Honyaku Star - Search: 学問

学問: 736 Terms and Phrases

学問
scholarship
study
learning
literature
lore
Learning.
Academia

生学問
imperfect (superficial) knowledge

学問の
learned

学問所
place of study
school
Gakumonjo (a school)

学問的
scholarly
academic
academically

耳学問
pick-up knowledge
second-hand knowledge
hearsay

学問料
Gakumonryo

外題学問
putting on a knowing air when one only knows the title of the book (play, etc.)
pretending to understand the nature of something when one only knows its name

学問源流
Gakumongenryu (The Origin of Learning)

学問的な
academic
scholarly

学問上の
academic

学問分野
discipline

新聞学問
knowledge gained (information acquired) from newspapers

学問の徒
scholar
student

字引学問
superficial learning
book learning
merely knowing the meanings of a large number of individual words

死に学問
useless learning

学問的に
in a studious manner

学問の一覧
List of academic disciplines

学問・思想
Studies and thoughts

学問の自由
Academic freedom

学問に励む
Study hard

純粋学問の
academic

学問のある
erudite
learned

学問の奨め
encouragement of learning

学問と思想
Academic scholarship and philosophies

学問の分野
Academic disciplines

学問的業績
scholarly attainment

学問のすゝめ
Gakumon no Susume (Encouragement of Learning)

勧学院学問料
Kangakuin gakumonryo

学問的集大成
summa

学問のある人
literate

穀倉院学問料
Kokuso-in gakumonryo

入唐学問僧。
He was a priest who studied in the Tang dynasty.

学問に王道なし
there are no shortcuts in learning

学問の自由の自由
academic freedom

彼の学問への献身
his consecration to study

学問と文化の復興
the revival of learning and culture

学問に王道なし。
There is no easy road to learning.

『学問のすすめ』
'Gakumon no susume'

『学問のすゝめ之評』
'A review on Gakumon no Susume'

少しは学問ができる。
He is something of a scholar.

知恵と学問と芸術の神
god of wisdom and learning and the arts

- 園芸、釣り、学問。
Gardening, fishing and learning.

高野余慶に学問を学ぶ。
He learns from Yokei TAKANO.

学問的議論に長けた学者
a scholar who is skilled in academic disputation

音楽の学問のための学校
a school for the study of music

しっかりした学問の業績
work of solid scholarship

彼の考えは学問的過ぎる。
His thoughts are extremely academic.

学問的職業についている人
someone who practices a learned profession

教師と生徒間の学問的関係
the academic relation between teachers and their students

昌平坂学問所などで学ぶ。
He studied at Shoheizaka Gakumonjo (a shogunate school) and other places.

訳：武芸や学問を嗜むこと。
Translation: You should be fond of military arts and learning.

学問・武芸・技芸等の先生。
A teacher of learning, military arts, or practical arts.

蓋し学問の要はここに在り。
This is exactly the point of learning.

学問的職業に就く人々の団体
the body of people in a learned occupation

江戸時代の学問で儒教の一派。
Kogaku was a learning in the Edo-period, and a group of Confucianism.

大内記 : 夕霧の学問の師。
Dainaiki (Senior Secretary of the Ministry of Central Affairs): Yugiri's teacher of academics.

少しばかりの学問は危険なもの
A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.

- 三韓に学問僧を遣わした。
- He sent trainee monks to the Three Kingdoms of Korea.

学問を好み、文章が巧かった。
He loved to study and was good at writing.

学問の自由は、これを保障する。
Academic freedom is guaranteed.

少しばかりの学問は危険なもの。
A little learning is a dangerous thing.

ヒンドゥー教の学問と芸術の女神
Hindu goddess of learning and the arts

特別な学問上の中心のある博士号
a doctor's degree with a special disciplinary focus

書物の中に引きこもる学問の世界
the cloistered academic world of books

学問的に、これはいい学校である
academically, this is a good school

英国の言語と文学を研究する学問
the discipline that studies the English language and literature

これが後の昌平坂学問所になる。
This school later became Shoheizaka Gakumonjo.

学問のすゝめ（新字旧仮名）の付録
An appendix to Gakumon no Susume (published with new characters but old ways to read)

- 『西洋事情』『学問のすすめ』
'Seiyou jijo' (affairs in the Western countries), 'Gakumon no susume' (an encouragement of learning)

現在は学問の神として親しまれる。
These days he is venerated as a god of literature.

彼女は学問を愛する気持ちがある。
She has a love of learning.

彼は学問ばかりでなく経験もある。
He has experience as well as learning.

稗田阿礼命は学問の神、物語の神。
HIEDA no Are no mikoto is the god of scholarship and the god of tales.

学問は教育の二次的なものではない
instruction is not an educational sideshow

文学や学問的活動に傾倒している人
a man devoted to literary or scholarly activities

仏教以外の諸学問にも通じていた。
He was also well-versed in academic studies besides Buddhism.

たいへん学問好きな将軍であった。
He was a study-loving shogun.

一　天子諸芸能ノ事、第一御学問也。
一　天子諸芸能ノ事、第一御学問也。

開成所にてイギリスの学問を学んだ。
Sukeyuki studied about England at the School of Western Learning.

また、昌平坂学問所でも学んでいる。
He also studied at the Shoheizaka School.

学問上の知己として羽倉簡堂がいる。
Kando HAKURA was a fellow student of the arts.

砂漠の生態学は新しい学問分野である。
Desert ecology is a new field of study.

彼が専攻している学問は経済学である。
He is specializing in the study of economics.

心理学は心を科学研究する学問である。
Psychology is the scientific study of the mind.

伏見城「御学問所」に擬する説もある。
Some theories even claim that it may have been the Emperor's study room at Fushimi-jo Castle.

科学的または学問的な論題に関する小論
an essay on a scientific or scholarly topic

彼は数学問題を解くことができなかった
He could not work the math problem

絵と彫刻の発展を研究する学問の一分野
the academic discipline that studies the development of painting and sculpture

これにより学問に精を出すこととなる。
This made him a scholar.

したがって『学問のすゝめ』なのである。
Therefore, the writing was titled as Gakumon no Susume, literally encouragement of learning.

朱子学では大学を大人の学問と規定する。
Shushigaku defines Great Learning as the study of 'grown ups'.

音楽や学問に長けていたと言われている。
He is said to have been talented at music and literature.

その法則についての学問を言霊学という。
The academic field devoted to studying kototama is called Kototamagaku.

今日の青年は学問を軽視する傾向がある。
Nowadays young men are apt to make light of learning.

また24日には昌平坂学問所に入塾する。
Then, on March 10, he entered 'Shoheizaka gakumonsho' (prestigious school).

隋・唐の進んだ学問知識を日本に伝えた。
He introduced Sui's and Tang's advanced knowledge into Japan.

その後行賀はこれを恥じて学問に励んだ。
Gyoga, however, felt ashamed of this incident and dedicated himself to studying.

天子が修めるべきものの第一は学問である。
The most important thing the emperor should pursue is learning.

つまり学問と徳に秀でた人物を指している。
In other words, it referred to a person who was man of both learning and great virtue.

たとえ学問はあっても、彼は尊敬できない。
Even though he is learned, I can't respect him.

学問的プログラムへの参入または終了の要求
a requirement for admission to or completion of an academic program

観察の結果または仮説を述べる学問的な記事
a scholarly article describing the results of observations or stating hypotheses

学問としての文学を人文学的に研究すること
the humanistic study of a body of literature

1つの職業か学問の一分野に専念する専門家
an expert who is devoted to one occupation or branch of learning

スミス氏の専攻している学問は経済学です。
The study which Mr Smith specializes in is economics.

若い頃は貧しく、学問好きであったという。
When he was young, he was poor and was fond of studying.

国学 (学問)、尊王論、宝暦事件、明和事件
Study of Japanese literature and culture (study), imperialism, Horeki Incident, and Meiwa Incident

学問を好み、「伊勢物語御抄」の著作がある。
He liked studies and wrote 'Ise Monogatari (The Tales of Ise) On sho.'

