUGAWA, one of the Gotairo (Council of Five Elders), strengthened his power in the Toyotomi administration, and at the Battle of Sekigahara in which a former member of the Gobugyo (five major magistrates) Mitsunari ISHIDA and others uprose in 1600, he commanded the Eastern Army and rebuffed Mitsunari's Western Army.
- この合戦(「松川合戦」「宮代表合戦」)に関しては、伊達家と上杉家は双方で戦果を強調しており、また時期を巡っても研究者の間でも、慶長5年10月説、慶長6年4月説、混合説がある。
- Both the Date family and the Uesugi family emphasize their accomplishments in the battle ('the Battle of Matsukawa' 'the Battle of Miyashiro Omote'), and there are various theories on the date of the battle such as October, 1600 and April, 1601, or a combined theory.
- 木戸は、三者協議において板垣と連合することにより大久保の専権を抑制しようとし、また自らの発言権を回復する意図があったことから、板垣とともに政府に復帰することを強く望んでいた。
- Kido was planning to ally himself with Itagaki at the three-way meeting to restrain Okubo's arbitrariness and also intended to regain his voice; therefore he was anxious to return to the government together with Itagaki.
- 近年はアメリカ人になろうとして努力し続けた二世~三世と違い、若年層に自らのルーツである日本にアイデンティティーを求める傾向が強くなり日本語学習者が以前より多くなってきている。
- Unlike the second to third generations who kept striving to become Americans, young Japanese Americans today have the tendency to identify more and more with Japan, so the number of Japanese learners is increasing.
- 他者との比較を通じて文明/野蛮の差異を計測し、その差異を埋める/広げるという欲望を喚起することによって富国強兵を達成しようとする思想構造が列強諸国にも、非列強諸国にもあった。
- Both powerful and non powerful countries shared a mindset to accomplish fortifying their country by measuring the difference between being civilized and barbarian by comparison, and inciting a desire to minimize or expand the difference.
- だが、信長が出陣した時点で既に退却か長篠城強襲かを決定する必要があるため(信長の岐阜出陣は5月13日、三河牛久保から設楽原へ向かったのが5月17日)その可能性は低いことになる。
- This is however unlikely because they had to decide whether they would retreat or raid Nagashino Castle when Nobunaga set off with his troops (from Gifu on July 1 and left Ushikubo in Mikawa for Shitaragahara on July 5).
- 相性の、元々の意味は陰陽五行思想の一端で、全ての事物が持つ属性が、相互に良い意味で影響しあってより強まるか、逆に相互の良い部分を相殺しあって悪い状態を招くかといったものである。
- Aisho was originally derived from the part of the philosophy of Onmyo gogyo (Yin-Yang Wu-Xin), which explained that when the attributes of all things influence each other in a good way, they become stronger; when they balance out the good qualities in each other, on the other hand, this invites bad situations.
- このとき幕府は銭貨の質の管理および、需要が逼迫していた銅の統制を強めていた関係上から、銭の背面に鋳造地を示す文字を鋳出させたり、また面文に特徴を持たせて鋳銭地の明確化を図った。
- The bakufu tried to specify the location of mintage by making letters indicating the location of mintage cast on the back side of coins and by making letters on coins different according to the location of mintage, for the purpose of maintaining the quality of coins and strengthening copper regulation, which was in urgent demand.
- 600名にのぼるデモ隊は夜9時頃市警本部に向かい玄関前で抗議集会を開始したが催涙弾などで強制排除され、10時過ぎに再び集合して抗議団を編成、市警本部長に面会を要求しようとした。
- At nine p.m. about 600 students started a protest in front of the headquarters of the City Police, however it was soon broken up by tear bombs and so on; the students gathered again after ten o'clock and formed a delegation to request the Chief of the City Police to meet them.
- しかし、幕権強化のために朝廷を利用することは尊王派の怒りを買い、文久2年(1862年)正月、老中安藤は江戸城坂下門外で襲撃され、一命は取り留めたが後に失脚した(坂下門外の変)。
- However, this provoked rage from those who advocated restoring power to the emperor, because the bakufu government still tried to use the emperor to fortify the power of the government, and roju Ando was attacked outside Sakashita-mon Gate, got severely injured, and eventually lost his power (the Sakashitamongai incident).
- 義和団の乱において直隷総督配下の近代化軍隊は連合軍に敗れて大きな打撃を受けたが、袁世凱の軍だけは義和団をたたくのみで、直接列強との戦争に参加しなかったためほとんど無傷であった。
- The modernized army directly under the control of Governor General of Zhili lost against the allied nations and received great damages during the Boxer Rebellion, but the army of Yuan Shikai only suppressed the Boxers and did not directly participate in the war against the powerful nations, and so suffered very little damage.
- 義和団鎮圧のために軍を派遣した列強は八ヶ国あり、その内訳はイギリス・アメリカ合衆国・ロシア帝国・フランス・ドイツ・オーストリア・ハンガリー帝国・イタリア王国と大日本帝国である。
- Eight allied western powers dispatched an army to suppress the Boxers: Great Britain, the United States of America, the Russian Empire, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Kingdom of Italy, and the Empire of Japan.
- その中でも一人の青年貴族賀陽豊年の勉強熱心さには宅嗣も感心して、宅嗣自らがその全知識を豊年に伝授したという話が伝わっている(後年、豊年は優れた詩人・学者として名を残している)。
- He was impressed particularly by the enthusiasm for learning by a young noble named KAYA no Toyotoshi and reportedly imparted all of his knowledge to the young man (who, in later years, won recognition as an outstanding poet and scholar).
- だが、開国の反動から攘夷鎖国への傾向が出てきたことを背景に、1863年(文久3年)から、幕府は同法令の本格施行を強め、その結果、生糸輸出が減少するなど次第に実効が現れていった。
- However, supported by the trend toward expulsion of foreigners and national isolation arising in reaction to the opening of Japan to the world, the bakufu promoted full-fledged enforcement of the law from 1863, and as a result it began to produce material results slowly such as the decreased exports of raw silk thread.
- これらの諸勢力を抑えて国政の主導権を確保するため、白河は自らの手足である院近臣や親衛隊ともいえる北面武士を、受領・太政官・兵衛府・衛門府などの公的機関に強引に送り込んでいった。
- To suppress such opposition and maintain initiative in the national government, Shirakawa forcibly sent members of the Hokumen no bushi (northern guards), who were his close aids and royal guard, into official positions such as Zuryo (career provincial officials), Daijokan (council of state), Hyoefu (military guards), and Emonfu (outer palace guards).
- 清盛の強硬姿勢に驚いた法皇は、静憲(信西の子)を使者として今後は政務に介入しないことを申し入れたため、一時は関白父子の解任で法皇と清盛が和解するのではないかという観測も流れた。
- The cloistered emperor was surprised by the firm attitude of Kiyomori, and used the Joken (the son of Shinzei) as the messenger, and said that he would not interfere with political duties hence forwards, and it was interpreted that the dismissal of Kanpaku father and son from their posts made the cloistered emperor and Kiyomori reconcile temporarily.
- こうした中で6世紀末、幾つかの紛争に勝利した推古天皇、聖徳太子、蘇我馬子らは強固な政治基盤を築きあげ、冠位十二階や十七条憲法の制定など官僚制を柱とする王権の革新を積極的に進めた。
- At the end of the sixth century, Empress Suiko, Prince Shotoku, and SOGA no Umako, after emerging victorious from several conflicts, established firm political foundations and actively reformed the polity by basing it on bureaucratic systems such as Kan'i junikai (twelve cap rank system) and the Seventeen-Article Constitution.
- 開港以後は、国学 (学問)の発展によって強化されつつあった日本は神国であるというナショナリズムの発想である尊皇論と結びつき、尊皇攘夷論となって諸藩の志士や公卿によって支持された。
- After the opening of the port, the theory of Joi was related to the Sonno ron (theory of 'Revere the Emperor'), which was becoming prevalent due to the development of kokugaku (the study of Japanese literature and culture) and was transformed into Sonno joi ron (the theory of Sonno joi); the Sonno ron believed that Japan was the country of god and became origin of the thought of nationalism, and was supported by patriots of various domains and kugyo (court nobles).
- 藩論の再転換により、既定の降伏条件を履行しない長州藩へのいらだちは高まり、老中小笠原長行(唐津藩世子)・勘定奉行小栗忠順ら強硬派による長州再征論が浮上し、将軍家茂は再度上洛する。
- Due to this reconversion, the bakufu got increasingly frustrated with Choshu, which didn't perform the duties agreed as conditions to surrender, and Shogun Iemochi again visited Kyoto on the back of insistence from hardliners such as roju Nagayuki OGASAWARA (heir to Karatsu clan) and Tadamasa OGURI, kanjo bugyo (commissioner of financeof the bakufu), to discuss the conquering of Choshu.
- 現在の刑務所と同様に労働に対する手当を支給したが、手当額の一部を強制貯金し、3年の収容期間を終えて出所する際にはこの貯金を交付し、彼らの更生資金に当てさせるというシステムだった。
- Just as the present-day jail, the laborers were paid for their labor, but part of the wages were mandatorily saved in order to use it later as a funding for their rehabilitation when they were released after serving the three-year term.
- これは東海道筋は海運が盛んで、運賃の高い鉄道は余り使用されないであろうとする見方、それに東海道筋は海に近く、外国の攻撃を受けやすいという陸軍の強い反対があったためであるとされる。
- This is because of the fact that Tokaido Road's prospering maritime shipping trade and its expensive prices meant that it was little used, and that there were strong objections from the Army based on the fact that Tokaido Road's proximity to the coast left it vulnerable to foreign attack.
- 黒田内閣の役目は、憲法制定と帝国議会開設によって再燃が予想された自由民権運動に対する取締り強化と、欧米列強との間に交わされたままとなっていた不平等条約の条約改正することであった。
- The purpose of Kuroda Cabinet was to enhance the control of Jiyu Minken Undo (democratic-rights movement) which would be rekindled due to the establishment of the constitution and the foundation of the imperial diet, and also to revise the unequal treaty which had been untouched since it was concluded with the allied western powers.
- 1870年に「藩制」が制定されて藩組織の全国的な統一が強制されるなど、中央政府による各藩に対する統制が強められる一方、多くの藩で財政の逼迫が深刻化し、廃藩を申し出る藩が相次いだ。
- Control of han by the central government was tightened as evidenced by the 'fief system' established in 1870 to force a nation-wide unification of han organizations, and at the same time, since the financial condition of domain administration was worsened, domain governments who requested abolition of 'han' appeared one after another.
- 織田・徳川方の3000丁という量の鉄砲、さらに鉄砲隊を3つに分け、鉄砲の弾込めによるタイムロスをなくす三段撃ち戦法で、最強と呼ばれた武田の騎馬隊を破ったというのが有名な通説である。
- A standard and well-known explanation is that Takeda's cavalry, known as the most powerful, was defeated by the Oda-Tokugawa allied forces which employed as many as 3,000 teppo in the 'sandan-uchi' tactics in which the gunners were arranged in three lines to compensate for the teppo's slow reloading.
- 徳川軍は苦戦しつつも正面突破を強行した本多忠勝や、迂回して朝倉勢を横撃した榊原康政の2将が率いる徳川旗本精鋭隊が加わり、徳川家康の本隊がこれに加わったことで遂に朝倉軍は敗れ去った。
- Tokugawa's hatamoto (direct retainers of the bakufu) elite troops led by two leaders, Tadakatsu HONDA, who burst through head-on forcibly while having a tough time, and Yasumasa SAKAKIBARA, who went the way around to attack Asakura forces from the side, joined Tokugawa troops, and Ieyasu TOKUGAWA's main force followed them, which caused Asakura forces to lose out at last.
- 北条時宗は鎌倉の龍ノ口刑場(江ノ島付近)で杜世忠以下5名を斬首に処した(これは、使者が日本の国情を詳細に記録・偵察した、間諜(スパイ)としての性質を強く帯びていたためと言われる)。
- Tokimune HOJO executed Shizhong DU and other four men at Tatsunokuchi Execution Site (near Eno-shima Island) (it is said to have been because the envoys were mostly spies in nature, recording and investigating the conditions of Japan in detail).
- のちの室町幕府や戦国時代 (日本)の家法にも強い影響を与え、広く武家法の基本となっただけでなく、優れた法先例として公家・武家を問わずに有職故実の研究対象とされた(「式目注釈学」)。
- It greatly affected family laws of Muromachi bakufu and the Sengoku period (Japan); it not only became the base of bukeho (samurai laws) but also was studied as great precedents of yusoku kojitsu (studies in ancient court and military practices and usages) by people, whether as court nobles or samurai families ('Shikimoku chushakugaku').
- 令外の官が広汎に成立した中世においては、このような現実的な需要を受けて実際的な政務処理を律令法の条項と照らし合わせてその法的側面の補強をおこなう明法家という職務身分家系も登場した。
- In the medieval period when ryoge no kan formed widely, families called Myobo-ke (scholars of the law) with a duty of lawyers emerged responding such realistic demands to reinforce legal aspects of practical governmental affairs by checking them against stipulations of ritsuryo codes.
- 一方、幕府創設以来の御家人達にとって、一段身分が低く、あくまでも北条家の家臣に過ぎない内管領・御内人が権勢を振るう事への反発は強く、それら外様御家人層の多くが泰盛方に加わっていた。
- On the other hand, Gokenins since the foundation of Kamakura bakufu were offended by Uchi-Kanrei and Miuchibito since Uchi-kanreia holding the reins of power despite they were of lower ranks than Gokenin and, as a result, most of tozama gokenin (nonhereditary lower-ranking vassal in the Kamakura period) joined Yasumori's party.
- 他方、西欧列強が迫っていた東アジア諸国の中で、いちはやく開国し明治維新により近代国家となった日本は、西欧諸国のみならず、自国周辺のアジア諸国とも近代的な国際関係を樹立しようとした。
- Among East Asian countries where the powerful countries of Western Europe were watching for a chance to invade, Japan was the first country that opened itself to the world and became a modern state through the Meiji Restoration, and it began to establish modern international relations not only with the West European countries but also with Asian countries around Japan.
- 兵士と移民を送りこむロシアに対し、日本が劣勢に立たされていることに強い危機感を抱いた政府は、明治3年(1870年)に樺太開拓使を設置し、黒田清隆を開拓使次官にして樺太専務を命じた。
- However, Japanese government felt a strong sense of crisis over Russia which sent more soldiers and immigrants to Sakhalin and pushed Japan into an inferior position, and established the Sakhalin Development Commission in 1870, and the vice chief of the Commission, Kiyotaka KURODA, was assigned to oversee the administrative matters of Sakhalin.
- こうした井伊の強権的手法には反撥が相次ぎ、徳川斉昭・徳川慶勝(尾張藩主)・松平慶永らは抗議のため登城するが、無断で登城したことを理由に逆に井伊によって謹慎処分を受けることとなった。
- The decisive actions of Ii, provoked a stream of criticism, including action taken by Nariaki TOKUGAWA (the lord of the Mito clan) and Yoshikatsu TOKUGAWA (the lord of the Owari clan), who went to Edo-jo Castle to protest, but they were in fact punished by II for not gaining permission to enter the castle beforehand.
- 結果として諸国列強に押し切られる形で滝善三郎という1人の命を代償として問題を解決する形にはなったが、これ以降、明治政府が対外政策に当たる正当な政府であるということを諸外国に示した。
- Consequently the matter was solved by sacrificing the life of a man, Zenzaburo TAKI, under the pressure by the powerful countries, but the Meiji government appealed to them its legitimacy as a government in charge of the diplomatic policy after that.
- また、京で源満仲と武士の勢力を競っていた藤原千晴もこの事件で流罪となり藤原秀郷の系統は中央政治から姿を消し、清和源氏が京での勢力を伸ばし、京武士として摂関家と強く結ぶようになった。
- FUJIWARA no Chiharu who was competing with MINAMOTO no Mitsunaka on the strength of their samurai, was also deported during this incident, removing the FUJIWARA no Hidesato lineage from the central government, while Seiwa-Genji (Minamoto clan) gained power in Kyoto and built strong ties with the sekkan-ke (line of regents and advisers).
- 鎌倉幕府の権威を背景に荘園を侵略し、豊作凶作にかかわり無く一定額の年貢で荘園管理を一切請け負わせる地頭請や、荘園を地頭分と領家分に強引にわける下地中分など、一部で横暴も多くあった。
- With the backing and authority of the Kamakura bakufu, jito could (and many did) treat shoen very harshly; given their total contractual power over shoen to collect the predetermined amount for the annual tax regardless of whether it had been a good or a poor harvest, and their power forcibly to divide the land in a shoen into the jito's private section and the (absentee) owner's section, many jito were oppressive and little more than tyrants, in a sense.