彼はとても学問があるが、常識に欠けている。
Though he is very learned, he lacks common sense.

経済学は経済の仕組みを研究する学問である。
Economics is the study of economic mechanisms.

一方で学問にも励み、独学で中国古典を読破。
He also worked hard on academic studies, and read through Chinese classics all by himself.

おれは東京でまだ学問をしなければならない。
while I had to remain in Tokyo and continue my study.

学問に王道なし学ぶことに楽な方法はない。
There is no royal road to learning.

北条泰時の命で和歌所・学問所などを設置した。
He set up offices such as the wakadokoro (the Office of Waka) and gakumonjo (shogunal lecture group) by the order of Yasutoki HOJO.

政治に対する私の関心は専ら学問上のものです。
My interest in politics is strictly academic.

彼の学問的な業績には感銘を与えるものがある。
His academic achievements are impressive.

特定の芸術や学問の一分野の基本において無学の
uneducated in the fundamentals of a given art or branch of learning

人間を含む過去の出来事を記録し、解釈する学問
the discipline that records and interprets past events involving human beings

まあ、学問とか芸術とか、その他いろいろだな。
oh, science and art, and all that.

また、新井白石の学問の崇拝者として知られた。
He was known as an admirer of the teachings of Hakuseki ARAI.

古代インドの学問分野（五明・ごみょう）の一つ。
Shomyo is the name for one of the academic fields (Gomyo) of ancient India.

室町時代の学問の担い手は主に禅僧や公家である。
Academic scholarship during the Muromachi period was more or less limited to Zen monks and the nobility.

知恵の神、学問・受験の神として信仰されている。
Omoikane is professed as a god of wisdom, literature and entrance examinations.

蘭学と並び江戸時代を代表する学問の1つである。
It was one of the studies that represented the Edo period along with Ran Gaku (Dutch learning).

彼は決して自分の学問を誇示することは無かった。
He never made a display of his learning.

学問をしやすいように学生に与えられる経済的援助
financial aid provided to a student on the basis of academic merit

医学の学位を取得するための学問を提供する大学院
a graduate school offering study leading to a medical degree

どんなに年を取っても学問ができないことはない。
You're never too old to learn.

学問の上達ぶりを賞賛する公家の手記も現存する。
Collections of notes written by court nobles exist, in which they admired his improvement of learning.

しかし、親孝行をしながら苦学して学問を続けた。
However, Hokkai continued to study hard while being dutiful to his father.

『福沢全集』（巻之一）の「緒言『学問のすゝめ』」
An introductory to Gakumon no Susume, the 1st volume of the complete works of Fukuzawa

学習過程などをコンピュータで実現しようとする学問
artificial intelligence

父は天文学、つまり星に関する学問を研究している。
My father studies astronomy, or the science of stars.

彼は天文学、即ち天文の学問の偉大な権威であった。
He was a great authority on astronomy, or the science of the heavenly bodies.

のちに上洛し、学問的教養を生かして貴族となった。
Afterwards, he went up to Kyoto and gained the peerage, using his academic cultural background as advantage.

学問は生来（しょうらい）どれもこれも好きでない。
By nature, there is no branch of study whatever which appeals to my taste.

書籍が学問に従うべく、学問が書籍に従うべからず。
Books must follow sciences, and not sciences books.

「学問のすゝめ之評」は以下の文献に収録されている。
'A review on Gakumon no Susume' is included in the publications below.

孔子などを祀る廟が学問所などに少数ながら存在する。
There are few mausoleums sacred to the memory of Confucius placed inside Gakumonjo, etc.

生兵法は怪我のもと少々の学問は危険なものである。
A little learning is a dangerous thing.

また忠教は、兄斉彬と同様、非常に学問好きであった。
In addition, Tadanori was also very fond of learning as well as his elder brother Nariakira.

翌年からは入隋の使節に学問生・学問僧を同行させた。
From the next year, the envoy to Sui was accompanied by scholars and trainee monks.

その結果、学問として体系化された「歌道」が成立した。
As a result, 'Kado' that was systematized as a study was established.

これを回避するため、以後は聴講生として学問を続ける。
To avoid such situation, he dropped out the university, but he kept learning as an auditing student afterward.

法学の学位を取得するための学問を提供する大学院の学部
a graduate school offering study leading to a law degree

経営管理学修士号を取得するための学問を提供する大学院
a graduate school offering study leading to a degree of Master in Business Administration

その後、学問を修めて多聞院主となり、僧位僧綱に昇進。
Later after completing his studies, he became head of Tamon-in and was promoted to the priestly rank of sogo (manager of monks).

幼い頃より学問を好んだ忠親は多くの著書を残している。
Tadachika enjoyed studying from an early age and many books written by him still remain.

学問に優れ、儒教や仏教に広い知識を有していたという。
It was said that he excelled academically and had a wide knowledge of Confucianism and Buddhism.

学問的には朱子学を批判し、伊藤仁斎の古義学に対抗した。
Academically, it criticized Shushigaku (Neo-Confucianism) and rivaled Kogigaku (the study of ancient principles) by Jinsai ITO.

仙覚（せんがく）は鎌倉時代初期における天台宗の学問僧。
Sengaku was a learned priest pursuing his studies priest of the Tendai sect in the early Kamakura period.

儒学も、大名たちにとって必要な学問と認識されはじめた。
Confucianism also began to be recognized as the learning essential to daimyo.

以降、江戸期を通して歌道は三条西家の家職的学問となる。
Thereafter, through the Edo period the art of waka became the Sanjonishi Family's studies of the family business.

智忠親王は、父智仁親王の影響を強く受け、学問を好んだ。
Imperial Prince Toshitada was strongly influenced by his father, Imperial Prince Toshihito and liked learning.

「あのブタ飼いはきっと、学問のある人にちがいないわ！　
'He must be a well-educated swineherd.

この激しい競争意識は、学問や勝負ごとについても言えた。
This intense spirit of rivalry obtained in their studies and their games.

それでも、学校での学問への敬意をなくしたわけではない。
I still continued, however, to hold in esteem the studies of the schools.

青少年期は旻に学問堂で学んだ秀才だったと言われている。
It is said that he was a talented man who studied from Min in the knowledge temple during his youth period.

ここで11年あまり独学し、のちの学問の基礎をつくった。
Here, He had studied for about 11 years and established the basis for the rest of his learning.

京都伏見区に居を定め私塾を開いて学問と武芸を教授した。
He settled in Fushimi Ward, Kyoto and opened a private school to teach academics and military art.

学問は強いられるべきではない。学問は奨励されるべきだ。
Learning should not be forced. Learning should be encouraged.

そしてその学問思想の特徴は以下のことばに凝縮されている。
The features of Yomei-gaku thought can be condensed to the following terms.

竜淵本珠・瑞渓周鳳・春渓洪曹らに教えを受け、学問に励む。
He studied hard under the guidance of Ryuen Honju, Zuikei Shuho and Shunkei Koso.

1868年、仏教以外の学問を研究・教育する護法場を付置。
In 1868 Gohojo was added for research and education in fields other than Buddhist studies.

また、学問にも熱心で、藤原惺窩・堀正意らに師事していた。
He was also dedicated to learning, and studied under Seika FUJIWARA and Seii HORI.

『学問源流』などを著した那波師曾（魯堂）は玄孫にあたる。
Shiso NABA (Rodo), who wrote 'The Origin of Knowledge' etc., was his great-great-grandson.

学問に優れ、藤原頼長と並ぶ当代屈指の碩学として知られた。
Shinzei was a learned individual, known as one of the top scholars of the period, an equal of FUJIWARA no Yorinaga.

博識で学問だけでなく紀行書なども著すなど多彩な面がある。
Razan was not only well-read, but had a number of other interests, including the penning of books on his travels and other subjects.

藩政では砲台の建設、藩校の増改築に務めて学問を奨励した。
Among his domain duties, he worked on construction of a gun battery and extension or reconstruction of a school.