- 一方、皇族(大王 (ヤマト王権)の一族)を中心とする支配体制を強化し、血縁や勢力にとらわれない人材登用を進めるため、官位(冠位)の制度(官職と位階を関連づける制度)も取り入れられる。
- The official rank (cap rank) system (the system where a government post was associated with a court rank) was also adopted in order to consolidate the government headed by the imperial families (a clan of okimi [Yamato Dynasty]) and to appoint talented people into government service free from blood relations and influence.
- 当時、日清戦争・日露戦争のさなかであった政府としては、鉱山の操業を止める事はできず、反対運動を食い止めるため、政府は運動の盛んだった谷中村の廃村を決し、1907年強制破壊が行われる。
- In the middle of the wars including the Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War, the government could not stop operations at the mines, and in order to stop the victims' protest, they decided to close Yanaka Village and in 1907 executed the destruction of the village.
- 制度取調参与の福岡孝弟は、この由利五箇条に対して第一条冒頭に「列侯会議を興し」の字句を入れるなどして封建的な方向へ後退させ、表題も会盟に改めたため、列侯会盟の色彩が非常に強くなった。
- Because Seido torishirabe Sanyo (Councilor in charge of examining regulations) Takachika FUKUOKA added words 'setting up a council by feudal lords' at the beginning of the first article of the Yuri gokajo (Five Articles designed by Yuri) and the title was changed to 'kaimei' (pledge of feudal lords), it stepped back to feudalistic direction and the mood of pledge of feudal lords deepened.
- ルイス・フロイスの言を借りると十六世紀後半の紀伊は神道・仏教への信仰が強く、四つか五つの宗教がそれぞれ「大いなる共和国的存在」であり、いかなる戦争によっても滅ぼされることはなかった。
- According to the words of Luis FROIS, the people in Kii Province in the latter part of the 16th century had a strong belief in Shinto and Buddhism, and all of the four or five religions were 'big existences like a republic,' which was not destroyed by any war.
- 一方で15世紀後半以降、畠山氏の分裂と抗争が長期間続いたことが大きく響き、また複数の強力な寺社勢力の存在もあって、武家勢力の中から紀伊一国を支配する戦国大名が成長することはなかった。
- On the other hand, the split and conflicts among the Hatakeyama clan had lasted for a long time after the latter part of the 15th century, and there were some strong temple and shrine powers, so that any samurai powers could not grow up to Sengoku daimyo (Japanese territorial lord in the Sengoku period) who controlled the whole Kii Province.
- 尼子晴久は自分の娘を為清に嫁がせ、三沢氏の懐柔を図った上で、更には横田荘の三沢氏領地や砂鉄産地・たたら製鉄場を取り上げ直轄化するなど、経久に比べて強硬的な姿勢で三沢氏と統治している。
- Haruhisa AMAGO controlled the Misawa clan with an attitude which was much tougher than Tsunehisa, by bringing the Yokota manor, the areas where iron sand could be obtained, and tatara iron making sites, under his direct control after marrying off his daughter to Tamekiyo MISAWA with the intention of winning the Misawa clan over to his side.
- 明治政府は華族制度の創設や武士身分の士族への編入など、当初は旧来の身分制度をある程度継承したものの、廃藩置県・徴兵令・秩禄処分といった政策の強行は特権身分に対して大きな打撃を与えた。
- At first the Meiji Government kept the class system, introducing the peerage system by transferring the samurai class, the previous ruling class, into one of the classes of the new system as Shizoku (literally, the warrior class), but the major political changes the government took, including Haihan-chiken (abolition of feudal domain and establishment of prefectures), Conscription Ordinance and Chitsuroku-shobun (measures to abolish hereditary stipends) were significant blows to the privileged class.
- ところがそれは裏を返せば前年度予算がそのまま実行された場合には、当時の日本にとっての緊急の課題であった殖産興業や富国強兵政策のための新規事業が実施できなくなるという事も意味していた。
- What this really meant was that, if the budget of the previous fiscal year was adopted to the new fiscal year, the Japanese government could not carry out the urgent tasks such as promotion of growth of new industry and implementation of new businesses to increase wealth and military power.
- 博覧会は元々その開催国の国力を誇示するという性格を有していたが、帝国主義列強の植民地支配が拡大すると、その支配領域の広大さを内外に示すために様々な物品が集められ展示されるようになる。
- Originally exhibitions were held to show off the power of host countries, but as the imperialist powers extended their colonies, they began to collect and display various items to show the vastness of their territories to their nation and the outside the world.
- 当時の西洋列強が行っていた、植民地支配と現地住民に対する扱いとは違い、皇民化政策は思想と言語統一によって他民族を日本人化することで、日本人と植民地住民を対等に扱おうとするものであった。
- Different from the way of Western powers' governing colonies and treating their local residents, the Japanization policy was to Japanize other ethnic groups by integrating thoughts and the language, and treating Japanese and the residents in colonies equally.
- 国家総動員法、国民精神総動員運動、選挙粛清運動と並び、前年に決定し1940年(昭和15年)に内務省 (日本)が布告した「部落会町内会等調整整備要綱」(隣組強化法)によって制度化される。
- Along with the National General Mobilization Act, Movement for General Mobilization of the National Spirit, and Movement for Strict Enforcement of Election, it was institutionalized through 'Outline of Control and Enhancement of Village Community Associations and District Associations, etc' (Neighborhood Association Enhancement Act) decided in 1939 and decreed by the Ministry of Home Affairs (Japan) in 1940.
- だが、この見解も日本の律令制社会をヨーロッパ的な発展史観に当て嵌め、欧米列強がかつて行った植民地支配の実態と重ね合わせているだけで、本末転倒な見方とする意見が現在では多くなってきている。
- Recently, the most popular current theory is that the above-mentioned view emphasizes the wrong points because it adapts Japanese society based on the Ritsuryo system to the historical view of European development, merely to match that Japanese society with the realities of the Western powers' colonial rule.
- ものの陰陽寮の最高責任者である陰陽頭には就任することなく、寛弘2年(1005年)に85歳で没していることから、陰陽寮及び天文道において強い基盤を持っていた家柄ではなかったとみられている。
- However, he died in 1005 at the age of 85 without becoming onmyo no kami (director of the Onmyoryo); this fact is considered proof that the Abe clan was not a family which traditionally had a strong basis in Onmyoryo and tenmondo.
- その一方で、知藩事の家禄は藩の実収石高の十分の一と定められて藩財政から切り離され、藩の職制・禄制・兵制は中央政府が定めた規定に従うこととされており、藩の内情についても強く監督されていた。
- On the other hand, however, the Karoku (hereditary stipend) for the Chihanji was set to 10% of the gross yield of their domain, separated from the domain's finance, and the Chihanji had to follow the rules set by the central government about the systems of office organization, salary and military in their domains, leaving the internal affairs to be under scrutiny.
- 毛利氏と信長とは、毛利元就の代においては友好的な関係であったが、その後継の毛利輝元は義昭を庇護し(幕府)、さらに最大の反信長勢力である石山本願寺と同盟し、信長への敵対の態度を強めていった。
- The Mori clan and Nobunaga were on friendly terms during the times of Motonari MORI, but his successor Terumoto MORI protected Yoshiaki in the bakufu, and in addition, formed an alliance with Ishiyama Hongan-ji Temple, which was the largest of the anti-Nobunaga forces, growing more hostile toward Nobunaga.
- 北京には八旗や北洋軍ほかおよそ4万人強の兵力が集められたが、さきに天津から進攻する連合軍との戦いで敗れ、戦死あるいは戦意喪失による逃亡によって城攻防戦の際にはすでに多くの兵が失われていた。
- The military force consisted of the Eight Banners and Beiyang army as well as 40,000 soldiers, but many soldiers were already lost at the time of the battle of the castle, having been killed in battle or having lost the will to fight and fled when being defeated by the allied forces invading from Tianjin.
- こうした中で座も変質していき、本所から自立した営業集団に転化したり、官衙や領主との結びつきを強めて中にはこれらを新たな本所するものが出現したり、座衆の数を制限して世襲特権化を図ろうとした。
- Under these circumstances, za were also gradually changed. Some za tried to become a trade group independent of their honjo, or some tried to have closer ties to government offices and feudal lords to have them as their honjo, and some attempted to establish a hereditary privilege by limiting the number of members in their za.
- 大本営陸軍部の大本営組織をつとめる石黒忠悳(軍医総監・陸軍省医務局)や軍医部長の一人森鴎外医学功績と脚気問題から見た再評価(森鴎外)などが科学的根拠がないとして、麦飯の支給に強硬に反対した。
- Tadanori ISHIGURO responsible for the entire system of the Army of the Imperial headquarters (surgeon general of Medical department of Ministry of Army) and one of directors of army surgeons, Ogai MORI and other surgeons were strongly opposed to supplying barley rice; suggesting that reevaluation in view of medical achievements and beriberi Ogai MORI) lacks scientific evidence.
- 今日においては「朝廷」という言葉が幕府に対応する言葉としてよく使われるが、これは天皇・貴族(公家政権)と武家(武家政権)を対立した存在として捉えるようになった近世以後の考えからの影響が強い。
- Today, 'Chotei' is often used as the word comparable to a bakuhu; this is strongly influenced by the thoughts after the modern times in which the Emperor/aristocrat (the Government of kuge, or the court nobles) and buke (military government) oppose one another.
- 国家権力によって強制的に執行されたものであるとされてきた洞部落移転問題であったが、この認識に対する反証を行ったのが移転後の部落に生まれ育った辻本正教(後の部落解放同盟中央執行委員)であった。
- Although the relocation of Hora Buraku was considered to have been forcibly executed by the state power, Masanori TSUJIMOTO (later became a member of the central executive committee at Buraku Liberation League), who was born and brought up in this buraku after relocation, disproved this recognition.
- 鎌倉時代から室町時代の伊達氏歴代の居城として有名であるが、現在の遺構はむしろ伊達政宗移封後の、蒲生氏時代または上杉氏時代に、対伊達氏政策で防備を強化して改築されたものであると考えられている。
- The castle was famous as the residential castle for the successive Date clan since the time from the Kamakura period to the Muromachi period, and the present structural remnants are what has been rebuilt to reinforce the defense against the Date clan in the era of Gamou clan or Uesugi clan after the Masamune DATE was transferred to other domain.
- 列強間で通用している国際法を逆手に取ることで外交交渉を有利に運ぼうという意図からなされたもので、多分に理念よりも道具、華夷秩序を保持するためのツール、としての受容というニュアンスが強かった。
- It was conducted with the aim to carry out diplomatic negotiations advantageously by using in underhanded way international law which was valid among western countries and it had a nuance of acceptance as a tool for maintaining kaichitsujo rather than idealistic principle.
- 北京占領後の1900年9月に、連合軍にドイツからアルフレート・フォン・ヴァルダーゼー元帥率いる数万人の兵力が増強され、彼が連合国総司令官になると、北京周辺の度重なる懲罰的掃討作戦を展開した。
- A further several ten thousand soldiers led by General Field Marshal Alfred von Waldersee from Germany were dispatched to the allied force in September 1900 after the occupation of Beijing, and when he became Allied Supreme Commander, he began a clean up operation around Beijing similar to repetitive punishment.
- また一進会は、日露戦争時に設立され、日韓軍事同盟においてロシアを侵攻を阻止することが、ロシアの大韓帝国に対する影響力を弱め、さらには欧米列強のアジア進出を防ぎ、朝鮮の復興になると考えていた。
- Also, Isshinkai which was founded in the middle of Russo-Japanese War had a thought that blocking Russia's invasion under the Japan-Korea Military Alliance could weaken Russia's influence on the Korean Empire, that it further could prevent the allied western powers from advancing into Asia, and that it finally could lead to the restoration of Korea.
- しかし、実際には関ヶ原の役に際して徳川家康に敵対し、米沢藩50万石余りに減封されるものの、120万石を領有していた当時の藩士を解雇しなかった為、収支に対し人件費だけでも倍の出費を強いられた。
- However, in reality, they were forced to pay out double the amount of expenses compared to their income as they did not fire feudal retainers of the domain who were receiving 1,200,000 koku even after the income for the Yonezawa Domain was reduced to 500,000 koku due to their having fought against Ieyasu TOKUGAWA at the Battle of Sekigahara.
- 「太平記」は後醍醐天皇の即位から細川頼之が管領に就任するまでの南北朝時代を扱っており、軍記物語の性格が強く室町時代から江戸時代にかけて太平記よみと呼ばれる物語僧によって庶民にも語られていた。
- The 'Taiheiki' (Record of the Great Peace) describes the Northern and Southern Court period, from Emperor Godaigo's enthronement to Yoriyuki HOSOKAWA's appointment as Kanrei; characterized by its strong stylistic similarities to war chronicles, it also gained popularity among the commoners through the reciting of tales by monks from the Muromachi period through to the Edo period, and was so often recited that such readings aloud, regardless of the title of the work being read, came to be called 'Taiheiki readings.'
- 朝廷内部では返事を出すかどうかで論争されたが、幕府が返事を出す事に反対した事、朝廷内でも「元の要求に屈するべきではない」という強硬論が強かった事から、朝廷・幕府ともに国書を黙殺する事になった。
- Although there was an argument in the Imperial Court over whether or not to reply, bakufu opposed replying, and the majority of the Imperial Court also had a strong attitude, insisting, 'we should not yield to the demand of the Yuan Dynasty,' and thus, both the Imperial Court and bakufu decided to ignore the letter.
- 列強は清朝の衰退に乗じて「中国の分割」を進めてきたが、中国国内の抵抗を危惧してその動きは未だ緩慢なものであり、戦争による賠償で得たイギリス領香港を例外として、露骨な領有権要求は差し控えてきた。
- The world powers promoted the 'division of China' as the Qing Dynasty weakened, but their efforts were slow for fear of resistance in China and they refrained from making conspicuous demands for territorial rights in China except Hong Kong which was colonized by the United Kingdom as reparations in the Opium War.
- 主君に対する忠誠を絶対とする武家倫理が徐々に確立した江戸時代においては、少なくとも徳川将軍家では見られなくなったものの、非常の措置として行跡の悪い藩主を強制的に監禁する行為は慣行として残った。
- In the Edo period when samurai ethics of seeing loyalty to lord as all-important were gradually established, the phenomenon was not seen with Tokugawa Shogunate Family at least, but the practice remained to be seen as an extraordinary step to forcibly confine lords who misconducted themselves.
- 桂・タフト協定および、第2次日英同盟、日露戦争の結果結ばれたポーツマス条約によってロシアにも韓国に対する優越権を認めさせた結果、事実上、列強のすべての国が大韓帝国に対する日本の支配権を認めた。
- Due to the Taft-Katsura Agreement, the Second Anglo-Japanese Alliance and the Treaty of Portsmouth made after the Russo-Japanese War, which gave Russia superiority over South Korea, all powerful countries virtually approved that Japan should have dominance in South Korea.
- 具体的には、盛宣懐や張謇が地方大官と各国領事の間を奔走し、「保護南省商教章程」9ヶ条と「保護上海租界城廂章程」10ヶ条を結び、外国人の生命及び財産を列強が進攻しない限り保護することを確約した。
- To be exact, Sheng Xuanhuai and Zhang Jian made a great effort between high local officials and the embassy of each nation, and agreed to Article 9 of '保護南省商教章程' and Article 10 of '保護上海租界城廂章程' to promise the protection of the lives and finances of foreigners unless the allied western powers invaded.
- 大正政変は、山縣有朋・桂率いる陸軍・長州閥が第2次西園寺内閣を倒閣し、これに反対する民衆運動が政党組織や優詔政策といった小手先の政策で交わそうとする「閥族内閣」を打倒したというイメージが強い。
- The typical image of the Taisho Seihen is the public movement that toppled the 'clique-ruling Cabinet' formed by the Japanese Army and the former Choshu Domain clique, led by Aritomo YAMAGATA and Taro KATSURA respectively, because the public took objection to the Cabinet which, after overthrowing of the second Saionji Cabinet, tried to silence the public voices by fiddling measures such as the party politics and the Imperial Edict Tactics.
- 朝廷は純友が京を襲撃するのではないかと恐れて宮廷の14門に兵を配備して2月22日には藤原慶幸が山城国の入り口である山崎に派遣して警備を強化するが、26日には山崎が謎の放火によって焼き払われた。
- The Imperial Court, afraid that Masakado would make an attack on Kyoto, posted soldiers at the 14 gates of the Imperial Palace and, to tighten security, they sent FUJIWARA no Yoshiyuki to the gate of Yamashiro Province in Yamazaki on February 22, but Yamazaki was burned down in an anonymous arson attack on February 26.
- 日露戦争において終始優勢を保っていた日本は、これ以上の戦争継続が国力の面で限界であったことから、当時英仏列強に肩を並べるまでに成長し国際的権威を高めようとしていた米国に仲介を依頼し交渉を行った。
- Realizing that its national resources had reached the limit and, hence, it could not continue with the war any longer, Japan, which had been keeping the advantageous position all through the Russo-Japanese War, requested the U.S.A., which had at that time comparable power to the great world powers, the U.K. and France, and was eager to enhance its international status, to mediate the negotiation between them.
- 執権北条時宗の代に2度に渡る元寇があり、鎌倉幕府はこれを撃退したが、他国との戦役であり新たに領土を得たわけではなかったため、十分な恩賞を与えることができず、これもまた武士たちの不満を強めさせた。
- During the time of the regent Tokimune HOJO, Japan was twice invaded by the Mongols, and although the Kamakura bakufu managed to repel both invasions, it was an international conflict and thus there was no enemy land to confiscate and award to their soldiers, leaving them unable to provide suitable rewards, something that only strengthened malcontent among the warrior class.
- 以後、西欧と同じ「文明国」(=富強国)とならなければ、不平等条約を解消し、「万国公法」の恩典には与れないという考えが広がっていき、西欧列強をモデルとした富国強兵改革が推進される思想的要因となった。
- Later, as spreading of thought that to be a civilized country (equal to a strong country) was necessary to dissolve unequal treaties and reap a benefit of 'Bankoku Koho,' the thought became a factor to promote fukoku kyohei reform (fortifying the country, strengthening the military) aiming powerful western countries.
- このように、お互いの利害が一致して信長は将軍・義昭によって信長包囲網が敷かれたときの危機的状況から家康の援軍を、家康は武田信玄という強敵との戦いを勝ち抜くということから信長の援軍を求めたのである。
- As previously described, their interest was in accord with each other; Nobunaga sought reinforcement from Ieyasu when he was in a critical situation by the anti-Nobunaga network of Shogun Yoshiaki; Ieyasu did from Nobunaga when he needed to win successfully through a fight with his powerful enemy Shingen TAKEDA.
- 小倉事件(おぐらじけん)とは、延宝9年(天和_(日本)元年・1681年)に霊元天皇が皇位継承を巡って第1皇子である一宮(後の済深法親王)を強引に出家させてその外戚に当たる小倉家一族を粛清した事件。
- The Ogura Incident was a dispute over succession of the imperial throne in which Emperor Reigen forced Ichinomiya (later Cloistered Imperial Prince Saishin), his oldest son, to become a Buddhist priest in 1681, and purged the greater imperial household of the Ogura family, Ichinomiya's maternal relatives.
- この概念が登場した背景として、1970年代以降、王朝国家論を巡る議論の中で、在地の農民層から武士が生まれて貴族の荘園支配を打倒していったとするそれまでの解釈への批判が強まったことがあげられている。
- One of the commonly understood reasons for the rise of this concept was the increasing criticism in the 1970's and onwards of the conventional understanding that local farmers were the foundation of the samurais who overthrew shoen (manors in medieval Japan) control by aristocrats.
- 明治維新は欧米列強に抑圧されたアジア諸国にとって近代化革命の模範ともなったが、やがて日本自身が列強側の国家として、帝国主義的な領土・権益獲得の立場となったことから、かえって反発を呼ぶことにもなった。
- The Meiji Restoration in Japan was a model for the modern revolution of the various Asian countries which were suppressed by powerful western countries, but Japan also received resistance from them because Japan itself became a powerful imperialistic country trying to obtain lands and interests.
- 台湾出兵時に西郷従道が装備したガトリング砲も九州へ送られるなど、徴兵で構成された政府軍は精強な薩摩士族相手に戦うために、相当な意気込みを見せたが、一番肝心な歩兵銃の弾薬調達でトラブルが発生していた。
- The government army, which consisted of conscripts, was so enthusiastic about fighting against the powerful band of warrior class in Satsuma that it even sent the Gatling gun that had been equipped by Tsugumichi SAIGO for the Taiwan expedition to Kyushu but had a trouble in the essential matter of supplying ammunition for infantry rifle.
- 水野の三王朝交替説はその後様々な研究者により補強あるいは批判がなされていくが、現在では万世一系を否定する学者でも水野の唱えるように全く異なる血統による劇的な王権の交替があったと考えるものは多くない。
- Later, Mizuno's changes of three dynasties theory has been reinforced or criticized by various researchers and at present even among the scholars denying the unbroken imperial line, not many think that there was dramatic change of sovereignty with the entirely different blood line as Mizuno advocated.
- 一説によれば、当時、東北地方の強姦事件の公判で、被害者の調書に被害者本人の署名がないという理由で無罪になることが立て続けにあり、それ以来、仙台の弁護士は調書の署名を注意してみるようになったともいう。
- Some researchers say lawyers in Sendai City came to keep their eyes peeled for signatures in the documents, since there were many cases in Tohoku region where rapists received sentence of acquittal owing to the fact that there were no autographs of rape victims in the paper.
- これにより、江戸幕府の財政難に拍車がかかったことは否めないが一方で、同時期に出された服忌令、捨子禁止令からも見られるように、道徳観を民衆に扶植することで、文治政治を強化する狙いがあったともいえよう。
- It cannot be denied that this law accelerated financial difficulties of the Edo bakufu, but it was designed to strengthen bunchi seiji by establishing a sense of morality among the common people, as seen in the law of mourning or the prohibition of abandonment of children issued around the same time.
- また、鎌倉時代には源実朝が「将門合戦絵」を描かせたり、神田明神が江戸幕府によって「江戸総鎮守」とされたりするなど、武家政権が将門を東国武家政権の先駆けとして強い親近感を抱いていることも特徴的である。
- In addition, during the Kamakura period, military governments strongly promoted Masakado as a pioneer of military government in Togoku, an attitude which can be seen in the commissioning of a painting by MINAMOTO no Sanetomo called 'Masakado Kassen-e' (Masakado's Picture of War), and also at Kanda-Myojin Shrine, which was designated as 'Edo Sochinju' by the Edo bakufu (the feudal government of the Edo period).
- しかし、1864年(元治元年)の下関戦争を契機として、列強各国は幕府へ同法令の撤回を強く迫り、一方幕府内部からも生糸の輸出に税金をかける形で抑制した方が幕府財政の改善にも繋がるとする意見も出された。
- However, prompted by the Shimonoseki War in 1864, powerful countries heavily pressed the Edo bakufu for the abolition of the law while there were opinions within the Edo bakufu that it would lead to improved financial affairs of the bakufu and be wiser to keep trading under control by imposing tax on exports of raw silk thread.
- 西太后が「宣戦布告」の上諭を出して列強への態度を明確化した頃、両江総督劉坤一や湖広総督張之洞、両広総督李鴻章ら地方の有力官僚らは、この上諭を偽詔とした上で従わない旨宣言し、そして義和団の鎮圧に動いた。
- When Empress Dowager Cixi made a 'proclamation of war' to make her stance toward the allied western powers clear, some influential bureaucracy in the local provinces such as Liu Kunyi, who was the Viceroy of Liangjiang, Zhang Zhidong, who was the Viceroy of Huguang, and Li Hongzhang, who was the Viceroy of Liangguang, stated that the above order was a forgery and refused to participate in suppressing the Boxers.
- これに対して造酒正も延暦寺なども激しく抵抗したが、足利義満のもとで強力な軍事力を保っていた幕府の圧力に屈し、明徳4年(1393年)には「洛中辺土散在土倉并酒屋役条々」という5ヶ条からなる法令を出した。
- Although Miki no kami and Enryaku-ji Temple fiercely fought back against the bakufu's move, they were suppressed by the strong military power of the bakufu of Yoshimitsu ASHIKAGA, and the bakufu put into force a law called 'Rakuchu-hendosanzai doso-narabini-sakaya-yaku jojo' (洛中辺土散在土倉并酒屋役条々) (Rules of tax regarding financial services and sake dealers in Kyoto) with five articles in 1393.
- 更に時応界都(辛戒道)は偽使者とされており、1421年4月7日に正式な宗氏の使者である仇安里が「時応界都(辛戒道)の言ったことは妄言である。対馬を攻めるのは日本を攻めるのと同じだ」と強く否定している。
- Moreover, although he claimed to be an emissary of Korea, Shiokatsu (also known as Keido SHIN) is believed to have been an imposter, and in the entry for the seventh day of the fourth month of 1420, Anri KYU, the official envoy of Sejong, is recorded as having been highly critical of Shiokatsu, saying: 'What Shiokatsu has said is rash and thoughtless. To attack Tsushima is to attack Japan.'
- すなわち強国が弱小国を併呑していく当時の世界情勢(帝国主義時代)は、自然の摂理であると受け取られ、『万国公法』の説く「万国並立」「万国対峙」という理念は建前に過ぎないといったシニカルな受容をもたらした。
- Namely the world situation, in which strong countries annexed small countries (age of imperialism) was considered natural providence and resulted in believe that principles of 'Bankoku Koho,' such as '万国並立' or '万国対峙' (equality of countries) were mere slogans.
- 台湾総督は台湾の行政・司法・立法から軍事までを一手に掌握しうる強大な権限を持ったため「土皇帝」と呼ばれた程である(後に軍事権が台湾軍 (日本軍)司令官に移譲されたことにより、文官の総督就任が可能になる)。
- Power was highly centralized with the Taiwan governor wielding the public administration, administration of justice, legislation and military, therefore it was called 'Do Kotei', the local emperor (later, the military power was transferred to the Taiwanese army [Japanese army] so the civil officers could assume the governer).
- しかし、同藩の桂小五郎(のちの木戸孝允)や久坂玄瑞、久留米の神官・真木和泉ら尊王攘夷派は、幕府の権力強化につながるこの策に猛反対し、長井は失脚させられて、以後長州の藩論は尊王攘夷の最過激派へと転換される。
- However, Kogoro KATSURA (later Koin KIDO) and Genzui KUSAKA from the Choshu clan, and people of Sonno Joi ha, such as Izumi MAKI of Kurume, firmly opposed this policy because they thought it would lead to a restrengthening of the bakufu's power, and thus they brought down Nagai, and the Choshu clan returned to the radical Sonno Joi philosophy of restoring power to the emperor and expelling foreigners.
- その理由としては、まず西欧列強に都合の良い運用(外圧正当化)がされたことによって、『万国公法』への根強い不信感が中国側に植え付けられ、その心理的抵抗からスムーズな受容がなされなかったという点が挙げられる。
- As Western countries had been using 'Bankoku Koho' for their profits, people in China had strong distrust in 'Bankoku Koho' and this psychological resistance among people made smooth acceptance of 'Bankoku Koho' impossible.
- 「むしろ、西洋列強の野望渦巻く苛烈な国際情勢下で、ひとり先に文明開化した日本が独立をまっとうせんがためには致し方なく中国、朝鮮と袂(たもと)を分かたなければいけない......それが脱亜という選択肢である」
- Under the fierce international circumstance when Western powers had high ambitions, it was necessary for Japan to reluctantly keep away from China and Korea to keep independence as a country... the choice was to leave Asia.'
- 守護大名や守護代、国人領主が戦国大名になるためには、それは室町時代以前からの庶家や傘下の土豪とのゆるやかな同盟関係のしがらみを絶ち、強固な主従関係により結ばれた家臣団の獲得こそが大きな条件であったといえる。
- In order for shugo daimyo, shugodai, and kokujinryoshu to become a sengoku daimyo, it was necessary to abolish the ties of their loose alliances with shoke and local clans under them that began before the Muromachi period and then to obtain vassal groups with which they were tied based upon a strong relationship of master and vassal.
- それは、庶家も主家同様、領土と居城、家臣を養い、主家から一定の独立を保った者も少なくなく、主君と家臣という強固な主従関係というよりは、事実上、宗家を盟主とする同盟関係という性格が強いものであったことによる。
- This was because many shoke, similarly to the employer's household, maintained their territories, their castles as residences, and their vassals and kept their independence from their employer's household to some extent, and this relationship was not a strong one between master and vassals, but, in fact, tended to be more of an alliance with the head of the family as the alliance leader.
- 強硬派から(マシュー・ペリー同様嫌がらせのために)測量や航路研究のためとし朝鮮近海に軍艦を派遣して軍事的威圧を加える案が出ると、外務大輔の寺島宗則は太政大臣三条実美や右大臣岩倉具視の了承を得てこれを承認した。
- The hard-liners of Japan suggested to Munenori TERASHIMA, Gaimu-taifu (post of Foreign Ministry) to dispatch a warship to inshore of Korea in the name of measuring the coastline and investigating passages (to harass them as well as Matthew [Calbraith] PERRY did), and he accepted it under the approval of Sanetomi SANJO, the Grand Minister, and Tomomi IWAKURA, Minister of the Right.
- 江戸幕府による大政奉還を受け、王政復古 (日本)によって発足した明治新政府の方針は、天皇親政(旧来の幕府・摂関などの廃止)を基本とし、諸外国(主に欧米列強国を指す)に追いつくための改革を模索することであった。
- The aim of the Meiji government, which was created by the restoration of Imperial rule after Taisei-hokan (transfer of power back to the emperor) from the Edo Shogunate, was to establish the basis of direct Imperial rule by the emperor by the abolition of the Shogunate and the positions of Regent and Chief advisor to the emperor, and to investigate ways to reform and catch up with foreign countries (mainly, powerful countries in Western Europe and North America).
- しかし、当該国がマネーサプライの拡大を嫌った場合、他の資産を民間に売却することによって自国通貨供給の拡大を阻止するという操作が可能であり、このような金不胎化政策はかならず他の国に金融引き締めを強いることになる。
- However, if the country does not want to increase the money supply, it can control and hamper the expansion by disposing of state-owned assets to the private sector, and such gold sterilization policy will impose credit crunch on other countries.
- 日本書紀の記述から、5世紀後半には吉備や播磨、伊勢などの首長がヤマト王権へ対抗するなどの動きがあったと推測されており、そうした中で登場したワカタケル王は強化した軍事力をもとに各地の首長への支配力を強めていった。
- From descriptions in the 'Nihonshoki', it is believed that the chiefs of Kibi, Harima, and Ise rebelled against the Yamato Kingdom sometime around the latter half of the fifth century and it was during this period that King Wakatakeru appeared and strengthened the political power of the Yamato Kingdom over the regional chiefs with its increased military strength.
- 何故なら、布教活動や宣教師のみならず、同じ中国人であるはずの信者も不平等条約によって強固に守られ、時には軍事力による威嚇を用いることさえあったため、おおむね事件は教会側に有利に妥結することが多かったからである。
- Despite being the same Chinese, believers were strongly protected due to the unequal treaty, and sometimes used military threats, so incidents usually ended to the church's favor.
- さらに、第二次世界大戦においては大東亜共栄圏の行動を打ち出し、当時イギリスやオランダなどの列強が植民地化していた東南アジアに進軍し、欧米の占領軍を追い出して後釜に座る形でほぼ全域を占領、あるいは影響下に置いた。
- In World War II, Japan proposed the action of the Great East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere, marched into Southeast Asia which was the colony of powerful countries such as England and the Netherlands, cast out the Occupation Forces of Europe and America and took their places, occupying or putting under their influence almost the whole area.
- 大化前代からの家父長制家族の発達は、このような法を受用する基礎をつくったことは事実であるが、律令法は儒教の精神によって、親または家長の権力を強大にし、同時に女性の法的・社会的地位をいちじるしく低める作用をした。
- Development of the patriarchal authority family since the pre-Taika era did build a basis for accepting and applying such law, but in the Confucian spirit, ritsuryo law gave tremendous power to parents or the head of the family, while drastically lowering the legal and social status of women.
- 以前、学界では平氏政権を貴族政権的な性格が強いとする見解が主流であったが、1970年代・1980年代頃からは、平氏政権が地頭や国守護人を設置した事実に着目し、最初期の武家政権とする見解が非常に有力となっている。
- In the past, many theories in the field considered the Taira clan administration as being a strongly aristocratic administration, but from around the 1970s and 1980s, the theory that the Taira clan administration was the first warrior class government which focussed on the fact that the Taira clan administration established Jito (local lord of a manor) and Province officers became dominant.
- また軍を解散させると職を失った大量の兵士達が社会不安の要因となってしまうというものだが、征服した現地兵を次の戦争に投入することは元ではよく行われており、日本との戦いのときのみことさら強調すべきこととは考えにくい。
- It is also said that dissolving the army would cause social anxiety by producing numerous unemployed soldiers, but the Yuan Dynasty often sent local conquered soldiers to the next war and it could not be particularly emphasized only in the case of war with Japan.
- 主君押込(しゅくんおしこめ、単なる「押込」とも)は鎌倉時代から武家社会に見られた慣行で、特に江戸時代の幕藩体制において、行跡が悪いとされる藩主を、家老らの合議による決定により、強制的に監禁(押込)する行為を指す。
- Shukun oshikome (or simply called 'oshikome') is a practice seen in the samurai society beginning in the Kamakura period, and it especially refers to the forcible confinement of the allegedly misbehaving lord based on the decision made by Karo (chief retainers) and others after consultation.