江戸幕府の学問所にあたり儒学を広げていく元となっていく。
Shoheizaka Gakumonjo was a school controlled by the Edo bakufu, and played a central role in propagating Confucianism.

錦鶏間とは本来は京都御所内の部屋の一つ、御学問之間のこと。
Kinkei no ma was originally one of the rooms of Kyoto Imperial Palace, Gogakumon no ma (the study room).

後、学問に従事し、明治4年（1871年）からロシアへ留学。
After that, he was dedicated to learning and went to Rossia for studying in 1871.

学問に優れ、遠江国国司、文章博士、大学頭と出世していった。
Academically superior, Furuhito's career included: Kokushi (provincial governor) of Totoumi Province, Monjo (or Monzo) Hakase (Professor of Literature), and Daigaku no kami (Director of the Bureau of Education which was called in Japanese Daigakuryo, Otsukasa or Fumiyatsukasa).

古学（こかく、聖学）は、山鹿素行が興した学問で、儒教の一派。
Kogaku (also referred to as Kokaku, and Seigaku) was a learning revived by Soko YAMAGA, and a group of Confucianism.

とくに李退渓の学問は日本の林羅山や山崎闇斎らに影響を与えた。
Especially, the learning of The Ghe LEE affected Razan HAYASHI, Ansai YAMAZAKI, and others in Japan.

（江戸市内で学問と剣術を一人で教える塾は清河塾だけであった）
(In the city of Edo, Kiyokawa juku was the only juku where one person taught both academic learning and swordsmanship.)

政治に対する学問の独立性及び中立性を考えさせるものになった。
This incident made people think of the academic independence and neutrality for the politics.

国学（こくがく）は、日本の江戸時代中期に勃興した学問である。
Kokugaku was a study that took place in the mid-Edo period in Japan.

特に学問の神として知られ、多くの受験生らの信仰を集めている。
As the enshrined deity is known as the patron of scholarship, the shrine is also popular with students preparing for examinations.

家族は武芸で名を挙げたかったのだが、正一は学問で頭角を表す。
His family wanted to become famous for the military arts, but Masakazu distinguished himself academically.

もっぱら学問に打ち込み、『水日集』などの著作を多数残している。
Generally, he threw himself into studies and left many books such as '水日集.'

清貧を旨として学問に没頭し30数年を過ごし、90歳で死去した。
Having embraced a life of austerity, Jozan spent more than 30 years immersed in the pursuit of learning and, passed away at age 90.

学問的教育よりも実用的な教育に重点を置くかつての英国の中等学校
a former British secondary school emphasizing practical rather than academic education

以後、2年間ほどイギリスの学問や英語を森山栄之助の下で学んだ。
After that, he had studied leanings of U.K. and English under Einosuke MORIYAMA for two years.

公家としての学問よりも武芸を好んだために父・有忠に義絶される。
Tadaaki preferred the military arts to the skills of a court noble, which led his father, Aritada, to disown him.

学問の家に生まれたが、孝標は大学頭・文章博士にはならなかった。
Although he was born to an academic family, he never became Daigaku no kami (Director of the Bureau of Education) or Monjo hakase (professor of literature).

幼少のころから学問を好み、永田観鵞門下で書の手習いをよくした。
He liked to study since he was very young, and practiced calligraphy under Kanga NAGATA.

『学問のすゝめ』（がくもんのすすめ）は、福澤諭吉の著書のひとつ。
Gakumon no Susume, or Encouragement of Learning, is a book written by Yukichi FUKUZAWA.

やがて明治末年ころから学問的な本文研究の努力が本格的に始まった。
Before long, around the late Meiji period, the academic study of text was being conducted in earnest.

こうして、建築はもっぱら工学的な学問と考えられる風潮が強まった。
As a result, there developed a tendency to view architecture solely as an engineering concept.

背景には、国学 (学問)の普及による神仏習合への不純視があった。
Behind the movement was the spread of Kokugaku (the study of Japanese classical literature) (study), which regarded mixture of Buddhism and Shinto as impure.

有名なものとしては、東京の昌平坂学問所に付属した湯島聖堂がある。
One of the most notable examples is Yushima Seido/Yushima Temple, which is annexed to Shoheizaka Gakumonjo in Tokyo Prefecture.

書院造が成立すると、書斎・書庫などの書室を特に学問所と呼称した。
With the establishment of the Shoin-zukuri style, book repositories such as shosai (a study) and libraries came to be called gakumonjo.

堀河天皇は政治に携わることなく、学問と和歌、管弦に情熱を注いだ。
Emperor Horikawa did not get involved in politics but instead put his passion into studies, poems and wind and string instruments.

幼少のころから才能に優れ、学問や詩歌、とくに書や笛に秀でていた。
He had many talents since his childhood, he was good at studying, a talented poet, and good at doing calligraphy, playing the pipe (or flute).

人間を聖なる存在や正しい存在にしてくれるのは学問ではありません。
For verily it is not deep words that make a man holy and upright;

昌平坂学問所に学び、文久元年（1861年）西条藩主の侍講となる。
He studied at the National Academy in Shoheizaka and became a tutor for the lord of Saijo Domain in 1861.

親友の西郷隆盛や税所篤、吉井友実、海江田信義らと共に学問を学ぶ。
He pursued his studies with Takamori SAIGO, Tomozane YOSHII and Nobuyoshi KAIEDA.

学問や弁舌に優れていたものの、丁寧な性格が災いしたと伝えられる。
Although he was good at study and speech, his polite personality was said to be a disadvantage for him.

高松藩の家臣として再登用されるが、学問に専念するために辞職する。
Although he was reappointed as a vassal of the Takamatsu Domain, he resigned in order to concentrate on scholarship.

また経済の発展による庶民の台頭は、学問の担い手を生むこととなった。
The rise of common people due to economic development produced the supporters of academic studies.

師、美樹の学問が、この文体の礎となったことは、うなづける話である。
It is reasonable that his mentor Miki's teaching formed the style.

基礎学問重視と独創的研究の必要性、科学と人間の平和的共存を訴えた。
He advocated the necessity of basic science and independent research, and for the peaceful coexistence of science and people.

また、優秀者には学問料が払われて後の文章生への登用に有利に働いた。
Money for study was provided for deserving students, who were eligible to be appointed as a monjosho (student of literary studies in the Imperial University).

また、初学者のための学問所直轄の教授所が深川・麻布・麹町にあった。
For elementary learners, Kyoju-sho under the direct control of Gakumonjo were established in Fukagawa, Azabu and Kojimachi.

日本は通信使の一行をとおして先進学問と技術を学ぼうと懸命であった。
Japan was keen to learn advanced science and technology through the Tsushinshi envoy.

室町時代の一条兼良は、政治以外に、学問や連歌の文化的活躍も残した。
Kanera ICHIJO, during the Muromachi period, was active not only in politics but also in the cultural world such as academics and renga (linked verse).

蘭学は蛮学（野蛮な学問）と蔑まれた時代、蘭学者への風当たりは酷い。
At a time when Western learning was held in contempt as bangaku (barbaric study), public opinion was strongly against Dutch scholars.

後鳥羽上皇の学問所を下賜されたものと伝え、明恵の住房跡とも伝える。
Said to have once been the place of study of Retired Emperor Gotoba and bestowed to the temple, but others claim it to be the remains of Myoe's dwelling.

同じ起点言語から、どのくらい前に違う言語が発達したかを決定する学問
the determination of how long ago different languages evolved from a common source language

学問を修め、正式な官僚として朝廷に仕え、活躍ぶりは抜きんでていた。
After pursuing his studies, he served in the Imperial Court as a formal government official and excelled in performance.

文久2年（1862年）、部屋住みの身で幕府学問所奉行に登用される。
In 1862, Tanetatsu was assigned to bugyo (Commissioner) of Bakufu Gakumonjo (National College managed directly by bakufu), although his status was still heyazumi (second sons and younger who were in their adolescence and has yet to be independent from the family headed by the eldest son).

19歳の時江戸の「昌平坂学問所」にて就学、同時に有馬新七と出会う。
At the age of 19, he entered Shoheizaka Gakumonjo, a shogunate school in Edo, where he met Shinshichi ARIMA.