- 学術的な視点からは、旧民法が自然法思想に立脚していたことに対して、法の歴史性・民族性を強調した歴史法学からの批判、内容的なものとしては、日本古来の家族制度を始めとする日本の伝統・習慣にそぐわないという批判があった。
- From an academic viewpoint the fact that the Old Civil Code was based on the thought of natural law, there arose criticisms from historical jurisprudence emphasizing a historical and racial nature of law, which included criticisms that the content of the Code would not fit Japanese tradition and customs including Japanese traditional family system.
- 幕府の強硬な態度に対して朝廷は、これまでに授与した紫衣着用の勅許を無効にすることに強く反対し、また、大徳寺住職・沢庵宗彭(たくあんそうほう)や、妙心寺の東源慧等ら大寺の高僧も、朝廷に同調して幕府に抗弁書を提出した。
- Against the strong-handed stance of the bakufu, the Imperial Court strongly objected to the annulment of Imperial decrees allowing the wearing of Shie and high priests of major temples such as Takuan Soho, the resident priest of Daitoku-ji Temple and Eto TOGEN of Myoshin-ji Temple also agreed with the Imperial Court and submitted a document of complaint.
- また、楽市楽座政策をもって彼の先進性と見なす向きもあるが、戦国期に畿内を中心とした土地を大規模な範囲で支配出来たのは信長が最初であるという事情もあり、むしろ経済史の流れに沿っている側面も強いことに注意が必要である。
- The rakuichi-rakuza policy is considered to demonstrate Nobunaga's progressive outlook but there is also the fact that he was the first to achieve wide-reaching territorial control centered around the Kinki region during the Sengoku period (period of warring states), and it is necessary to note that the phenomenon was very important part of economic history.
- その後、逃走者が発見された場合には逃亡先の戸籍に編入させられる「当所編附」あるいは元の本貫地への強制送還させられる「本貫還附」の措置が取られた(ただし、陸奥国・出羽国の本貫者については「本貫還附」が決められていた)。
- Later, when those that fled were found, measures either 'tosho henpu' that made them admitted to the family register that they had fled to, or 'hongan kanpu' that had them deported back to their original honganchi, was taken (however, for people with hongan in Mutsu Province and Dewa Province, 'hongan kanpu' was taken).
- アジア諸国の西欧列強による植民地化と日本による朝鮮王朝の開国と干渉に刺激された結果、清国と朝鮮の関係を伝統的な宗属関係から近代的な宗主国と属国の関係(宗主国と植民地の関係)に改めて朝鮮を自勢力下に留めようとした戦争。
- As western powers colonized Asian countries and Japan forced Korea to open the country to the world and intervene in it, Qing, as a result, was spurred into using this war to try to transform the conventional relationship between Qing and Korea based upon a concept of a family with the same origin into a modern suzerain-dependency relationship (suzerain-colony relationship) and keep Korea under control.
- しかし、太政官に立法・司法・行政の全機能を集中させ、太政大臣に強力な権限を与えるこの制度は、近代国家の国政運営に適さないと考えられ、また、太政大臣の負担が大きく、かえって国家運営の停滞と責任の所在の不明確さを招いた。
- However, this system, which concentrated all the state's legislative, judiciary and administrative functions in the Daijokan and gave broad authority to the Dajo-daijin (Grand Minister) was thought to be ill-suited for the political management of a modern nation; the High Chancellor's extensive responsibilities caused delays in the political management of the nation and invited confusion over who had responsibility for which tasks.
- 強制的な拘束や拷問などを行わずに「神の意思」の名のもとで当事者の合意を得られる方法として広く行われたが、あくまでも双方の証人・証文などの証拠類を揃えて吟味した結果でも事実の成否が確定できない場合などに限定されていた。
- It was widely used as a method which enabled people to obtain agreements from both claimants without the exercise of detentions or tortures at 'the will of the gods,' but its use was limited only to the cases in which the truth could not be ascertained even after the thorough investigation of evidence such as witnesses or documents collected from the both parties.
- しかし、地頭は紛争を武力で解決しようとする傾向が強く、訴訟結果が実効を伴わないことも多かったため、荘園領主はやむを得ず、一定額の年貢納入を請け負わせる代わりに荘園の管理を委ねる地頭請(じとううけ)を行うことがあった。
- However, as the jitos tended to solve the disputes by force and many results of the lawsuits were not effective, the lords of shoens were compelled to do jitouke (the contract system that the manor's owner entrusts a jito to manage his manor and pay the customs), where the jitos did not undertake the payment for a certain amount of nengu (land tax) and instead controlled the shoens.
- 1991年、日系人の強制収容を描いた短編ドキュメンタリー『待ちわびる日々 (Days of Waiting The Life Art of Estelle Ishigo)』でアカデミー短編ドキュメンタリー映画賞を受賞。
- In 1991, his short documentary film portraying the Japanese American Internment, 'Days of Waiting The Life Art of Estelle Ishigo,' received an Academy Award for best documentary short subject.
- この事件は、すでに将軍家と血縁もなく、北条本家との関係も希薄となって影響力の低下を恐れた政子が、牧氏事件と同じ構図を創り上げて義時後家として強い立場を持つ事になる伊賀氏を強引に潰そうとして仕掛けたものとする見方もある。
- Some say Masako HOJO, in fear of decline of her own influence in the Kamakura bakufu due to having no blood relationship with the Shogun family and the weak connection with the head family of HOJO, designed this incident, which has the same content with the Incident of Maki clan, in order to forcibly ruin the Iga clan, who were to hold strong power as Yoshitoki's widow.
- 米沢藩主である上杉綱憲は吉良上野介の実子で、赤穂浪士の討ち入りを知った綱憲がいきり立って父の援軍に出馬しようとするところを家老千坂高房(または色部安長)が強く諫言しておしとどめる場面が忠臣蔵の物語でよく取り上げられる。
- It is often seen in the stories of Chushingura that when the lord of Yonezawa Domain Tsunanori UESUGI, who was a biological son of Kura Kozuke no Suke, heard about the raid by Ako Roshi, he became very angry and tried to send reinforcements to his father; however, chief retainer Takafusa CHISAKA (also known as Yasunaga IROBE) remonstranced and stopped him.
- 実際、墾田永年私財法は荘園制を発生させ律令制を崩壊に追いやった元凶のように論じられていたが、実態は人民の生活保障のために執られた土地政策の一環で、律令を否定するどころか律令の法目的を補強するものであった事が判明している。
- In fact, although it was argued that the Law Permitting Permanent Ownership of Newly Cultivated Land was very much like the main cause of the Ritsuryo system collapse by allowing the development of the manorial system, it has been proved that the law was for reinforcing the Ritsuryo system as part of the land policy, which was undertaken to guarantee the livelihoods of the people.
- こうした干渉に対し、首相伊藤博文は列国会議開催による処理を提案したが、外相陸奥宗光は会議によってさらなる干渉を招く恐れを主張し、イギリス、アメリカ合衆国、イタリアなど他の列強の協力で勧告を牽制し、撤回させようと目論んだ。
- In response to the coordinated interventions, then-Japanese prime minister, Hirofumi ITO, made a proposal to the congress to hold a conference with the world powers, but then-foreign minister, Munemitsu MUTSU, claimed it might cause further intervention and proposed instead to invite other world powers, such as the UK, the U.S.A. and Italy, to counter and revoke the recommendation.
- 山本は桂の二の舞を演ずることを避けるため、軍部大臣現役武官制を緩和(陸海軍の大臣は現役の大将・中将から出すこととなっていたが、山本は政党の軍部に対する影響を強めるために、予備役や後備役にまで拡大した)して政党に譲歩した。
- With an attempt to avoid repeating KATSURA's folly, YAMAMOTO made concessions to political parties by easing the Military ministers to be officers on active-duty rule (the rule stipulated that only generals and lieutenant generals on the active could serve as ministers of the army and navy, however, in order to increase the political parties' influence over the military, Yamamoto opened these ministerial posts to military men on reserve duty and those on the second reserve duty as well.
- 監禁の後も、藩主に改悛の情が見えず、あるいは偽りの様子としか受け取られない場合、再び悪行や暴政を行う可能性が高いと判断された場合は、藩主は強制的に隠居させられ、藩主隠居の旨幕府に届け出、嫡子や兄弟の妥当な人物が藩主となる。
- If the lord shows no sign of remorse or the remorse is seen as a pretense or the vassals think that the lord is highly like to sink into corruption and tyrannize again, the lord will be forced to retire, and the retirement is reported to the shogunate government and an appropriate person is chosen among legitimate children and brothers.
- しかし中国に対し冊封・朝貢を行っていた周辺諸国も、次第に欧米列強の植民地へと変えられていき、また清朝自身もロシアのイリ地方地方占領や清仏戦争、日本の台湾出兵、日清戦争などアヘン戦争以降の度重なる列強からの外圧にさらされた。
- However, as those Asian countries which conducted sakuho and choko to the Qing dynasty became colonies of western countries and America, the Qing dynasty was also put pressure continuously by powerful countries after the Opium War, especially when Ili region was seized by Russia, the Sino-French War, the Taiwan expedition and the Japanese-Sino War occurred.
- だが、欧米列強との交渉が始まると、日本に民法典が無いことが列強による治外法権を正当化させる理由の一つに挙げられて、幕末から明治初期の日本において、不平等条約条約改正という政治的課題の一つとして民法典の整備が急務とされていた。
- However, when negotiations were started beween Japan and the allied western powers, the fact that Japan lacked Minpoten became one reason to justify exterritoriality of the western powers, so that in Japan from the end of the Edo period to the early Meiji period, the preparation of Minpoten was an urgent matter as one of political tasks to revise unequal treaties.
- 25年には一転して強硬な異国船打払令(文政令)が出され、文化5年(1808年)にはイギリス船が長崎へ上陸して食料を奪うフェートン号事件が起こり、1837年には浦賀に侵入したアメリカ商船に大砲が打たれるモリソン号事件が起こる。
- In a turn of events, a strict edict known as the Order for the Repelling of Foreign Ships was issued in 1825 following the 1808 Phaeton Incident in which a British ship pillaged food in Nagasaki; by 1837 the Morrison Incident occurred in which an American ship sailing into Uraga was attacked by cannon.
- 規模はきわめて小規模で、当面の目標も栃木県庁落成式に出席する政府高官への襲撃程度のものであったが、自由党急進派は、前年の1883年(明治16年)後半以降、圧制打倒をめざして頻繁な交流を図り、同志的結合を強めていく傾向にあった。
- It was quite small in scale and its immediate aim was only attacking high-ranking government officials who attended the Tochigi Prefectural Government inauguration ceremony: Since the latter half of 1833 of the previous year, the Liberal Party radicals had frequent meetings and were in a direction of strengthening the unity of the like-minded members.
- 事実、正徳の治の間に行われた改鋳量は正徳小判・一分金合わせて約21万両であり、元禄金銀・宝永金銀(あわせて小判2545万両、丁銀146万貫)に比較すると、これだけをもってデフレを起こすほどインパクトが強いとはいえないのである。
- In fact, the amount of reminted Shotoku koban and Ichibu kin gold coin during Shotoku no chi was about 210,000 ryo, comparing to Genroku and Hoei gold and silver circulated (total 25,450,000 ryo of kobans and 1,400,000 ryo of chogins), it cannot say that this reminting had much of an impact in creating deflation.
- その中で己が権益には強い姿勢を見せながらも、将軍家を尊重する姿勢は一貫して崩さなかった三好長慶を排除すればどうなるかすら予見し得なかった義輝は、図らずも程なく長慶が病没する事によって、以前の試みの帰結を知る事となったのである。
- Unable to foresee the consequences of the ousting of Nagayoshi MIYOSHI who, although firmly insistent on his own interests, had never deviated from the posture of respecting the Shogun family, Yoshiteru happened to learn from the soon succumbing of Nagayo
- 毎年1月11日_(旧暦)(応永年間後期以後)、管領以下を召集して開催され、まず奉行人より任命された右筆が祝詞を述べ、管領や評定衆が将軍に対して太刀を献上し、将軍側からも太刀を下賜するなど鎌倉期に比べて形式的な要素が強くなった。
- On January 11 (old calendar) (since the late Oei era) every year, hyojohajime was conducted through the convening of kanrei (shogunal deputies) and their subordinates with more ritual formalities than in the Kamakura period: yuhitsu (an amanuensis) appointed by bugyonin gave a speech of auspiciousness; kanrei and hyojoshu offered a sword to the Shogun, and the Shogun also granted them swords.
- 日本とオスマン帝国の外交当局による国交交渉は何度も行われたのであるが、日本側が欧米列強と同等の待遇の条約を望み、治外法権を認めるよう要求したのに対し、オスマン帝国は不平等条約の拡大を嫌い、両者の交渉が暗礁に乗り上げたためである。
- The reason for this was that negotiations over the establishment of diplomatic relations between Japan and the Ottoman Empire remained deadlocked despite both sides engaging in frequent rounds of negotiations; the Ottoman Empire did not wish to enter into another unequal treaty, but Japan was demanding the same level of treaty as the Ottoman Empire had agreed to with the great powers of Europe and America, insisting on Japan's extraterritorial rights.
- 『養老令』によると「凡縁東辺北辺西辺諸郡人居、皆於城堡内安置。其営田之所、唯置庄舎。至農時堪営作者、出就庄田 謂、強壮者出就田舎、老少者留在堡内也。収歛訖勒還 謂、要勒而還於城堡也。」との記述があり、考古学の成果とほぼ一致する。
- For the most part, the descriptions '凡縁東辺北辺西辺諸郡人居、皆於城堡内安置。其営田之所、唯置庄舎。至農時堪営作者、出就庄田 謂、強壮者出就田舎、老少者留在堡内也。収歛訖勒還 謂、要勒而還於城堡也。' in Yoro-ryo (Yoro Code) correspond to what has been found in archaeology.
- 第二次世界大戦中における日系人の強制収容など人種差別をもとにしたいくつもの障害があったものの、このことがやがて世代が変わるごとに、ゆっくりとではあっても確実に、日系人がアメリカ社会での地位を向上させていくことにつながっていった。
- This led to the enhancement of the position of Japanese Americans in American society as generations went by, despite various obstacles due to racial discrimination including the Japanese American internment during the World War II.
- ロシアの影響力の増大を警戒するドイツ帝国の宰相オットー・フォン・ビスマルクは列強の代表を集めてベルリン会議 (1878年)を主催し、露土戦争の講和条約であるサン・ステファノ条約の破棄とベルリン条約 (1878年)の締結に成功した。
- Alarmed by the increasing influence of Russia, Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor of the German Empire hosted the Congress of Berlin (1878) and succeeded in gathering the representatives of the great powers to denounce the Treaty of San Stefano, the peace treaty of the Russo-Turkish Wars and conclude the Treaty of Berlin (1878).
- そして、東京大学名誉教授の坂野潤治は、福澤の状況的発言は当時の国際状況、国内経済などの状況的認識と対応していることを強調し、甲申事変が失敗したことにより状況的認識が変化して「脱亜論」が書かれたと説明して、以下のように喝破している。
- A professor emeritus at Tokyo University, Junji BANNO emphasized that Fukuzawa's situational remark corresponded to recognition of the international situation and domestic economy at that time and he explained that the 'Datsu-A Ron' was written when this situation recognition changed when the Gapsin Coup failed; he corrected it as follows:
- この2つの戦いを一括りにすることの是非については、議論の余地があるものの、両者とも本願寺10世証如と、その後見人蓮淳(8世蓮如の6男で証如の外祖父であり大叔父でもある)による法主の権限強化を図った政策方針の末に生じた出来事である。
- It is disputable to treat these two wars as one historical event, but both wars happened as a result of the policy by which Shonyo, the 10th chief priest of Hongan-ji Temple, and his guardian Renjun (the 6th son of Rennyo, the 8th chief priest, and also both a maternal grandfather and a grand-uncle of Shonyo) tried to strengthen the authority of hoshu (a head of a Buddhist sect).
- 南北朝時代の活力が背景にあり、3代将軍義満の時代(北山文化)は中央集権的で公家文化と武家文化の影響や中国文化の影響があるのに対し、8代将軍義政の時代(東山文化)は庶民的で「侘び・寂び」という禅宗などの影響が強いのが特色といわれる。
- Given the energy and vitality of the Northern and Southern Court period, the (Kitayama) culture during the reign of the third Shogun, Yoshimitsu, was centralized and authoritarian, influenced both by aristocratic and warrior culture and by Chinese culture, while by contrast, the (Higashiyama) culture during the reign of the eighth Shogun, Yoshimasa, was based in commoner culture and was heavily influenced by Zen Buddhism, for example in the twin aesthetic principles of wabi-sabi (the beauty and pathos of loneliness, simplicity, and imperfection).
- 日中戦争の端緒となった盧溝橋事件において「なぜ日本が中国の領域深くまで当然のように兵を置いていたのか」という疑問を聞くことがあるが、これは日本からすれば北京議定書に基づく権利の行使により、日本を含む8ヶ国の列強が各地に駐兵していた。
- In the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, which triggered the Sino-Japanese war, a question 'why Japan stationed a troop for granted in such a deep place of China' is sometimes heard: That was only because Japan used its rights based on the Peking Protocol in the same way other seven Powers posted troops in various places.
- 一向宗宗名論争(浄土真宗が公式に否認している「一向宗」を宗派名として強要しようとした問題)を機に浄土真宗内部からも政府への反発が高まってきたこともあり、教部省の施策が暗礁に乗り上げると政教分離の観点から脱退するといった動きを見せた。
- However, triggered by the dispute over naming of the Ikko sect (the issue that government attempted to enforce the name of 'Ikko' as an official name on the Jodo Shinshu sect even though the sect had officially rejected it), the repugnance against the government grew within the Jodo Shinshu sect, and the Jodo Shinshu sect withdrew from Kyobusho after the policy of Kyobusho reached a deadlock on the basis of the separation of religion and politics.
- 特に剣豪として江戸で名を馳せていた堀部武庸(馬廻役200石)、高田吉次の子孫であり槍の達人の高田郡兵衛(馬廻役200石)、堀部の剣の同門である奥田孫太夫 (武具奉行馬廻役150石)などが強硬に吉良上野介の首級をあげるべきと主張した。
- Especially Taketsune HORIBE (bodyguard, 200 koku), who was known to be a great swordsman in Edo, Yoshitsugu TAKATA's descendant Gunbe TAKATA, who was known for his spear skills (bodyguard, 200 koku), and Magodayu OKUDA (magistrate for arms and armor as well as a bodyguard, 150 koku), who came from the same sword school as Horibe, strongly suggested killing Kira Kozuke no Suke.
- しかし、孝明天皇は撫恤のための薪水給与は認めていたが、通商条約や異国人の入国には強く反対しており、また岩倉具視ら多くの公家が関白の幕府寄りの姿勢を批判したため(廷臣八十八卿列参事件参照)、堀田の工作にもかかわらず勅許は得られなかった。
- However, Hotta could not get permission primarily because the Emperor Komei strongly objected to the ideas of allowing foreigners to come into Japan and concluding a commercial treaty, though he did give permission for supplying fuel and water in mercy, and also because many aristocrats including Tomomi IWAKURA criticized Kujo for his attitude towards the shogunate (see the incident that 88 high-ranking aristocrats went on a sit-in protest).
- これを再び統一したのは北宋であったが、宋王朝は遼や金 (王朝)などと対立していたことなどから、中国全土に対して強力な支配を行っていたとは必ずしもいえないが、宋のもとで中国の社会が安定し農業や商業が飛躍的に発展したと考えることはできる。
- It was the Northern Sung Dynasty that unified China again, but it can not be said that the Sung Dynasty was able to exert a controlling force over the whole area of China, since Sung was confronted with the Ryo and Jin Dynasties, but it can be thought that society achieved stability, and agriculture and commerce made remarkable progress in China during this period.
- 政府による「私有財産と生命、一国民としての栄誉の保護」が行われない朝鮮の国民であるよりも、各地で支配力を有するようになっていたイギリス人やロシア人に支配される方が、朝鮮の人々(朝鮮人民)にとっては幸福ではないかと強い語気で主張している。
- The editorial strongly suggests that for Korean people it would be better to be ruled by British or Russians who began to hold control in various places than Korean nationals who have no 'protection for their private property, life and honor as a citizen' by the government.
- 一方家康は武田・北条などの強敵に阻まれてそれ程の勢力拡大こそは果たせなかったものの、苦境においても愚直にも西の信長への信義・忠誠を貫いた姿勢が内外における名声を高めて後年の天下取り(具体的には征夷大将軍の宣下)に役立ったと言われている。
- Meanwhile, prevented by strong enemies such as the Takeda clan and the Hojo clan, Ieyasu could not expand his power as much as he wanted, however, even in the difficult situation, his consistent and stubbornly honest attitude of being faithful and loyal to Nobunaga in the West raised his reputation tremendously within and beyond his territory, which is said to have helped him taking position in reigning the Japanese government (in the concrete terms to have Imperial Proclamation of seii taishogun [literally, 'great general who subdues the barbarians']).
- 寛平の治は、王臣家が諸国富豪と直接結びつくことを規制することで権門(有力貴族・寺社)を抑制し、小農民を保護するという律令制への回帰を強く志向したものであり、併せて蔵人所の充実や検非違使庁の権限拡充等天皇直属機関の強化を行うものであった。
- Kanpyo no chi was intended as a return to the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code) that protected tenant farmers and suppressed influential families (noble families, temples and shrines with power) by restricting direct bondage between oshinke (nobles in the capital) and the rich classes in the provinces, while at the same time, it was also intended to reinforce organizations ruled by the emperor, including enhancing the kurododokoro (the Chamberlain's Office) and an increase of authority by the Kebiishicho (Office of Police and Judicial Chief).
- 特に、千利休による茶道の大成は、禅の思想に基づく“わび・さび”の考え方と、豊臣秀吉の発案との言い伝えを持ち、美醜について大きく意見の分かれる“金の茶室”という極限的な豪壮さを一つに内包したものと言え、今も日本文化全体に強く影響している。
- In particular, completion of 'sado (tea ceremony)' by SEN no Rikyu, which can be said to include the idea of 'wabi, sabi' based on Zen Buddhism and the ultimately splendid 'golden tea arbor,' which is handed down as the idea of Hideyoshi and for which opinion on beauty is divided, gives strong influence on the whole culture of Japan even today.
- 更に足利義満以後、将軍の親裁が強まり、管領や評定衆の発言力の強い評定よりも自らの主導権が発揮できる御前沙汰に審議の場を移し、形式的な評定始を行った後に改めて御前沙汰始を開いて年始最初の政務とするようになり、応仁の乱以後は全く形骸化した。
- Also, since Yoshimitsu ASHIKAGA's rein, the shogun decided on most state affairs by having discussions in gozensata (the formal consultation) where he could take the initiative, rather than in hyojo where kanrei and hyojoshu held too much influence against him, so gozensata-hajime (the first gozensata in the New Year) was held as the first work of State in the New Year after having a ritual hyojohajime, which only existed in name after the Onin war.
- 日本も封建制度の体制下で欧米の近代法にある法治国家の諸原則が存在しておらず、刑事面では拷問や残虐な刑罰が存置され、民事面では自由な契約や取引関係を規制して十分な保護を与えていなかったために、欧米列強からはその対象国であると考えられていた。
- Japan, too, was considered a target of unequal treaties by the allied Western powers because Japan, under the feudal system, did not have various principles of a nation under the rule of law as stipulated in modern Western laws and therefore maintained torture and cruel punishment in criminal cases and regulated free contracts and transactions without giving sufficient protection in civil affairs.
- 日本の初等・中等教育の歴史教科書においても、「脱亜論」を「日本が欧米列強に近づくためにアジアからの脱却を唱えた物で、日本がアジアの1ヵ国であることを否定している」と定義付け、「日本人がアジアを蔑視する元となった論文」と教えていることが多い。
- In the history textbooks for elementary and secondary education in Japan, 'Datsu-A Ron' is defined as 'a theory to urge Japan to get closer to European and American powers by disassociating from Asia and to deny Japan is a country in Asia' and it is taught at most schools as 'the thesis which causes Japanese to disrespect other Asian countries.'
- 結果として自由民権運動や大隈の唱えるフランス流やイギリス流を否定したものの、岩倉らの進めようとしたプロシア流についても一旦は白紙撤回されることとなった(勿論、これによってプロシア(ドイツ)流論者の政府内での立場が強化されたのは事実であるが)。
- As a result, the Freedom and People's Rights Movement, France style and England style, which were recommended by Okuma, were rejected but also Prussia style, which was recommended by Iwakura, was rejected (as a result, people who advocated Prussia (Germany) style strengthened their position).
- 生類憐みの令を処罰された側から見ると悪法に見えるが、例えば、当時、まだ戦国時代 (日本)の「人を殺して出世する(賃金を得る)」がごとき風習が未だ根強く、病人や牛馬などを山野に捨てる風習や、宿で旅人が病気になると追い出されるなどの悪習があった。
- Although it appears an evil law from the viewpoint of the offender, there was still a persevering custom from the Civil War Period of 'Achieving promotion (monetary gain) by killing others', as well as a tendency to leave sick people, oxen and horses in fields and on mountains and of driving sick travellers out of inns.
- 尊皇攘夷の中心的な役割を果たしてきた薩摩藩・長州藩両藩を中心とした明治政府が成立したことにより、攘夷が断行されると信じていた全国の攘夷派は明治政府が戊辰戦争が終わると直ちに「開国和親」を国是とする方針を打ち出したことに強い失意と憤慨を抱いた。
- The joi-ha all over the nation believed that foreigners would be expelled by the establishment of the Meiji Government whose main members were from Satsuma and Choshu clans that played important roles in the expulsion of the foreigners, but they were deeply disappointed and outraged by the Meiji Government's issuance of the 'Kaikoku Washin (opening the country to the world with peace and amity)' policy immediately after the end of the Boshin War.
- 国際法上では、個人に対する脅迫もあったか国家に対する圧力のみかという論点よりも、強制に基づく条約調印を無効とする国際慣習法上の規範もしくは規則が1905年当時に存在していたと認識するか否かという論点において、最も大きく議論と立場が分かれている。
- In international law, rather than at the point whether there was also a threat against an individual or there was only a pressure against a state, at the point whether people recognize or not that norms or regulations in the international common law which invalidates conclusion of treaties under threat could exist at the time of 1905, arguments and positions have been separated to the highest degree.
- 安政二分判(あんせいにぶばん)は安政3年(1856年)5月から鋳造が始まり、同年6月28日より発行され、量目は天保小判の1/2であるが、金品位は1/3強に過ぎず低品位金貨としては一朱金に次ぐものであり、改鋳による出目獲得を目的としたものである。
- Ansei nibuban was started to be casted from June, 1856 and issued from July 29 of the same year and the ryome was 1/2 of Tenpo koban, however the karat was only over 1/3, low karat gold coin next to isshukin to earn profit by recasting.
- マーティンが『万国公法』の漢語訳を始めたのは、在清アメリカ公使ジョン.E.ウォード(John.E.Wade、中国名:華若翰)やアンソン・バーリンゲーム(Anson Burlingame、中国名:)、ロバート・ハートの強い薦めがあったためである。
- The reason why Martin commenced Chinese translation of 'Bankoku Koho' was through insistence of John E. Wade (Chinese name: 華若翰), who was U.S. minister in Qing and Anson Burlingame (Chinese name: 蒲安臣) and Robert Hart.
- また、宋代には鉄銭も鋳造された(辺境部である四川省・陝西省において、遼・西夏への銅の流出を防止するために、銅銭の所有・使用一切を禁じられて代わりに鉄銭が強制的に流通させられたため)が、一般的には、圧倒的に多い銅銭のことを指して宋銭と呼んでいる。
- Although iron coins were also minted during the period of the Sung Dynasty (in marginal areas such as the Sichuan Province and the Shan Xi Province, the possession and use of copper coins were totally banned to prevent copper from going out to the Liao Dynasty and Xi Xia, and instead, people were forced to use iron coins), generally, Sung currency means copper coins which were the overwhelming majority.
- その目的は、西郷と共に下野した不平士族たちを統率することと、県内の若者を教育することであったが、外国人講師を採用したり、優秀な私学校徒を欧州へ遊学させる等、積極的に西欧文化を取り入れており、外征を行うための強固な軍隊を創造することを目指していた。
- SAIGO founded the schools to lead the band of fuhei shizoku (former samurai with gripes), who left the government as he did, and to educate the youth in the prefecture; moreover, with the goal of forming a strong army to go on a foreign campaign, he positively introduced Western culture by employing foreign instructors and sending capable students to Western countries to study.
- あらかじめ目付クラス以上のある程度の身分有る者で、腕の立つ者、腕力強健な者を側に控えさせておき、家老一同が藩主の前に並び「お身持ち良ろしからず、暫くお慎みあるべし」と藩主に告げ、家臣が藩主の刀を取り上げ、座敷牢のような所へ強制的に監禁してしまう。
- With those who skilled in the martial arts or are strong-muscled in the position of Metsuke (inspector of foot soldiers) or higher in waiting in the side, chief retainers say to their lord, 'You behaved very badly, so you should be confined' and vassals take swords away from the lord and imprison him to a place such as a confinement room.
- 結局、2月2日 (旧暦)(2月24日)、備前藩は諸外国側の要求を受け入れ、2月9日 (旧暦)(3月2日)、永福寺において列強外交官列席のもとで滝を切腹させるのと同時に備前藩部隊を率いた日置について謹慎を課すということで、一応の決着を見たのである。
- At last on February 24, the domain of Bizen accepted the demand of the foreign countries, and on March 2 it made TAKI commit suicide by disembowelment in the presence of the diplomats of the powerful countries at Eifukuji Temple and at the same tiime put HEKI, who was a chief of the troops of the domain of Bizen, under house arrest, which tentatively settled the Incident.
- 唐の律令の継受も、このような土台のうえに可能となったのであるが、秦・漢以来の歴代の専制主義的法制を集大成した唐の律令と大化前代の日本の法とでは、段階の差が、あまりにはげしかったので、律令法は継受法としての性格を強くもたざるをえなかったとみられる。
- Adopting the Tang ritsuryo was possible based upon such a foundation, but the difference between the Tang ritsuryo, which was a comprehensive compilation of successive despotic legal systems since Qin and Han, and the Japanese law of the pre-Taika era, was so great that ritsuryo law could not avoid becoming, basically, an adopted law by nature.
- このなかで、府県庁は地租改正事務局があらかじめ見当をつけた平均反収を絶対的な査定条件とし、申告額がこれに達しない場合は、農民が自らの労力と費用をかけて算定した地価を否定し強圧的に変更させたことから、伊勢暴動をはじめとした大規模な暴動が各地で頻発した。
- In this aggressive approach, each prefectural government made the average yield per tan that the Land Tax Reform Bureau figured out beforehand be the absolute condition of assessment and in case the reported amount was under the average tan that the Land Tax Reform Bureau figured out, each prefecture denied the reported value of the land, of which farmers assessed with their own labor and expenses and made the value of the land change forcibly; for this reason, including the Ise Revolt large scale riots erupted frequently in various places.
- 摂海防禦指揮徳川慶喜は、いまだに条約への勅許が得られていないのが原因と考え、老中らに勅許工作と外国艦隊との交渉をおこなわせるが、独断で兵庫開港を決めた阿部正外・松前崇広らに対し朝廷から老中罷免の令が出される異常事態となり、幕府は慶喜への疑念を強める。
- Yoshinobu TOKUGAWA, who was in charge of protecting the sea around the Osaka region, had senior councilors negotiate with the foreign squadron, while promoting activities to get permission from the emperor, but things became complicated with the order to dismiss the two senior councilors, Masato ABE and Takahiro MATSUMAE, who had decided to open Hyogo port on their own authority, making the bakufu side suspicious of Yoshinobu.
- 第二次世界大戦中は更に政府の統制が強化されたが、終戦後の1946年(昭和21年)の第1次地方制度改革で知事の選挙投票者による分類制が導入されるなどの民主化が行われ、最終的には1947年(昭和22年)の地方自治法の成立により現行の都道府県制に移行した。
- During World War II, the regulation by the government was enforced, however, after the war, the first reform of the local system was implemented in 1946 to promote democratization, and the classification system where a prefectural governor is elected by voters was introduced, which was after all replaced by the current Todofuken sei (system of prefectural government) when the Local Autonomy Law was established in 1947.
- こうした動きは、院と深く連携して院政の軍事警察部門を担当することを平氏政権の基盤に置くものであり、その中心には重盛がいたが、その一方で清盛は、西国に築いた強固な経済・軍事・交通基盤によって院政とは独自の路線を志向するようになっていたと考えられている。
- Such actions required a close relationship with the Retired Emperor and left the Taira clan administration, with Shigemori at its center, in charge of the military guard division of the cloister government, while on the other hand, Kiyomori is thought to have pursued a route independent of the Retired Emperor and established strong financial, military and transportation foundations in the west.
- なお本事件に関しては、従来は専ら自由民権思想及び松方デフレの強い影響下に発生したと考えられてきたが、近年はそれらに加えて、他の養蚕地域との比較や、上述の国際的環境の影響、秩父地方特有の民俗学的状況等に関しても考慮した研究の必要性もようになってきている。
- This incident had been assumed in the past to have occurred under the strong influence mainly of the Freedom and People's Rights Movement and the Matsukata deflation, however, in recent years, in addition to the above, there has been an increased need of studies considering then comparison to other sericulture areas, the influence of the above-mentioned international environments, comparison with other sericulture regions and the above-mentioned international environments influence, the ethnological situation peculiar to Chichibu district.