881年（元慶5年）在原氏の学問所として大学別曹奨学院を創設した。
In 881, he established a daigakubesso, which was called Shogakuin, as a gakumonsho (school) for the Arihara clan.

これに対し陽明学では小人に対する大人、すなわち君子の学問と規定した。
In contrast, Yomei-gaku defines it as the study of grown ups, by which is meant a person of virtue, as opposed to small-minded man.

学問所（がくもんじょ）とは、中世・近世における教育機関の名称の1つ。
Gakumonjo (a school) was the name of a kind of educational institution in medieval and modern times.

が、その次に感じたのは、たしかに学問的な満足だったことを白状します。
My second, I fear, was rather one of professional satisfaction.

南淵請安（みなぶちのしょうあん、生没年不詳）は飛鳥時代の学問僧。
MINABUCHI no Shoan (dates of birth and death unknown) was a monk studying abroad in the Asuka Period.

なお、一説には著書を廃棄して学問的な弾圧をも加えたとも言われている。
There is also a theory that Yoshimune disposed of Hakuseki's books and suppressed his academic work.

その後、父に同行し長崎に遊学し、清について学問と南画の画法を学んだ。
After that, he accompanied his father to study in Nagasaki, and learned about the Qing dynasty and the art of the Nanga (a school of painting originating in China).

したがって宦官政治に批判的な人々は朱子学・陽明学問わず東林党に集った。
Therefore, those who were critical of eunuchs' politics joined Dongling regardless of whether they were studying Shushigaku or Yomeigaku or not.

文章生の中でも優秀者は給料学生と呼ばれて穀倉院より学問料が支給された。
Excellent students among monjosho were granted gakumonryo (the scholarship for Monjosho who study at Daigakuryo in the Heian period) from the Kokusoin (Imperial Granary) and were called Kyuryo gakusei (students who were selected for Kyuryo (scholarship)).

一方、大学別曹においても、独自に学問料を授ける例が現れるようになった。
In the meantime, some Daigaku-besso also established their own Gakumonryo system.

大江氏（江家）は大江音人を祖とし菅原氏（菅家）と並ぶ学問の家柄である。
The OE clan (also known as the Go family), whose founder was OE no Otondo, was a family lineage of academics, along with the Sugawara clan (also known as the Kan family).

学問、剣術に打ち込み盛岡藩内では鹿島新当流の門を叩き、頭角をあらわす。
He threw himself into learning and swordsmanship and, in the Morioka domain, he entered a school for Kashima-Shinto-ryu school and distinguished himself.

『学問の創造』（1987年、朝日文庫）、ISBN 4022604433
The Creativity of Scholarship (1987, Asahi Bunko) ISBN 4022604433

が、「学問を修め、文章をよくする人」であることが文人たる所以といえる。
However, 'being educated and good at literature' was a prerequisite for a Bunjin.

この事件は私立学校における教育の自由や学問の自由に関する議論となった。
This incident provoked controversy on the freedom of education and learning at private schools.

殿様趣味の枠を超えて、自ら蘭学研究を行ったり、学問の奨励するなどした。
Their interest transcended lordly outside interests, including their personal engagement in Western studies, promotion of learning, and so on.

その学問的側面から儒学(中国語)、思想的側面からは名教・礼教ともいう。
It is referred to as Ju-gaku (in Chinese) from the scholarly side, and Mei-kyo or Rei-kyo from the side of philosophy.

特に開国後の貿易開始に伴う経済の困難と西洋の学問の流入に関心を抱いた。
He was especially interested in economic difficulties and inflow of western learning associated with the initiation of trade after Japan opened its country.

侍読（じどく/じとう）とは、天皇の側に仕えて学問を教授する学者のこと。
A Jidoku/Jito was a scholar who was an academic tutor for the emperor.

寺伝では天平の頃、和気清麻呂が学問所として創建した弘文院が前身という。
Its temple history says that it was originally called Kobun-in, which was established by WAKE no Kiyomaro around the Tenpyo era as an academic facility.

法律大学院での学習を通じて習得し、裁判制度に対する責任を担う学問的職業
the learned profession that is mastered by graduate study in a law school and that is responsible for the judicial system

この上総時代を回顧して自分の学問が成ったのは「南総之力」と述べている。
Recalling his Kazusa days, he stated it was 'the power of Nanso (the south of Boso)' that made his success in learning.

学問に優れて寛大で、淳和天皇だけでなく多くの人達から信頼されたという。
He excelled in scholarship and was generous and trusted by a large number of persons.

友山は学問によって、大道寺嫡流の家名を復興させた、と言っていいだろう。
Yuzan can be said to have revived the honor of the legitimate family line of Daidoji with his knowledge.

『学問の創造』（1984年、佼成出版社）、ISBN 4333011434
Scholarship and Creativity (1984, Kosei Shuppan) ISBN 4333011434

1821年(文政4年)、息子の伴信近に家督を譲り、以後、学問に専念した。
In 1821, he transferred the head of the family to his son, Nobuchika BAN and afterward, he devoted himself to studying.

学問は興味を持たせる物であろうとなかろうと、常に正確でなければならない。
Scholarship must always be exact whether it is interesting or not.

また長崎通詞は、蘭学に対し学問的に貢献した場合には蘭学者であると言える。
Moreover, a Nagasaki interpreter who was academically contributing to Western Sciences can be said to be a Dutch scholar.

遣唐使に学問僧として随行、入唐して智周に法相を学ぶ、在唐は18年に及ぶ。
He accompanied kento-shi (Japanese envoy to Tang Dynasty China) as a scholar monk where he learnt about the Hosso sect from Chishu during his 18 year sojourn in China.

後年には漢籍などの学問も学び、茶道、能などの文化的活動も積極的に行った。
Later in life, he also gained learning such as Chinese classic books, and practiced cultural activities such as Sado (tea ceremony) and Noh (traditional masked dance-drama) actively, too.

なお寛永9年(1632年)上野忍が岡に、学問所を与えられ先聖殿と称した。
Furthermore, in 1632, he was entrusted with a school in Ueno-Shinobugaoka which he named Senseiden.

学問と武芸に秀でていて、ことに弓を射ることにおいては格別のものがあった。
Seishimaru was good at both academic and military arts, especially in the Japanese art of archery.

やがて独自の学問を樹立し徂徠と訣別し蘐園学派を激しく批判するようになる。
Later, he established his own field of study, parting from Sorai, and started to bitterly criticize Kenengakuha (a Confucian school sect of Sorai OGYU and his disciples).

一方では日本の独自性への自覚から伝統への回帰として国学などの学問も興った。
However, due to a movement from awareness of the originality of Japan to return to traditions, studies including the study of Japanese classical literature also arose.

年収100万円で学問三昧の暮らしを送ったが、1980年に栄養失調でダウン。
He concentrated on his study while earning one million yen a year, but fell ill in 1980 due to malnutrition.

また、摂関家や将軍家の当主に学問を教授する学者も侍読と呼ばれるようになる。
Scholars who tutored the family heads of the Sekkan-ke (families which produced regents) and the family of the Shogun also came to be called Jidoku.

物質がイオン化や酸化還元などにより、変化することの説明としての学問のこと。
It is a study explaining the changes which occur in a substance as a result of ionization, oxidoreduction, etc.

好文亭 - 青蓮院を仮御所としていた後桜町上皇が学問所として使用した茶室。
Kobun-tei (tea room): This tea room was used as a place of study by retired Emperor Gosakuramachi after Shoren-in Temple became a temporary palace.

もろもろの学問分野で、正しく理詰めで真理を探究するための方法についての考察
Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting the Reason, and Seeking the Truth in the Sciences

幼少の頃より学問を好み、はじめ熱田神宮神官の粟田知周や歌人伴蒿蹊に学ぶ。
Since his childhood, Ohide liked studying and he studied under the priest Tomochika AWATA of Atsuta-jingu Shrine and poet Kokei BAN in earlier days.

師通は大江匡房に学問を学び、匡房に代表される伝統的な実務官僚層を掌握する。
He studied academics under OE no Masafusa, and learned the traditional bureaucratic lessons for practical business.

今や学問の神様だが当時の普通の貴族であり、妾もいれば、遊女遊びもしている。
Michizane is now worshipped as a god of literature but, as was common with aristocrats of the time, had mistresses and visited courtesans.

学問の自由研究と芸術の自由発展とを妨げる国は栄えるはずがない。」と結んだ。
A country which prevents the independent research of learning as well as the independent evolution of art can never flourish.

これがかえって山陽を学問に専念させることとなり、3年間は著述に明け暮れた。
This confinement turned out to be good for Sanyo, because he devoted himself to studying and writing for three years.

夭折した学者田中大観とは学問を通じて親しく交流し、彼の碑銘を書いている。
He had close friendship with Taikan TANAKA, a scholar who died young, through scholarship and he wrote an epitaph for Taikan's grave.

江戸（現在の東京）の昌平坂学問所（現在の東京大学に相当。）で学問を究めた。
He dedicated himself to studying at Shoheizaka Gakumonjo (Shoheizaka School) (corresponds to present day Tokyo University) in Edo (present-day Tokyo).

そうして心の安定を得ることによって、初めて学問に向き合うことができるとした。
Doing so, one can gain composure of mentality and only after that, one can live in touch with the pursuit of learning.

ダーウィンの考えをこのように改訂したことは学問的立場からの攻撃対象となった。
This revision of Darwin's ideas came under fire from academic positions.

菘翁は自らの本分は学問にあると述べており、事実それによって生計を立てていた。
Suo said his first duty was learning and in fact he earned a living on it.

幕府の学問所である昌平坂学問所の講義や、役人登用試験も朱子学だけで行わせた。
Also, the lectures at Shoheizaka School (a governmental school), and the appointment examinations of the government officials adopted Neo-Confucianism only.

朱子学（しゅしがく）とは、南宋の朱熹によって再構築された儒教の新しい学問体系。
Shushigaku (Neo-Confucianism) was the new learning system of Confucianism reconstructed by Hsi CHU in Southern Sung.

朝鮮はそれまでの高麗の国教であった仏教を排し朱子学を唯一の学問（官学）とした。
Korea discarded Buddhism that was the previous state religion of Goryeo an set Neo-Confucianism as the only method of learning (government school).

天皇陵の呼称はあくまで便宜的な名称であり、現在学問的に実証されたものではない。
Names of the Emperor's tombs are expediencies and not substantiated academically.

王陽明の思想は『伝習録』、『朱子晩年定論』、『大学問』にうかがうことができる。
Wang Yangming's ideas can be seen in 'Instructions for Practical Living' ('Chuanxilu' in Chinese, 'Denshuroku' in Japanese), 'Conclusions of Zhuxi's Final Years ('Zhuxi wannian dinglun' in Chinese, 'Shushi bannen teiron' in Japanese), and 'Inquiry on 'The Great Learning'' ('Ta xue wen' in Chinese, 'Daigakumon' in Japanese).

享保年間は、このように、学問・思想の上でも新しい展開のみられた時代でもあった。
As stated above, the Kyoho era was also an era when new developments were achieved in the fields of study and thought.

年少より学問を好み、和歌にも秀で、「八雲御抄」他、歌集・歌学集を編纂している。
From a young age Emperor Juntoku enjoyed learning; he also excelled in waka poetry and compiled various waka anthologies and research documents on waka, such as 'Yakumomisho.'

702年の第七次遣唐使船に同行し、唐に渡り儒教や仏教など最新の学問を研鑽する。
In 702, Yamanoue no Okura accompanied the seventh mission to Tang Dynasty China as an envoy where he studied the latest teachings of Confucianism and Buddhism.

（幼い頃から学問を好み、書物をよく読み、その知識は深く、見事な文章を書いた。）
(Since his early days, he liked to study, read books very well, obtained deep knowledge, and wrote in a splendid way.)

この問題は、学問の自由（特に歴史学）と国体とのかかわり方について一石を投じた。
This incident raised a question on the relationship between the academic (especially, historical) freedom and the nation's political system.

檀林（だんりん）とは、仏教寺院における僧侶の養成機関、仏教宗派の学問所をいう。
Danrin was a training facility for monks in a Buddhist temple, i.e., a school of a Buddhist sect.

春屋妙葩や絶海中津と並び中国文化に通じた京都五山を代表する学問僧とされている。
Along with Myoha SHUNOKU and Chushin ZEKKAI, he is well-known for his familiarity with Chinese culture and is considered as a representative Kyoto Gozan (Five Great zen Temples of Kyoto) academic priest.

学問所では、毎月の定日に経書の講義や会読、小試・大試などの試験もおこなわれた。
At the Gakumonjo, on a fixed day of each month, lectures or discussions on scriptures were given along with short or long quizzes.

高明は学問を好み、朝儀、有職故実に練達し、『西宮記』（さいきゅうき）を著した。
Takaakira had a liking for academics, excelling at chogi (Imperial Court ceremony), Yusoku kojitsu (court and samurai rules of ceremony and etiquette), and wrote the 'Saikyuki' (Chronicles of the Western Palace).

学問上では、儒学・神道以外の全てを排し、朱子学の発展、儒学の官学化に貢献した。
He removed all subjects other than Confucianism and Shintoism from the syllabus, and contributed to the development of neo-Confucianism and the promotion of Confucianism as the learning of government.

三条西実隆、吉田兼右らに古典を、清原宣賢から漢籍を学ぶなど学問の造詣も深かった。
He had a great knowledge of the subjects he studied, he learned the Japanese classics from Sanetaka SANJONISHI and Kanemigi YOSHIDA, and the Chinese classics from Nobukata KIYOHARA.

この短かい二十日間において生徒は君の学問人物を評価し得る余地がないのであります。
During those short twenty days, the students could have no reason to criticise his knowledges or his person.

知識人は、学問を積んだ者のように見えるのを好み、賢い人だと呼ばれるのが好きです。
Those who have knowledge desire to appear learned, and to be called wise.

彼らが再び一緒になった時、彼女は大学問題について話し、ゲイブリエルはほっとした。
When they were together again she spoke of the University question and Gabriel felt more at ease.

西郷隆盛は「彼をして学問の造詣あらしめば、到底吾人の及ぶ所に非ず」と評している。
Takamori SAIGO commented about him as 'If he would have acquired an education, we could not compete with him.'

元禄3年（1690年）、25歳のとき赦されて江戸に戻り、ここでも学問に専念した。
In 1690, at the age of 25, he was forgiven and returned to Edo, where he also studied hard.

「政宗は、武将の道を修め、学問にも通じ、外国の事情にも思いをはせて交渉を命じた。
'Masamune pursued the precepts of a warlord, while he was also after studies and learning, and then he thought and dreamed of foreign affairs to actually conducted the negotiations with foreigners.'

明治43年（1910年）江戸時代の学問を興隆させた功績により正四位が贈呈された。
In 1910, the rank of Shoshii (Senior Fourth Rank) was presented to Banzan for his contribution to the academic development in the Edo period.

暦道（れきどう）とは、古代日本における暦を作成するための学問（暦学）のことである。
Rekido is the ancient Japanese study of calendar-making.

聖は、寺院において学問をむねとする学徒に対し、寺院経済を支える禅徒の立場にあった。
The hijiri were in charge of money related to students who attended temples for study.

儒教思想は実践的であることから学問を行えば自ずと徳が磨かれるものと見なされていた。
Since the Confucian thought put a high value on practicality, it was regarded that leaning naturally promotes learners' virtue.

唐代になると科挙制度が整備され学問さえ修めれば誰もが官僚になれる機会が与えられた。
In the Tang period, the Imperial Examination System was established and anyone who learned was given a chance to become a bureaucrat.

文化面では、欧米から新たな学問・芸術・文物が伝来し、その有様は文明開化と呼ばれた。
In culture, new science, art and other cultural products were brought to Japan, and this state was called civilization and enlightenment.