- また5世紀末から6世紀初めにかけて、それまで首長墓を造営してきた古墳群の多くが衰退し、新興の古墳群が出現していることから、ワカタケル大王の王権強化策は成功したが、その一方で旧来の勢力からの反発を招き、その結果として王権が一時的に弱体化したとの説もある。
- Furthermore, since towards the end of the fifth and the beginning of the sixth centuries many of the old burial mounds where chiefs were entombed went into decline and new types of burial mounds emerged, it is thought that King Wakatakeru's strategy for strengthening sovereignty succeeded, although his power was temporarily weakened by rebellions from the former powers.
- 『小右記』永延2年12月4日 (旧暦)(989年1月14日)及び翌日条によれば、権中納言藤原道長が自らが推挙した甘南備永資が省試に落ちた腹いせに式部少輔橘淑信を強引に捕えて自邸まで引き回したために父親の摂政藤原兼家より一時勘当された事件が記されている。
- Articles in 'Shoyuki' (Diary of FUJIWARA no Sanesuke) dated January 14, 989 and the next day states that Gon Chunagon (a provisional vice-councilor of state) FUJIWARA no Michinaga got disowned by his father, Sessho (regent) FUJIWARA no Kaneie: it was because Michinaga ordered the capture of Shikibu shoyu (Junior Assistant of the Ministry of Ceremonial) TACHIBANA no Yoshinobu and brought him forcibly to his house when he got upset knowing that Nagasuke KANNABI, whom Michinaga recommended, failed the shoshi exam.
- この時こそ清盛の平氏政権が最も強固な体制を築いた絶頂期であったが、しかし、平氏政権は後白河との良好な関係の上に形成されてきたのであり、前年のクーデターによって後白河との関係は解消されてしまっており、平氏政権の絶頂は極めて脆弱な基盤に載っていたといえる。
- This period was the peak, when the Taira clan administration built its strongest organization, but this was based on good relations with Goshirakawa, and since the relationship with Goshirakawa had soured with the coup d'etat the previous year, the peak of the Taira clan administration was on an extremely weak foundation.
- ただ、意外性の強いお触れであったために江戸の人々は次々に裏をかいておちょくり、そのため幕府側も次々に詳細なお触れで対抗するという、ある意味で不幸なループに陥り、そのため、実質をはるかに上回る「面白い話」として後世に伝えられてしまったのではないか、という。
- However, as the contents of the law were surprising, people in Edo made fun of them, to which the Shogunate responded by issuing further detailed instructions in succession, entering a viscous circle which lead to future generations hearing of them as 'curious tales' which differed greatly from the reality.
- だが、日本のこの要求はこの列強間の「暗黙の了解」を破棄するものであり、更に清朝が直隷と渤海_(海域)を挟んで向かい合った遼東半島を失う事でその政治的権威が失墜して国内の政情が不安定になるような事態の発生は、各国の対中国政策を根底から揺るがせるものであった。
- Therefore, the Japan's demand for the Liaodong Peninsula broke the 'tacit agreement' among the world powers and also influenced the policy of each country toward China, because if the Qing Dynasty lost the Liaodong Peninsula which was located on the opposite side of the Choku-rei region across Bokkai (marine area), Qing's political power would fall, which might result in a precarious political situation of China.
- しかしかつて尊皇攘夷運動の活動家であった政府内の保守派は「神道が国教である(神道国教化)以上、異国の宗教を排除するのは当然である」、「キリスト教を解禁しても直ちに欧米が条約改正には応じるとは思えない」とキリスト教への反発を隠さず禁教令撤廃に強硬に反対した。
- Conservatives in the government, however, were once advocates for the revere the Emperor and expel the barbarians movement, and strongly opposed the abolishment of the Ban on Christianity without hiding their hostility to Christianity, saying that 'Shinto is the state religion (to establish Shinto as a state religion), so the religion from other countries should be removed' and that 'Europe and the U.S. are unlikely to immediately agree to revise treaties after lifting the ban on Christianly.'
- 畿内では本願寺は京都山科を本拠としていたが、一向一揆を背景として本願寺の影響力が強くなると、その武力を恐れた細川晴元は日蓮宗徒らと結託し、天文 (元号)元年(1532年)8月に山科本願寺を焼き討ちした(山科本願寺山科本願寺の戦い/天文の錯乱/天文法華の乱)。
- In Kinai region (the five capital provinces surrounding the ancient capitals of Nara and Kyoto), Hongan-ji Temple was based in Yamashina, Kyoto and as it became influential due to the Ikko Ikki, Harumoto HOSOKAWA, who feared its military power, attacked and set fire to Yamashina Hongan-ji Temple in collusion with the Nichiren sect in September, 1532 (the Battle of Yamashina Hongan-ji Temple/the Tenbun War/the Tenbun Hokke War).
- しかし日本軍も彼らを決して侮っていたわけではなく、「彼等ノ携帯兵器多クハ清国在来ノ刀・槍・剣、若クハ前装銃ニシテ、皆取ルニ足ラサルモノナリシモ、能く頑強ノ抵抗ヲ為シ、我兵ヲ苦メタル勇気ハ称スルニ余リ有リ」という声もあるように、士気はすこぶる高かったようである。
- However, the Japanese army did not look down upon them, and stated 'everyone stood with their own two feet and strongly resisted with portable weapons from the Qing dynasty such as swords, spears, and muzzle loaders, and they were brave enough to make our army have a difficult time at battles' indicating that they had strong morale.
- 東日本と西日本の文化の差異を強調して、それぞれ別個の民族であるとする見解が民俗学者の宮本常一や歴史学者の網野善彦などから出されているが、少なくとも近代においては、東日本と西日本の住民が異民族であるという感覚はほとんど存在しないので、一般的な見解であるとは言えない。
- The opinion was put forth by folklorist Tsuneichi MIYAMOTO and historian Yoshihiko AMINO that the races of eastern Japan and of western Japan are different, emphasizing cultural contrasts; however, this is not the conventional opinion because the people of the two regions are rarely thought to be different races in the modern age.
- 後を継いだ実如にとっては門徒を見捨てて加賀国を放棄することは、すなわち延暦寺への従属を余儀なくされ、親鸞の教義を説くことの禁止を強要されていた蓮如以前の本願寺に戻ることであり浄土真宗の教えそのものを放棄するに等しい行為であったために受け入れられるものではなかった。
- For the successor Jitsunyo, abandoning his followers and discarding Kaga Province meant subordinating himself to Enryaku-ji Temple, returning to what Hongan-ji Temple was before Rennyo, where they were prohibited from preaching Shinran's creed, and almost giving up the doctrine of Jodo Shinshu itself, so he could not accept it.
- 一方、橋本治はこれについて高倉天皇が立太子式を挙げた場所が藤原家の中でも最も格の高い邸宅であった東三条殿であったことに注目し、しかもこの東三条殿の当時の所有者が清盛の娘の盛子であった(藤原基実はこの立太子式の3ヶ月前に死去)ことが強く影響したという説を立てている。
- Osamu HASHIMOTO proposed an alternative hypothesis that focused on the fact that Emperor Takakura held the ceremony for becoming Crown Prince at the Higashi Sanjo-den, the noblest of all residences within the Fujiwara family, and that the owner of this residence was Kiyomori's daughter, Moriko (FUJIWARA no Motozane had died 3 months before the ceremony), who could have strongly affected his position.
- 日本と比較してみると、中書省が中務省、門下省が議政官、尚書省が左右弁官およびその下の八省に当たる、日本では太政官が門下・尚書の両省を兼ねて更に中書省である中務省を指揮するなど強力な権限を有し、とりわけ門下省に当たる議政官、即ち貴族層の役割が非常に大きかったことが判る。
- When compared with Japan, the Secretariat corresponds to the Nakatsukasasho, the Chancellery corresponds to the Giseikan, and the Department of State Affairs corresponds to the Left and Right Benkan's Offices and the eight ministries under them; therefore, it is clear that the Daijokan had considerable influence in that it served concurrently as both the Chancellery and the Department of State Affairs and also controlled the Nakatsukasasho, which corresponds to the Secretariat, and above all, the Giseikan, i.e. the nobility, corresponding to the Chancellery, played a very important role in Japan.
- しかしながら、ドイツ・オーストリア海軍Uボート及び武装商船の海上交通破壊作戦が強化され、1917年1月からドイツおよびオーストリアが無制限潜水艦作戦を開始すると連合国側の艦船の被害が甚大なものになり、イギリスは日本へ、地中海へ駆逐艦隊、喜望峰へ巡洋艦隊の派遣を要請した。
- However, as operations by the German and Austrian navy to destroy sea traffic with U-boats and armed merchantmen grew in intensity and Germany and Austria began unrestricted submarine warfare in January 1917, navy ships of the Allies were made to suffer serious damage, so that Britain requested Japan to dispatch a destroyer fleet to the Mediterranean and a cruiser fleet to the Cape of Good Hope.
- 19世紀、欧米列強のアジア侵略に対抗するため、清朝は、朝鮮やベトナム、琉球などの冊封国を保護国あるいは併合することによって中国皇帝を中心としたアジアの伝統的な国際関係をそのまま近代的国際関係へと移行させて清の地位と影響力を保持しようとし、冊封国に対して保護国化を強めた。
- In the 19 century, in order to resist the invasion of the western powers in Asia, the Qing dynasty tried to shift the traditional international relationships in Asia to the modern ones with the Qing emperor in the center intactly to maintain the influential status by means of changing the subordinate countries under the tributary system, such as Korea, Vietnam and Ryukyu, to protected states, or merging them, thus promoted to make its subordinate countries protectorates.
- バテレン追放令は、既に豊臣秀吉が発令していたが、鎖国の直接的契機となったのは島原の乱で、キリスト教と一揆(中世の国人一揆と近世の百姓一揆の中間的な性格を持つもの)が結び付いたことにより、その鎮圧が困難であったため、キリスト教の危険性が強く認識されたためであると言われる。
- Although Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI promulgated the edict expelling the European missionaries before, the Shimabara Uprising is said to be the direct trigger for the national isolation policy for the reason that the combination of Christianity and the riot (the intermediate nature between an uprising of powerful local samurai in the medieval period and a peasant's revolt during the early-modern period) turned out to be so difficult to suppress that Christianity was strongly recognized as danderous.
- 南北朝鮮では当時一進会が民衆のみならず知識人からも強い批判を受けていたこと、それまで一進会が同じくチンイルパの李完用首相と共に日本の朝鮮侵出を援護してきたことなどから、この声明書に対して「国権防衛運動、義兵闘争、愛国啓蒙運動などに反するもの」であると非常に批判的である。
- Because the Iljinhoe group were receiving strong criticism not only from the general public but also from intellectuals at that time and the group was back Japan's invasion of Korea together with another Chinilpa Prime Minister Lee Wan-Yong, in North and South Korea, people were fiercely critical toward this statement as 'a view opposing the protection of national sovereignty, the effort of the Righteous Army (Korean army) and the patriotic enlightenment movement.
- 足利政権では有力守護の佐々木道誉、3代将軍の足利義満のもとで管領を務めた細川頼之などが南朝の楠木正儀と独自に交渉を行っていたが、長慶天皇は北朝に対して強硬的な人物であったと考えられており、和睦交渉は一時途絶し、翌1369年(正平23年/応安2年)に正儀は北朝へ投降する。
- The prominent provincial constable, Doyo SASAKI, and Yoriyuki HOSOKAWA who was the regent of Yoshimitsu ASHIKAGA (third shogun), and other members of the Ashikaga government held independent negotiations with Masanori KUSUNOKI of the Southern Court, but Emperor Chokei took a strong stance towards the Northern Court, leading to a break down in the peace negotiations, and in 1369, Masanori surrendered to the Northern Court.
- 伊藤は、ベルリン大学のルドルフ・フォン・グナイスト、ウィーン大学のロレンツ・フォン・シュタインの両学者から、「憲法はその国の歴史・伝統・文化に立脚したものでなければならないから、苟も一国の憲法を制定しようというからには、まずその国の歴史を勉強せよ」というアドバイスを受けた。
- Ito received the following advice from Rudolf von GNEIST of the University of Berlin and Lorenz von STEIN of the University of Vienna, 'Since a constitution should be built based on a nation's history, tradition, and culture, if you aimed at establishing the nation's constitution, you should learn the history of that nation first.'
- 公使館の保護は無論であるが、中国における日本の権益拡大や、清朝を叩くことで朝鮮半島における日本のアドバンテージを確立すること、日本についで大軍を送っていたロシアへの牽制、列強側に立って派兵することで「極東の憲兵」としての存在感誇示(=不平等条約改正)などが主要目的であった。
- It was of course for the protection of the legation, but other main objectives included expansion of Japanese interests in China, establishing Japanese advantage at the Korean Peninsula by defeating the Qing dynasty, and restrainment of Russia which was sending a great army just like Japan, and Japan also dispatched troops alongside the allied western powers to show its presence as the 'military policeman of the Far East' (in order to correct the unequal treaty).
- 日本民族への教化政策であると同時に、版図内の諸民族(朝鮮人、台湾人、南洋群島島民など外地の住民や大東亜戦争時の占領地である東南アジアの先住諸民族、また稀にアイヌや琉球人など内地に住むものもこの範疇にいれる場合がある)に対して行われた強制的な同化政策・教化政策とも言われている。
- It is said to be an edification policy for the Japanese race as well as a mandatory assimilationism and edification policy for peoples within the territories as shown in the figure (residents in foreign parts such as Koreans, Taiwanese, and the South Sea Islands residents as well as aboriginal people in South East Asia who lived in territories during the Greater East Asian War, and in rare cases, the Ainu tribe and Ryukyu [currently known as Okinawa], who lived within Japan).
- 西欧列強の強い干渉によって清朝は鎮圧を行おうとしたが、義和団の「扶清滅洋」(清を扶〔たす〕け洋を滅すべし)、あるいは「興清滅洋」(清を興〔おこ〕し洋を滅すべし)という清朝寄りのスローガンに対し、さきの毓賢同様同情を示す大官が複数おり、徹底した弾圧には至らなかった点も原因である。
- The Qing dynasty tried to suppress them due to strong interference by the powerful western European nations, but there were several high officials, like the former Ikunen, who were sympathetic to the Boxers' pro-Qing slogan, 'Support Qing, destroy the foreigners' and 'Revive Qing, destroy the foreigners'.
- 形式上のみとはいえ、太政官よりも上位とされた神祇官に対して、太政官の1機関に格下げられた神祇省は一見すると地位が低下したようにも見受けられるが、実際には大教宣布の理念に基づいた天皇による祭政一致、ひいては神道の国家宗教化を目指す方針のために政府の関与を強めるためのものであった。
- The Department of Divinities had been considered superior, at least pro forma, to the daijokan (the Grand Council of State), and hence by the comparison the Ministry of Divinities may seem to have suffered a demotion given the fact that it was created as one arm of and under the daijokan, but in actuality Japan, under the principles laid out in the Imperial Edict (of 1870) for Establishment of Shinto, had embraced a theocratic form of government (saisei itchi, or 'the unity of church and state') under the Emperor; consequently, the Ministry of Divinities had been created to strengthen the government's ability to participate in religious matters in order to achieve the objective of making Shinto the national religion of Japan.
- 江戸時代末期以来、富国強兵の大義名分のもと年々増税等が行われる中、1881年(明治14年)10月に大蔵卿に就任した松方正義によるいわゆる松方財政の影響により、現在でいうデフレスパイラルが発生し(松方デフレ)、いまだ脆弱であった日本の経済、とりわけ農業部門には深刻な不況が発生した。
- In a situation where taxes and so on had been increased year by year since the end of Edo period for the policy of fukoku kyohei (fortifying the country, strengthening the military), under the influence of so-called Matsukata finance by Masayoshi MATSUKATA, who assumed the post of the Ministry of Finance in October 1881, what we call a deflationary spiral occurred (Matsukata deflation), which brought a serious deflation in Japanese economy, especially in the agricultural sector.
- 以上に見るように、政治世界における武力が占める比重の増加、後白河と清盛の強い連携、後白河と滋子の関係、高倉の即位、清盛の大臣補任、日宋貿易や集積した所領(荘園)に基づく巨大な経済力、西国武士や瀬戸内海の水軍を中心とする軍事力などを背景として、1160年代後期に平氏政権が確立した。
- As shown above, the Taira clan administration was established in the latter half of the 1160s due to increased influence of military force in the political scene, strong collaboration between Goshirakawa and Kiyomori, the relationship between Goshirakawa and Shigeko, Takakura's ascension, Kiyomori's support of the Daijin, substantial financial power based on Japan-Song trade and accumulated properties (shoen), and military power based on the western bushi and the Seto Inland Sea naval force.