特に後者の実証主義的な姿勢は古典研究を高い学問水準に高めた事で高く評価されている。
In particular, the tendency towards positivism seen in Keichu's work was greatly praised for raising the academic standards of research into the Classics.

豊臣秀吉は、読み書きが不得手であり、それを補うべく耳学問として御伽衆を多く揃えた。
As Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI was not very good at reading and writing, in order to make up for that he had many otogishu for learning by the ear.

いくらかの未確認の学問の一分野に対する非公式の単語（単語の末尾から抜粋されている）
an informal word (abstracted from words with this ending) for some unidentified branch of knowledge

黒船来航した嘉永6年（1853年）に再び江戸勤番になり、江戸で剣術と学問に励んだ。
He was called for Edo Kinban again in 1853, at the time of the arrival of the Black Ships, and passionately devoted himself to swordplay and study in Edo.

これ以降、象山は兵学のみならず、西洋の学問そのものに大きな関心を寄せるようになる。
Thereafter, Shozan took a great interest in Western studies as well as military science.

文章博士であった父と同様に学問の道を歩み、長暦元年（1038年）文章得業生となる。
Like his father, who was a Monjo hakase (professor of literature), he also learned literature and became as Monjo tokugosho (Distinguished Scholar of Letters) in 1038.

こうした知識の累積がやがて学問として体系化されて有職故実へと発展していくことになる。
This accumulation of the knowledge was later systematized into a lerning to be developped into Yusoku-kojitsu (knowledge of court rules, ceremony, decorum and records of the past).

鎌倉時代から室町時代には、京都の公家が古典研究や有職故実の学問の担い手となっていた。
From the Kamakura to the Muromachi period, nobles in Kyoto took responsibility for studying the classics or Yusoku-kojitsu (knowledge of court rules, ceremony, decorum and records of the past).

一方、学問好きであり、儒者藤原惺窩（せいか）の影響を受け、朱子学にのめり込んでいた。
On the other hand, he loved studies and had a passion for the doctrines of Zhu Xi, under the influence of a Confucian, Seika FUJIWARA.

（職業または専門技術よりむしろ）一般的な知識と知的な技能を与えることを目的とした学問
studies intended to provide general knowledge and intellectual skills (rather than occupational or professional skills)

（通常は大学あるいは神学校で教えられている）宗教の専門課程を通じて習得する学問的職業
the learned profession acquired by specialized courses in religion (usually taught at a college or seminary)

だが古人は学問以外には無頓着であったため、菅原家は朝廷からの援助を受けていたという。
Furuhito was indifferent to anything other than his academic interests, and therefore, the Sugawara family was financially supported by the court, despite his successful career.

折衷学とは榊原篁洲を祖として端を発した学問であり、各学派間の争いを反省して起こった。
The Secchugaku founded by Koshu SAKAKIBARA was based on reflection on conflicts among different schools of thought.

大意として学問の有無が人生に与える影響を説いており、日本国民の行くべき道を指し示した。
The book generally emphasized how education affects people's life, and indicated a road for the Japanese of that time to take.

また、国内では国学 (学問)の普及にともなって民族意識がとみに高まった時代でもあった。
Within Japan, it was a time that ethnic consciousness was rising rapidly together with the spread of Kokugaku (study of Japanese literature and culture).

信用すべき同時代の文字資料が現れない限り、神武東征を学問的に立証するのは困難であろう。
It seems difficult to prove Jimmu tosei academically unless trustworthy written documents of the time are found.

脱亜思想を示した著作としては、福澤諭吉の『学問のすゝめ』や『文明論之概略』などがある。
There are some literary works describing Datsua-shiso thought, such as 'Gakumon no susume' (An Encouragement of Learning) or 'Bunmeiron no gairyaku' (An Outline of a Theory of Civilization) written by Yukichi FUKUZAWA.

学問の上達を祈る行事で、子供達が普段の手習いの道具を洗い清めて日ごろの労に報いるもの。
This event was intended to use for praying for improvement in study; children wash and purify their lesson materials which they used everyday in order to repay them for their work.

神宗 (宋)期になると、このような前人の主張を総合し、体系的な学問が新たに創始された。
During the Shinso (Shenzong) period, these claims of predecessors were put together and a new systematic learning was created.

「それにもかかわらず、学問もせず『妙』の一字にも答えられなかったのは誠に許しがたい。」
What is worse, you neglected your studies and could not answer the question about a letter 'Myo'; you are also unpardonable.'

日本でも、江戸時代に、幕府が儒教（儒教の中でも、特に朱子学）を学問の中心と位置付けた。
In Japan, the bakufu positioned Ju-kyo (among Ju-kyo, especially Neo-Confucianism) at the center of learning in the Edo period.

昭和天皇自身は機関説には賛成で、美濃部の排撃で学問の自由が侵害されることを憂いていた。
The Emperor Showa himself was pro-Organ Theory, and he worried about freedom of learning being violated by the elimination of Minobe.

前述の通り、学問の神として知られる菅原道真の先祖であり、菅原氏から公家の五条家が出た。
As stated earlier, he is an ancestor of SUGAWARA no Michizane who is known as the god of learning, and from the Sugawara clan derived the Gojo family, a Court noble.

和算にも通じ医学に偏りがちだった日本の西洋学問に新たな分野を開拓し多くの著作を残した。
Tenyu, who was also well versed in Wasan (Japanese mathematics), pioneered a new field in Western learning that tended to place a disproportionate emphasis on medical science and left many literary works.

政治学とは、誰が、いかにして、何を、何時そして何故、手に入れるかについての学問である。
Politics is the science of how who gets what, when and why.

唐津藩士大野勘助の長男に生まれ、安政3年(1856年)、21歳より昌平坂学問所で学ぶ。
He was born as the first son of a feudal retainer of Karatsu Domain, Kansuke ONO, and he entered Shoheizaka Gakumonjo (Shoheizaka School) at the age of 21 in 1856.

有職故実、学問に優れた人物として知られ、村上天皇の時代に右大臣としてこれをよく支えた。
He was known to possess outstanding wisdom and knowledge of the court, supporting Emperor Murakami as Udaijin (Minister of the right).

蘭学塾（らんがくじゅく）は、江戸時代に西洋の学問を学ぶために私塾として広まった学問所。
Rangaku Juku is a kind of gakumonjo (school), spread as a private school in the Edo period, to learn Western studies.

父同様に学問好きな性格の持ち主で、その遺志を継いで公家の学問所である学習院を創立した。
He took after his father and loved to study, he took father's will and established the court nobles learning center, Gakushuin.

通常、和歌の本質論は歌論と称し、それ以外の和歌に関する諸知識を求める学問を歌学と称する。
Usually, a discussion of the essence of waka is called a karon (treatise on waka poetry) and the study of various knowledge concerning waka other than karon is called kagaku.

ゆえに、現在では、「評論」であって学問ではないという見方がアカデミズムでは一般的である。
That is why today the Nihonjin-ron discourses are generally considered not as a genre of study but as 'criticism' by the academic people.

国家学会設立の背景には、近代日本の学問研究における「政治学」の自立が大きく関わっている。
Independence of 'political science' in academic research of modern Japan was closely related to the background of foundation of Kokkagakkai.

特に各種の専門的な学問・教養・技術などを社会のなかで実際に役立ててゆくための才能や手腕。
In particular, the ability and competence to make actual use of various types of specialist knowledge, education, and skills in society.

その後、豊後国万寿寺に赴いて学問を学び、1467年には明に渡海して蘇州市などを遊学する。
After that, he went to Manju-ji Temple in Bungo Province for study, and in 1467, went across the sea to Ming to study in Suzhou City and other places.

また、寺院では仏教を専門に教育しており、儒教などの世俗の学問は基本的に扱っていなかった。
The major subject at temples was Buddhism, and secular studies such as Confucianism and so on were generally not taught there.

応仁の乱で京都が荒廃すると、公家や禅僧は地方に移り、学問や文化の地方波及や庶民化が進む。
When Kyoto was reduced to ruins during the Onin War, nobles and Zen monks relocated to the countryside, further spreading scholarship and culture in the provinces and advancing commoner culture as well.

道真は学問だけでなく、武芸にも優れ、若い頃都良香亭で矢を百発百中射ったという伝承もある。
Michizane was gifted both academically and in the military arts, and there is a tale that when he was young, he never missed the bullseye while shooting arrows at the house of fellow poet, MIYAKO no Yoshika.

頼業は、学問で有名な清原氏の出であり、自身も平安時代後期の著名な漢学者・儒学者であった。
Yorinari was of the Kiyohara clan, which renowned for its scholars, and he was well-known as a scholar of the Chinese classics and Confucianism during the latter part of the Heian period.

大学別曹における学問料の初例は和気広世が設置した弘文院によるものとされる（『日本後紀』）。
It is said that the first case of Gakumonryo granted by Daigaku-besso was the one granted by Kobun-in, which was established by WAKE no Hiroyo ('Nihon Koki' (Later Chronicle of Japan)).

「古文書学」として学問分野での研究が行われるようになったのは、明治時代に入ってからである。
It was during the Meiji period that scholars started studying this field as 'paleography' in the academic world.

聖徳太子（574年－622年）を尊崇して法隆寺夢殿を再興し、法隆寺の学問振興に力を注いだ。
He respected Taishi SHOTOKU (574 - 622) so much that he restored the main hall Yumedono of Horyuji Temple and worked for promoting education in Horyuji Temple.

明治30年（1897年）代には宗教学が本格的に導入され、学問上でも「神道」の語が確立した。
In 1897, philosophy of religion was actually introduced and the word 'Shinto' was established in the academic field.

哲学者と学者の17世紀の秘密結社のメンバーで、神秘論、形而上学、また、練金術の学問を教えた
a member of a secret 17th-century society of philosophers and scholars versed in mystical and metaphysical and alchemical lore

おれは三年間学問はしたが実を云うと教師になる気も、田舎（いなか）へ行く考えも何もなかった。
I had studied for three years, but to tell the truth, I had no intention of either teaching or going to the country.

18歳の時にケンブリッジに入り、すぐその後、幾何学問題を扱う能力で教師を驚かせたのでした。
but in his eighteenth year he went to Cambridge, and soon afterwards astonished his teachers by his power of dealing with geometrical problems.

彼が言うには、ムーア人のスペイン侵入とともに、秩序も学問も教養も敵にとってかわられました。
With the intrusion of the Moors into Spain, he says, order, learning, and refinement took the place of their opposites.

篤胤は、学問をするにはまず何よりも自らの死後の魂の行方を知らなければならないと言い切った。
Atsutane said that one have to know whereabouts of one's soul after death before the pursuit of learning.

その後、待賢門院の推挙で鳥羽上皇に仕えた通憲は学問にも励み、当世無双の宏才博覧と称された。
A recommendation from the Empress Dowager Taiken placed Michinori in the service of Retired Emperor Toba, under whom he studied hard and became famous as a person of intelligence and extensive knowledge.

父兼良の影響を受け、学問に熱心で古今和歌集の講義を行ったり、新撰菟玖波集の編纂に尽力した。
Influenced by his father, Kaneyoshi, Fuyuyoshi showed a passion for literature, lectured on Kokon Wakashu (Collection of Ancient and Modern Times), and edited Shinsen Tsukubashu (Collection of Waka Japanese poetry during the late Muromachi Period).

天明元年（1781年）12月、春水が広島藩の学問所創設にあたり儒学者に登用されたため転居。
As Shunsui was appointed as scholar of Jugaku (Confucian scholar) when the Hiroshima domain opened a school in December 1781, the Rai family moved to Hiroshima.

しかし、徂徠の学問の方法論である古文辞学からは多大な影響を受けていることも指摘されている。
Yet, it is also pointed out that he was greatly affected by Sorai's methodology of study, the study of ancient words.

27歳の時、師定朝が法隆寺の学問寺としての伝統の復興のため設立した勧学院の講義を担当する。
When Join was twenty-seven years old, he took charge of lectures in Kangakuin established by Jocho, his master, to revive the tradition of the Horyu-ji Temple as a temple of learning.

マテオはゴアで病死するが、ベルナルドは学問を修めてヨーロッパに渡った最初の日本人となった。
Matteo died of illness in Goa, but Bernardo became the first Japanese to travel to Europe to study.

本来は日本人など中国人（漢族）以外の人々が漢文で書いた作品及びそれに関する学問を指していた。
Originally the term referred to works written in Chinese by people other than the Chinese (the Han people), such as Japanese people, and the studies concerning these works.

彼は余り学問はしていなかったが、しかし肉体的にも精神的にも素晴らしい原始的な力を持っていた。
He was a man of little culture, but with a considerable amount of rude strength, both physically and mentally.

彼の願いは曽祖父・祖父の後を継いで大学寮の役職に就いて学問の家系としての家名の再興にあった。
His desire was to follow in the footsteps of his great-grandfather and grandfather by serving at Daigaku-ryo (Bureau of Education under the ritsuryo system) and bringing a scholarly reputation back to his family.

明治38年（1905年）から同42年（1909年）まで海軍軍令部長、東宮御学問所総裁を歴任。
From 1905 to 1909 he worked as the Chief of Naval General Staff and was put in charge of the president of Togu School (a school to educate the crown prince).

更に平安時代中期以後には、遣唐使廃止の影響で中国からの新規の学問風潮の流入が実質上停止された。
In addition, new trends of studies substantially stopped coming in from China after the mid Heian period following the discontinuance of Japanese envoys to the Tang Dynasty.

そんなとき、小川武平が請願へ千葉町に上京したとき、夜店で福澤諭吉の「学問のすゝめ」を購入した。
Meanwhile, Buhei Ogawa purchased a book 'Gakumon no susume' (recommendation of studying) written by Yukichi FUKUZAWA at a night stall when he went to Chiba town to petition.

歌学（かがく）は、和歌の本質・作法、古歌の解釈、故実、歴史など和歌に関する総てを研究する学問。
Kagaku is a study that researches everything related to waka, such as its essence and mannerisms, the interpretation of old waka, ancient practices and history.

『学問源流』（がくもんげんりゅう）は、江戸時代中期に那波師曾（魯堂）によって書かれた漢学史書。
'Gakumongenryu' is a history book of the study of Chinese classics written by Shiso NABA (Rodo NABA, NABA is also pronounced NAWA) in the middle of the Edo Period.

福澤の代表作『学問のすすめ』第4篇において、学者とは官職に就くべきでなく、野にあるべきである。
In the chapter four in 'Gakumon no susume' (recommendation of studying), Fukuzawa's representative work, he describes as follows; 'Scholar should not work for government but stay in private sector.'

さらに、『寛政重修諸家譜』『新編相模国風土記稿』など、幕府の編纂事業も学問所がおこなっていた。
Gakumonjo also edited documents for Bakufu: 'Kansei Choshu Shokafu (genealogies of vassals in Edo Bakufu)' and 'New edition of Sagamino kuni fudoki,' and so forth.

さらに、和魂漢才（わこんかんさい）とは中国の学問を学びながらも日本の精神を失わないことをいう。
Further, 'wakon kansai' means to learn from China academically without losing the Japanese identity.

鎌倉時代には伊勢神宮の神官による学問的研究がはじまり、徐々に現在の神祇信仰の形を取るに至った。
In the Kamakura period, Shinto priests of Ise-jingu Shrine started academic research, and the shrine gradually made changes and reached the current style of Shingi belief (神祇信仰.)

天皇の秘書役とも言うべき重要な役職で、学問・礼法に通じた有能な女性が多く任命されたようである。
This position was a kind of emperor's secretary and talented ladies who were well versed in academics and etiquette were appointed.

尋常小学校を卒業したが、父から「絵描きには学問はいらない」と言われ、修業のため進学を断念した。
When the sixth Toyokuni graduated from a primary school, his father told him 'a painter does not need any academic education', which made him to give up seeking after a higher education.