- その一方で明治4年(1871年)に中央政府に復帰して下野するまでの2年間、上京当初抱いていた士族を中心とする「強兵」重視路線が、四民平等・廃藩置県を全面に押し出した木戸孝允・大隈重信らの「富国」重視路線によって斥けられた事に対する不満や反発が西郷の心中に全く無かったとも考えられない。
- Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that SAIGO might have resentment and antagonism toward the incident that a policy of placing a great importance on 'military buildup' mainly with the warrior class, which he had fostered during his early days in Tokyo for two years from his comeback to the central government in 1871 until he left the government, was defeated by a policy of placing a great importance on 'national enrichment' by Takayoshi KIDO and Shigenobu OKUMA, which emphasized the equality of all people and the abolition of feudal domains and establishment of prefectures.
- また、三好氏を利用して永禄7年(1564年)には敵対していた政所執事伊勢貞孝を敗死に追い込み、新たな政所執事に義輝の義従兄弟にあたる摂津晴門を起用し、従来将軍の意向が及ばなかった政所を掌握して幕府決裁に対する影響力を強め、義満以来の聡明な将軍として幕府の将軍親政を着実に進めていった。
- In the same year of 1564, Yoshiteru utilized the Miyoshi clan in driving Sadataka ISE, then head of Mandokoro (the government administrative office) who had been hostile to the Shogun, into death in a losing battle; appointed his (Yoshiteru's) cousin-in-law Harukado SETTSU as new head of Mandokoro; strengthened his control of official decisions of the Bakufu through the Mandokoro, previously out of his real authority but now more at his mercy, and thereby steadily achieved direct rule by the Shogun as the wisest leader after Yoshimitsu ASHIKAGA.
- このように、庶家は主家の中で非常に強い影響力を有したが、主家が戦国大名化するにつれ、領土経営に寄与する有能な人材が登用され、主君に忠実な家臣団、直臣団が編成されると、主家とは血縁関係もない、主従関係を結んでから日の浅い者も登用されるようになり、庶家の影響力が低下する例も少なくなかった。
- Although shoke had a very strong influence in the employer's household, when efficient human resources were employed, contributing to the management of the territory and vassal groups who were loyal to the master were organized as the employer became a sengoku daimyo, those who had no blood relations with the employer or who had a short history as master and vassal, were also employed there were many examples seen where the influence of shoke was weakened.
- 18世紀には、主にロシア、イギリス、フランスなど帝国主義時代の欧米列強が日本へも接近し、日本人漂流民の返還のために蝦夷地へ来日したアダム・ラクスマンの来航(寛政4年(1792年))といった諸外国が通商を求める出来事や、1811年(文化8)のゴローニン事件といった摩擦・紛争が起こり始めた。
- In the 18th century, the allied western powers of imperialism such as Russia, England and France approached Japan thus some issues and disputes started to occur such as the arrival of Adam Kirillovich Laksman who came to Ezo to return Japanese castaways in 1792 and the Golovnin Incident of 1811.
- 根拠として、本来モンゴル帝国の軍事行動では、事前に兵力100〜1万規模での敵地への威力偵察を数度段階的に行った後、本格的な侵攻を行う場合が多く、また『元史』「日本伝」には元軍の矢がすぐに尽きたという記述が見られることと、3万人程度(中には非戦闘員もいる)という少ない兵力からこの説も根強い。
- This theory is persistent, based upon the following facts; the army of the Mongol Empire in many cases performed several reconnaissances in a phased manner before a serious invasion, with a number of soldiers varying from a hundred to ten thousand; arrows run short soon in the Yuan army as described in 'Nihon Den' of 'Genshi;' and the number of soldiers was small, about thirty thousand (including non-soldiers).
- 近年の研究では、従来から言われていた894年(寛平6年)の遣唐使廃止や896年(寛平8年)の造籍、私営田抑制、滝口の武士の設置等に加え、国司に一国内の租税納入を請け負わせる国司請負や、位田等からの俸給給付等を民部省を通さずに各国で行う等、国司の権限を強化する改革を次々と行ったとされている。
- According to recent studies, in addition to the abolition of Kento-shi (Japanese envoy to Tang Dynasty China) in 894, register of population, restriction of the private land, and deployment of Takiguchi no Bushi (the guards of the Imperial Palace who were in charge near the palace waterfall) in 896, he seems to have continuously carried out reforms to strengthen the power of kokushi (provincial governors), such as kokushi ukeoi to make kokushi collect all local taxes in their provinces, and making each province pay the salary directly from iden (fields given based on ikai, the court rank) without going through the minbusho (Ministry of Popular Affairs).
- 神道国教化政策との絡みや、キリスト教を解禁しても直ちに欧米が条約改正には応じないとする懐疑的な姿勢から来る、政府内の保守派の反対のみばかりでなく、宗教界や一般民衆からも「邪宗門」解禁に反対する声が強く紛糾したものの、明治6年(1873年)2月24日禁制の高札を除去し、その旨を各国に通告した。
- The conservatives in the government opposed it because they thought that allowing Christianity could be an obstacle to establishing Shinto as a state religion, and because they doubted Europe and the United States would accept a revision of the unequal treaty immediately even if they lifted the ban on Christianity, but also because the religious world and people opposed it because they considered Christianity as 'Heresy,', but in any case the government lifted the ban on Christianity and announced it to foreign countries on February 24, 1873.
- 高梨政盛の代に、越後守護代の長尾氏と関係を強めるため、長尾能景に娘(政盛と能景は同年代であるため、政高の娘である可能性が高い)を嫁がせるが、その娘が産んだ長尾為景(上杉謙信の父)が越後守護代となり、室町末期には越後で守護上杉氏と長尾家の争いが起きると、高梨氏もそれに巻き込まれることになった。
- In Masamori TAKANASHI's time, to strengthen the connection between the Takanashi and Nagao clans, the deputy governor of Echigo, Masamori, had his daughter marry Yoshikage NAGAO (since Masamori and Yoshikage were at the same age, she was probably a daughter of Masataka) and the daughter bore Tamekage NAGAO (the father of Kenshin UESUGI), who ultimately became a deputy governor of Echigo, so that the Takanashi clan was involved in the conflict between the Uesugi clan, the governor of Echigo, and the Nagao clan in Echigo during the late Muromachi period.
- 戦前に築いた日系コミュニティー、つまり日本町が、西海岸の数箇所でしか保存できなかったり、多くが消滅してしまったのは、構成していた不動産や財産を彼らが強制収容所に送られる前に手放さざるを得なかったり、戦後戻ってきても、既に他の民族が住み着いていたりした為、日本町の再興が出来なかった事も関係している。
- Few of the Japanese communities, that is Japanese towns, built before the war were preserved except in several places on the West Coast and most of them disappeared, because many of their former residents had to get rid of their real estate and property before they were interned, and even after returning at the end of the war, they found other people had already moved in, preventing them from reviving the aforementioned towns.
- しかし、対等合併論自体は日本の朝鮮併合論(朝鮮が日本に従属し、主権を放棄する形で植民地となる。)とは明らかに異なり、寧ろ併合後の日本が一進会すらも用済みとして切捨て、植民地統治を開始したことを踏まえて、「一進会もまた犠牲者であり、必ずしも責められるべき点ばかりではなかった」とする同情的意見も強い。
- But the theory as to the equal consolidation itself was clearly different from that of Japan's annexation of Korea (Korea is supposed to depend on Japan and be colonized abandonning their sovereignty), rather, taking into account the fact that Japan cut off even Isshinkai as a worn-out after the annexation and launched the colonial domination, many of the researchers also have a sympathy that 'Isshinkai is also one of victims and what they did is not necessarily accusable'.
- ところが、1793年にインドの植民地化を進めるイギリスは北インドにおいてザミンダーリー制を導入して領主・地主を土地の近代的な土地所有権者と認める一方で、従来現地住民が持っていた土地所有権・耕作権を強制的に剥奪して領主・地主の小作人として所属させ、領主・地主を通じて恒久的に現金を徴税する制度であった。
- However in 1793, the United Kingdom, which tried to colonize India, introduced the Zamindari system in the north of India, admitted the lords and landowners as those who had a modern landownership, but forcibly deprived the traditional local people of landownership and the right to cultivate and made them tenant farmers who belonged to the lords and landowners and systematically collected tax as cash money through the lords and landowners permanently.
- 同宣言には「日本国政府ハ日本国国民ノ間ニ於ケル民主主義的傾向ノ復活強化ニ対スル一切ノ障礙ヲ除去スベシ」「言論、宗教及思想ノ自由並ニ基本的人権ノ尊重ハ確立セラルベシ」等と定められたため、ダグラス・マッカーサー率いる連合国軍最高司令官総司令部(GHQ/SCAP)は、大日本帝国憲法の改正を日本政府に求めた。
- According to the sentences of the declaration, 'the Japanese government shall remove all obstacles to the revival and strengthening of democratic tendencies among the Japanese people' and 'Freedom of speech, of religion, and of thought, as well as respect for the fundamental human rights shall be established,' the General Headquarters of the Allied Powers (GHQ/SCAP) led by Douglas MACARTHUR demanded modification of the Constitution of the Empire of Japan.
- その後の三国干渉による遼東半島の代償の3000万両(112万kg)を上乗せして合計800万kg(現在価値で銀1kgが5,000円程度なので、4000億円前後。当時価格で日本の国家予算8,000万円の4倍強の3億6000万円前後)以上の銀を日本は中国に対して3年分割でイギリス・ポンド金貨にて支払わせた。
- With 30 million taels (1.12 million kg) added as a compensation for the return of the Liaodong Peninsula due to the Triple Intervention, Japan forced China to pay the total amount of over 8 million kg of silver (equivalent to around 400 billion yen according to the present value where a kilogram of silver is converted to about 5,000 yen, or equivalent to around 360 billion yen according to the value of that time, meaning over four times the then Japanese state budget, 80 million yen) by the British pound gold in three-year installments.
- 律令制の衰退によって朝廷自体が天皇家の家政機関としての色彩を強めてくると、内蔵頭には蔵人頭や弁官・近衛府を歴任した四位の殿上人が就任するのが慣例となり、更に院政期には財力を有する有力な受領に移り、室町時代初期には山科家の当主が御厨子所別当を兼務して就任するようになると、以後同家の事実上の世襲となった。
- As the Ritsuryo system declined and the court itself started to function as the institution to manage the Emperor's family's household, it became tradition for the position of Kuranokami (the chief of Kuraryo) to be filled by court officials of the fourth rank that had previously been Kurodonoto (the chief of Kurodo Dokoro) or worked in the Benkan (clerical section) or Konoefu (Imperial palace guards), and then in the period of governments by cloistered emperors became a position for prominent Zuryo (head of provincial government) with strong financial power, and in the early Muromachi period, the Yamashina family held the position together with the position, Mizushidokoro Betto (superintendent of the cooking section for the emperor), and it has been essentially their hereditary post ever since.
- しかし、慶長16年(1611年)に浅野長政・堀尾吉晴・加藤清正が、18年に池田輝政・浅野幸長、19年に前田利長が亡くなると、豊臣家の孤立はいっそう強まり、その焦りからか幕府に無断で朝廷から官位を賜ったり、兵糧や浪人を集めだし、更には前田氏と誼を通じようとするなど、幕府との対決姿勢を前面に押し出し始めた。
- However, when Nagamasa ASANO and Yoshiharu HORIO and Kiyomasa KATO died in 1611, and Terumasa IKEDA andYoshinaga ASANO in 1618, and Toshinaga MAEDA in 1619, the isolation of the Toyotomi Family became stronger and partly from the impatience the Toyotomi Family began to reveal a policy of confrontation to the bakufu such as receiving official ranks from the Imperial Court without permissions from the bakufu, gathering army provisions and ronin (masterless samurai), in addition, trying to enter into the friendly relations with Maeda clan and so on.
- 近年注目されるミトコンドリアDNA研究によると、縄文人も弥生人もどちらも北東アジア(中国、シベリア、ブリヤート人、朝鮮半島)に類似したデオキシリボ核酸が多く分布しており、縄文人を南方系、弥生人を北方系とする埴原和郎の二重構造説は疑問視されてはいるが、日本民族が多重構造であること自体は肯定的な意見が強い。
- According to recent mitochondrial DNA research, both the Jomon people and Yayoi people have DNA resembling that of the people of North East Asia (China, Siberia, Buryat and Korean), casting doubt on the multiple structure theory of Kazuro HANIWARA, which purported the Jomon people to be a southern lineage and Yayoi people a northern lineage, though it confirms the multiple structure theory of the Japanese race itself.
- これに対して南インドでは伝統的な村落共同体の影響が強いために、農民の従来通りの土地所有を前提としてより緩やかなライーヤトワーリー制が導入されたものの、5-6割の地租の前に未納を理由とした官の没収もしくは納税のための借金のかたに領主・地主層からなる金融業者の差押を経て北インドと同様の土地支配体制が広がっていった。
- In contrast to this, the influence of the village community was strong in the south of India and though the more loose Raiyatowari system was introduced there on the premise of traditional farmers' landownership, the lands were confiscated by government officials because of non-payment of 50 to 60 percent of land tax, or the lands were seized by money brokers who consisted of the lords and landowners because of tax payments for debts and through these, the land government system spread as in the north of India.
- それから3年後の1308年(徳治3)8月の「平政連諫草」には、「天下の珍事国中の大体は併せて成敗にあり、怠慢なかるべし、随ってまた評定の大事はなを御出仕をまつ」「毎月御評定の内五ケ日、御寄合二ケ日奏事六ケ日ばかりは、闕かさず御勤仕あらんの条、強いて窮屈の儀なからんか」と幕政への精励を要請、というか苦言を呈している。
- In 'Remonstration by TAIRA no Masatsura' written in August, 1308, in three years after the incident, the following requests for working harder for the bakufu's administration or candid advices are included: 'It was an apparently strange incident, and the persons concerned had been punished appropriately, and therefore, you should attend important council meetings;' 'It would not be too hard to request you not to fail in attending the monthly regular council meetings for five days, the meetings called 'Yoriai' for two days and working for Soji (compiling official documents to be sent to the emperor)-related matters for six days.'
- 足助氏はその後も御家人として存続したが、4代目惣領・足助重方とその子・足助親重は官位を有し昇殿をも許されるなど朝廷との繋がりは依然として深く、加えて一族の中には有力御家人安達氏との縁戚がおり、弘安8年(1285年)の霜月騒動で一族の足助重房が連座して滅ぼされたことなどから、次第に鎌倉幕府への不満を強めていくこととなる。
- After that, the Asuke clan survived as a vassal of the shogunate, but its relationship with the Imperial Court was still so close that the fourth head, Shigekata ASUKE, and his son Chikashige ASUKE had been given official rank and allowed to enter the denjo room in the palace; moreover, its dissatisfaction with the Kamakura bakufu increased because of problems such as the Shimotsuki Affair in 1285, in which Shigefusa ASUKE was involved and destroyed because, in the Asuke clan, there were relatives of the powerful gokenin (an immediate vassal of the shogunate in the Kamakura and Muromachi through Edo periods), Adachi clan.
- さらに朝鮮に対する基本姿勢として、三条はこの江華島事件に対して「相応なる賠償を求む」べきとしながら、使節団の目的を「我主意の注ぐ所は、交を続くに在るを以て、・・・和約を結ぶことを主とし、彼能我が和交を修め、貿易を広むるの求に従ひときは、即此を以て雲揚 (軍艦)の賠償と看做し、承諾すること」だと述べていた(強調、加筆者)。
- Furthermore, as a basic attitude towards Korea, Sanjo considered 'Japan should require suitable compensation,' while stating about the purpose of the envoy 'the main objective is to continue the negotiation, then conclude a treaty of peace, when they conclude the peace treaty and obey the demand to expand trading, we should regard this attitude as compensation for the battle ship and accept it' (emphasized and amended by the writer).
- 戦国時代における合戦には、示威行動や小競り合いといった、低強度の武力闘争から、戦国時代に含めるか否かは別として、少なくとも戦国時代の延長線上にはある関ヶ原合戦のように、国内を二分しての会戦・決戦といった、後の国家総力戦にある程度擬し得る戦争形態、さらには、文禄・慶長の役である文禄・慶長の役まで、多様な戦争形態が見られる。
- Battles in the Sengoku Period include various forms of war such as armed conflict with low-intensity like demonstrative actions or skirmishes, a form of war that was to a certain extent comparable to later all-out war like the Battle of Sekigahara which was a decisive battle fought by dividing all forces in Japan into two and even if there is a doubt if we can say that it occurred in the Sengoku Period, it was on the extension of the Sengoku Period, and the Bunroku/Keicho War which was war to invade a foreign country.
- また、河内王朝説でも直木孝次郎、岡田精司の瀬戸内海の制海権を握って勢力を強大化させた河内の勢力が初期大和政権と対立し、それを打倒したとする説や上田正昭の三輪王朝(崇神王朝)が滅んで河内王朝(応神王朝)に受け継がれたとする説と、水野、井上の九州の勢力が応神天皇または仁徳天皇の時代に征服者として畿内に侵攻したとする説とがある。
- In the Kawachi Dynasty Theory, there are different opinions as follows: One by Kojiro NAOKI and Seiji OKADA that a Kawachi power which controlled the Seto Inland Sea to enlarge its power conflicted and overthrew the first Yamato Administration, another by Masaaki UEDA that after the fall of the Miwa Dynasty (Sujin Dynasty) it was succeeded by Kawachi Dynasty (Ojin Dynasty), and the other by Mizuno and Inoue that a Kyushu power invaded to the area surrounding Kyoto and Nara as conquerors during the reign of Emperor Ojin or Emperor Nintoku.
- だが、1883年頃から政府の圧力が強まり、加えて自由党の板垣退助の洋行問題を巡る疑惑追及を行うと、逆に自由党側からも前島や尾崎・犬養と関係が強く同党の機関紙となっていた郵便報知新聞などが政府の資金を受けているとの疑惑が出されて 岩崎弥太郎を海坊主になぞらえた「海坊主退治」キャンペーンが繰り広げられたことから、泥仕合となった。
- Around 1883, as the pressure from the government increased, the party looked into the alleged problems of the Liberal party concerning Taisuke ITAGAKI's going abroad, but instead encountered a backlash from the Liberal party to fling mud at each other, with a scandal that insisted Yubin Hochi Shinbun newspaper, the party's official publication, having a strong relationship with Maejima, Ozaki and Inukai, was financed by the government, through a campaign of to denounce 'monstrous' Yataro IWASAKI.
- 例えば、恋人として付き合った結果としてお互いの長所も短所も好ましい性質と感じて結婚に至ったり、どうも所定の上司の前で緊張してしまって良い結果が出せず叱られてばかりだとか、所定の部下に対してだけ態度に不満があって強く注意してしまいがちだとか、あるいはあの同僚とは一緒に話していても楽しくないが、別の同僚とは話が弾む...などである。
- For example, as a result of getting to know each other as lovers, two people consider themselves compatible by taking into account both the good and bad qualities in each other and decide to get married; or one always gets nervous in front of a certain boss, and because of it, cannot bring a good result and gets scolded all the time; or one cannot help reprimanding a certain subordinate because of his/her attitude; or one always has great conversations with a certain co-worker, but not with another.
- 現在、大阪城天守閣で所蔵されている、自らも大坂の役に参戦した黒田長政が絵師を集めて描かせたとされる屏風絵「大坂夏の陣図屏風」の左半分には、徳川方の雑兵達が大坂城下の民衆に襲い掛かり、偽首を取る様子や略奪を働き身包みを剥がすところ、さらには川を渡って逃げる民衆に銃口を向ける光景、そして女性を強姦にする様子などが詳細に描かれている。
- At the left hand of painting of 'Osaka Natsu no Jinzu Byobu' (Folding screen with painting of Summer Sieze of Osaka) in the possession of the Tenshukaku (keep or tower) of Osaka-jo Castle, which Nagamasa KURODA who joined in the war ordered painters to make, there are detailed scenes that warriors of Tokugawa side assaulted the public in the town of Osaka-jo Castle, trying to get nisekubi (fake head as a proof to kill someone for awards), plundering and despoiling their possessions including clothes, shooting those who try to escape crossing over river, and raping women, and so on.
- アヘン戦争(1840年 - 1842年)の敗北により結ばれた南京条約の締結(1842年)に続き、アロー号戦争(1857年 - 1860年)、清仏戦争(1884年 - 1885年)、日清戦争(1894年 - 1895年)、義和団の乱(19世紀末 - 20世紀初頭)といった事件が起こっていき、帝国主義列強に侵略されていくことになる。
- After concluding the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842 following the Opium War (1840 – 1842), China endured the Arrow War (1857 – 1860), the Sino-French War (1884 – 1885), the Sino-Japanese War (1894 – 1895) and the Giwadan War (late 19th century – early 20th century) before being invaded by powerful countries of imperialism.
- 交換された貨幣が日本国内において一般に流通するものではなく、かつ1ドル銀貨の日本国内での購買力を1/3に低下させるというこの政策にハリスおよびラザフォード・オールコックら外国人大使は条約違反であると強く抗議し、6月22日、幕府は手落ちを認め以後は1ドル銀貨を一分銀3枚で引き換えるよう開港場奉行に申し渡し翌23日に通用が停止された。
- Such Japanese policies, in which one-dollar silver coins were exchanged with coins which were not generally circulated in Japan and the buying strength of one-dollar coins in Japan was lowered to one-third, provoked harsh protests from foreign ambassadors including HARRIS and Rutherford ALCOCK, who insisted that such policies violated the treaty, and so the bakufu, admitting its mistake, ordered kaikojo-bugyo (commissioner of treaty port) to exchange a one-dollar silver coin with three ichibu-gin silver coins from June 22, and terminated circulation of Ansei Nishu silver coins on the next day, June 23.
- しかし、松方デフレ等の影響で没落した農家・地主たちや疲弊した地方を尻目に官営事業の払下げで急速に力をつけてきた政商資本家の台頭という資本主義経済における自由競争の負の部分が顕在化しつつあった当時の状況や、大日本帝国憲法では天皇制を定め、近代天皇制国家の形成が進められていたことから、施行延期派を支持する声が段々と強まるようになっていく。
- However, more and more people supported the Seko-enki-ha Group, because of the then situation that in spite of peasants and landowners who were brought to ruin and local regions impoverished by Matsukata Deflation, and the appearance of businessmen with political ties who were rapidly increasing power by getting government properties cheaply, a negative part of free competition in capitalist economy, and the fact that in the Constitution of the Empire of Japan the Emperor system was adopted and the formation of the modern Emperor-system nation was on going.
- 更に漢文・古文などを「よきものではあるがそこまでして勉強するものではない」(意訳)として、その意義を否定こそしないが、世間で扱われている程の価値があるものではない、と言って儒学者や朱子学者が言う様な難しい字句のある漢文や古文を学ぶより、まず日常的に利用価値のある、読み書き、計算、基本的な道徳などの「実学」を身につけるべきだと書かれている。
- Fukuzawa also encouraged to acquire certain skills that could be practically used in everyday life, such as reading and writing, calculation, fundamental ethics, rather than learning Chinese and classics that had long been encouraged to learn but were rather abstruse and unpractical, and were good and appropriate only for Confucian or Neo-Confucian scholars, while Fukuzawa never denied the value of those classics, just implying that they were good, but were not the subjects you really had to study diligently.
- この事件における外国人側被害に対して処罰が重すぎるのではないかとの声もあり、また、日本側としては滝の行為は、少なくとも「供割」への対処は武士として当然のものでもあったが、列強の強い要求の前に抗うことが出来ず、伊藤や五代才助(後の五代友厚)を通じた伊達宗城の期限ギリギリまでの助命嘆願もフランスのレオン・ロッシュをはじめとする公使投票の前に否決される。
- There were some opinions that the punishment for injuring foreigners was too severe, and from the Japanese viewpoint the act of TAKI was quite natural for a samurai, at least as a reaction to 'Tomowari,'but it was difficult to resist the strong demand of the powerful countries and the plea for saving TAKI made by Munenari DATE through ITO and Saisuke GODAI (later Tomoatsu GODAI) to the last minute of the deadline was rejected by the voting of Leon ROCHES of France and other minister-counselors'.
- 連合艦隊は、東郷平八郎司令長官の優れた戦術、二人の参謀(秋山真之、佐藤鉄太郎)による見事な作戦、上村彦之丞将軍率いる第二艦隊(巡洋艦を中心とした艦隊)による追撃、鈴木貫太郎の駆逐隊による魚雷攻撃作戦、下瀬火薬(世界最強火薬)、伊集院信管、新型無線機、世界初の斉射戦術、世界最高水準の高速艦隊運動などによって、欧州最強と言われたバルチック艦隊を圧倒、これを殲滅した。
- The Combined Fleet overwhelmed and annihilated the Baltic Fleet which was said to be the strongest in Europe through the superior tactics of the commander Heihachiro TOGO, the outstanding strategy of his two staff officers (Saneyuki AKIYAMA and Tetsutaro SATO), the pursuit of the enemy by the Second Fleet (a cruiser fleet) under the command of General Hikonojo KAMIMURA, torpedo operations with destroyers led by Kantaro SUZUKI, and the use of Shimose gunpowder (What was then the world's most powerful gunpowder), Ijuin fuse, cutting-edge radio sets, the invention and application of volley tactics, and the deployment of the world's fastest fleet in battle among several other factors.
- また、大阪平野には、河内の古市墳群にある誉田御廟山古墳(応神天皇陵)や和泉の百舌鳥古墳群にある大仙陵古墳(仁徳天皇陵)など巨大な前方後円墳が現存することや、15代応神は難波の大隅宮に、16代仁徳は難波の高津宮に、18代反正は丹比(大阪府松原市)柴垣に、それぞれ大阪平野の河内や和泉に都が設置されていることなどから、河内王朝時代に大阪平野に強大な政治権力の拠点があったことがわる。
- In addition, following facts show that a base of the powerful political power was placed in Osaka Plain during Kawachi Dynasty; the current existence of huge keyhole-shaped mounds such as Konda Gobyoyama-kofun Tumulus (the mausoleum of Emperor Ojin) in Furuichi-kofun Tumulus Clusters in Kawachi and Daisenryo-kofun Tumulus (the mausoleum of Emperor Nintoku) in Mozu-kofun Tumulus Clusters in Izumi, and the capitals each established in Kawachi or Izumi in Osaka Plain, such as the Osumi no Miya (Palace) of the 15th Ojin in Naniwa, the Takatsu no Miya of the 16th Nintoku in Naniwa, and the 18th Hanzei in Shibagaki in Tajihi (Matsubara City, Osaka Prefecture).
- しかし薩英戦争や下関戦争において外国艦隊との力の差に直面したことにより、単純な攘夷論に対する批判が生じて、津和野藩の国学者大国隆正らによって唱えられた国内統一を優先して、外国との交易によって富国強兵を図ってでも、諸外国と対等に対峙する力をつけるべきだとする「大攘夷」論が登場した事によって、これを受け入れた攘夷運動の主力であった長州藩・薩摩藩の主張も事実上開国へと転向していくのである。
- However, as Japan faced the power difference from the foreign fleets during the Anglo-Satsuma War and Shimonoseki War, criticisms to the simple Joi ron arose and was replaced with Dai joi ron started by Takamasa OKUNI, a scholar of Japanese classical literature in the Tsuwano Domain; Takamasa claimed that unification of the whole nation should be the first priority and should gain power that the country can confront other nations equally even by aiming fukoku kyohei (fortifying the country, strengthening the military) through trades with foreign countries; The Choshu Domain and Satsuma Domain, the major drive of the joi movement, accepted this view and started directing themselves for the opening of the country to the world.
- これは実際には「生かさぬように殺さぬように」という発想で再生産が抑圧され、地主の地位が強力であった日本の農業社会の実態に合わず、また実際の地租算定においても生産経費を実際よりも低く見積もられたために、高率の税率も重なって地租が生産経費を圧迫し、小作料を跳ね上げる(当時の物価水準では収穫の1/3近くが地価の3%に相当し、更に地主が利潤を上乗せするために、結果的に小作料が上昇した)結果をもたらした。
- In fact, this assumption proved to be incorrect in the Japanese agricultural society where the position of landowners were strong and reproduction was suppressed under the idea of 'let the farmers live only well enough to work but don't kill them'; In addition, because the production expense was estimated lower than the expense required in the actual calculation of land-tax, together with high tax rate, land-tax put pressure on the production expense and as the result, the land-tax made the farm rent jump; (in the price level at the time, nearly the one third of the crop yield was equivalent to the 3% of the land price, and because the landowners added their profit on top of this, the farm rent increased as the result).
- 大相撲力士のKONISHIKI、プロ野球選手のボブ・ホーナー、グラビアアイドルのリア・ディゾン、演歌歌手のジェロのようにアメリカから来日して日本でブームを巻き起こした人物や、日本市場に参入する外国企業、iPhoneのような海外からの新たな商品なども、安定していた業界を席巻し、また業界の秩序自体にも不可逆の変化をもたらし、時には日本側の強い抵抗を引き起こすことなどから、それぞれの業界の黒船と呼ばれることがある。
- The term 'Kuro-bune (black ship)' is also used for people who come from abroad and create news and/or start a new fad (such as sumo wrestler KONISHIKI, professional baseball player Bob HORNER, centerfold model Leah DIZON, and enka singer JERO), a foreign business that makes a break in the Japanese business market, new products that are brought to Japan from other countries (such as the iPhone), or anything that takes a stable market by storm, bring irreversible changes to a particular market and that at times may receive strong oppositiion from within Japan.
- ただ日本を含めた諸外国の研究者は、一進会が大日本帝国の侵略の意図を見抜けず韓国を亡国へと導く役割を果たしたことは事実であるが、対等合併論自体は日本の朝鮮併合論(朝鮮が日本に従属し、主権を放棄する形で植民地となる。)とは明らかに異なり、寧ろ併合後の日本が一進会すらも用済みとして切捨て、植民地統治を開始したことを踏まえて、「一進会もまた犠牲者であり、必ずしも責められるべき点ばかりではなかった」とする同情的意見も強い。
- However, many researchers of other countries including Japan, have sympathetic views stating that, although it is true that the Iljinhoe group played a role making Korea a lost country without foreseeing the Empire of Japan's intension of invasion, their theory of equal merger was totally different from Japan's theory of Korean annexation (Korea comes under the rule of Japan to become a colony by relinquishing sovereign power), so considering Japan discarded the Iljinhoe after the group served their purpose, 'the Iljinhoe were also victims and should not be totally blamed'.
- 国司は中央政府から検田権を委譲されると、治田(ちでん、田堵の開発した小規模の墾田)や公験(くげん、正式に土地所有を認めた文書)のない荘園・私領(郡司・郷司など在地領主の所領)を次々に没収して国衙領に組み入れ、税収を確保しようとした(この権限が強かったことは、若狭国にあった摂関家の荘園が国司に接収された際に関白藤原頼通が国司に公験不備を指摘されると、国司の判断を妥当とした(『小右記』万寿2年9月1日・13日条)ことでも明らかである)。
- When the right of cadastral surveys was transferred to kokushi from the central government, the shoens and private lands (lands of local lords such as gunji (district managers), goji (a local government official under the ritsuryo system) and so on) without chiden (small scale land already developed by tato) or kugen (official documents authorized by kokushi or gunji (local magistrates) for transfer of the ownership of private property) were confiscated one after another into kokugaryo (territories governed by provincial government office) in order for them to secure tax revenue (it is clear that this authority was strong because when the shoen of sekkan-ke in Wakasa Province was confiscated by kokushi and it was pointed out that FUJIWARA no Yorimichi, the chief adviser to the emperor, was wrong in kugen, the judgment of kokushi was justified (in the description on September 1 and 13, 1025 in 'Shoyuki' (Diary of FUJIWARA no Sanesuke)).
- 従って、後白河法皇が自己の政権維持のために平氏を利用して、高い官職を与え知行国を増やさせてきたという経緯や当時の社会問題に対する貴族社会の対応能力の無さという点には触れず、清盛と平氏一門がいかに専横を振るい、「驕れる者」であったかを強調している(だが、実際には少なくても治承3年以前における平氏の権力は後白河との強い関係の下で行使されたものが大半であり、その段階において清盛及び平氏一門が独裁的権力を有していたという具体的な事実は存在していない)。
- Therefore, they do not mention that the Retired Emperor Goshirakawa used the Taira clan to maintain his government by giving them high positions and increasing the number of provinces that they were custodians of, and the inability of the aristocracy at that time to deal with the social problems that they faced, but instead emphasize the arrogant behavior of Kiyomori and the Taira clan members (whereas in reality, at least up to 1179, the authority of the Taira clan was mostly due to the strong relationship with Goshirakawa and there is no specific evidence that Kiyomori or the Taira clan members had any dictatorial powers).
- 忽敦 「孫子の兵法に『小敵の堅は、大敵の擒なり』とあって『孫子 (書物)』謀攻編「故善用兵者、屈人之兵、而非戰也。;拔人之城、而非攻也。;毀人之國、必以全爭于天下、故兵不頓、利可全、此謀攻之法也。故用兵之法、十則圍之、五則攻之、倍則分之、敵則能戰之、少則能守之、不若則能避之。故小敵之堅、大敵之擒也」、少数の兵が力量を顧みずに頑強に戦っても、多数の兵力の前には結局捕虜にしかならないものである。疲弊した兵士を用い、日増しに敵軍が増えている状況で相対させるのは、完璧な策とは言えない。撤退すべきである。」
- Dou XIN said, 'the Art of War by Tzu SUN tells us that an obstinate attitude leads a small army to being captured by a large army. If the small army fiercely fights against the large army without considering the deference of their fighting strength, it will end up being captured. It is not a perfect plan to force tired soldiers to fight against the enemy that is increasing in number. We should withdraw.'