江戸時代中期には生産力の向上から都市部では学問や遊芸、祭礼・年中行事など町人文化が活性化した。
In the middle of the Edo period, improved productivity in cities revitalized townsmen culture such as learning, arts for amusement, rites, festivals and seasonal events.

子供のいなかったレブレットは数学や力学や水理学など、土木工学に関する学問をデ・レーケに教えた。
J. Lebret, who had no children, taught Johannis de Rijke civil engineering, including mathematics, dynamics, and hydraulics, as his own child.

尊皇思想家、漢学としても著名で、後に一条美子（後の昭憲皇太后）の学問師範（家庭教師）を務める。
She was also a prominent thinker of the principle of reverence for the Emperor and a scholar of the study of Chinese classics and later became an education grand master (tutor) to Haruko ICHIJO (later to become Empress Dowager Shoken).

その日に新羅への使者として息長老と大伴子君、学問僧弁通、神叡が絁（あしぎぬ）、綿、布を賜った。
On that day, the envoy to Silla including OKINAGA no Oyu, OTOMO no Kokimi, Bentsu and Shinei who were both monks received thick silk fabric, cotton and cloth.

そのおり了翁は、代地のうち余った所に経蔵と学問所の建立を御法事総奉行大久保忠朝に願い出ている。
On this occasion, Ryoo petitioned to Tadatomo OKUBO, a Gohoji So-bugyo (a supervisor of shogunate administrator for the handling of affairs in the Buddhist memorial service for Tokugawa Bakufu and the Shogunate families) and requested the construction of a Kyozo building and an academic school on the remaining spare lands.

また、京都に3箇所あった勧学院（学問研究所）の一つでもあり、古くから学問（論義）が盛んである。
Additionally, it is one of Kyoto's three Kangakuin (educational institutions) and has been a prominent center of learning since ancient times.

鎖国下の当時、西洋の学問を学ぶことはある程度容認されていたが、幕府によって制限が設けられていた。
It was accepted to study Western learning to some extent during the national isolation period at that time, but there were some restrictions imposed by the bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun).

従って、菅原清公兄弟の時代には別箇に学問料の支給を必要とする事情が存在しなかったと見られている。
Therefore, it is considered that there was no need to grant Gakumonryo separately during the era of the brothers of SUGAWARA no Kiyokimi.

講書始（こうしょはじめ）とは毎年1月に天皇の学問始の一環として学者による進講を行う皇室年中行事。
Koshohajime (New Year lecture in the court) is an annual event of the Imperial court in which Shinko (Scholars give a lecture or explain achievements to the Emperor, the Empress, and the nobility) is given by scholars as a part of the Emperor's start of learning in January every year.

17歳の頃、母方の叔父霊瑞を頼って高野山に登り学問に励み、山内の図書を貪り読んだと伝えられる。
At the age of seventeen he went up Mt. Koya depending on Reizui, an uncle on his mother's side, and studied hard reading the books in the library on the mountain.

ただしこれはオランダ人医者の医療行為を実際的にまねただけのものであり、学問的な基礎は乏しかった。
However, this was only a mimic of doctor's medical practices by the Dutch and the academic base was weak.

晩年の文化3年（1806年）には様々な藩主の援助を受けて京都に学問所（皆川淇園弘道館）を開いた。
In 1806, Kien in late life gained support from various feudal lords so that he founded a 'gakumonsho' private school (MINAGAWA Kien Kodokan) in Kyoto.

昌平坂学問所では異学の講義を禁じられたが、国内の異学派による学問や講義を禁じられたわけではない。
In Shoheizaka School, while the heterodox leanings were prohibited, learnings and lectures of Japanese heterodox schools were still allowed.

『学問のすゝめ』　岩波書店〈岩波文庫〉、1994年、ISBN 978-4000071543 の付録
An appendix to Gakumon no Susume, Iwanami Shoten (Iwanami Bunko), 1994, ISBN 978-4000071543

童心とは経書など外的権威・道徳を学ぶ以前の純真な心を指し、読書学問によってかえって失われるとした。
The child's mind is the pure mind before learning about morals and external authorities such as the Classics, and he said this is lost through reading and learning.

歌道（かどう）とは、和歌の創作や和歌自体に関する学問（歌論・歌学）を追及する学芸を道に擬えたもの。
Kado, which literally means an art of poems, is an art of creating waka (traditional Japanese poems of thirty-one syllables) and a study regarding waka itself (treatise on waka poetry and the study of waka).

このため、東京帝国大学・京都帝国大学の教授は大学の自治と学問の自由への侵害として総辞職を宣言した。
This caused all the professors at Tokyo Imperial University and Kyoto Imperial University to proclaim their resolve to resign protesting this was the usurpation of autonomy in a university and academic freedom.

その反面、天皇が学問に励む事自体は古来より律令法に定められるまでもなく必要不可欠な事とされていた。
On the other hand, it had been considered essential for the emperor to pursue learning from the ancient times, which was needless to be defined in the Ritsuryo law.

一部において矛盾すら含んだ契沖と荷田春満の国学を体系化して学問として完成させたのが賀茂真淵である。
KAMO no Mabuchi formalized Kokugaku as academia by even incorporating some contradictions made by Keichu and Kokugaku of Azumamaro KADANO.

また、吉村自身が書、絵画、和歌などの文学面に優れており、吉村は藩内に学問所を開いて学芸を奨励した。
In addition, because Yoshimura himself was good in art including calligraphy, painting, and waka (a traditional Japanese poem), he encouraged people to learn art by opening academic temples in the domain.

平安初期に法隆寺夢殿を再興し、法隆寺の学問振興に力を注いだ道詮（どうせん）が晩年に開いたとされる。
It is said to have been founded by Dosen, who revived the Yumedono (Hall of Dreams) of Horyu-ji Temple in the early Heian period and dedicated himself to the promotion of academics at Horyu-ji Temple in his later years.

近代以前からの伝統的な仏教研究の上に、西洋近代の実証的・客観的な学問体系と方法論を初めて導入した。
He introduced modern Western empirical and objective learning system and methodology to premodern traditional Buddhist studies for the first time.

仁斎の学問手法は、当時支配的だった朱子学的経典解釈を廃し、直接テクストを検討するというものである。
Jinsai's method of study was to investigate the text directly, by abolishing Neo-Confucian interpretation of scriptures that was dominant at that time.

鎖国により西洋のつながりをオランダのみに限定した為、西洋の学問はオランダ学問、蘭学と呼ばれていた。
Because Japan limited its diplomacy with the West to the Netherlands due to the national isolation, Western studies were called Rangaku, the studies of the Netherlands.

その傍ら、北辰一刀流の開祖千葉周作の玄武館で剣を磨き免許皆伝を得え、江戸幕府の学問所昌平黌に学んだ。
At the same time, he practiced and mastered swardsmanship at Genbukan under Shusaku CHIBA, the founder of Hokushin Itto Ryu; he also studied at Shoheiko School of Edo Shogunate.

朝廷では徳川時代以前の古例を持ち出し、朱子学を正当とする定信と対抗し、朝幕間の学問的論争に発展する。
The Imperial Court brought up an old case from before the Tokugawa Period to counter Sadanobu, who justified his opposition with Shushigaku (Neo-Confucianism based on the teachings of Zhu Xi and his followers), and so this developed into a scholarly dispute between the Imperial Court and the Bakufu.

そして、このような学問所は藩校のモデルとなり、江戸時代後期には、藩校の教官養成の機能も果たしていた。
Thus Gakumonjo became a model school for hanko (a domain school), in the latter days of the Edo period, Gakumonjo played a role in the training of teachers for hanko.

日本の数学が「和算」の姿にて再び学問として復活するのは、近世初期の『塵劫記』の時代以後のことになる。
Only after the days of 'Jinkoki' (a mathematical book) in the early modern period were Japanese mathematics again resurrected as learning in the shape of 'Wasan' (Japanese mathematics).

モーセはエジプト人のあらゆる学問を教え込まれ、言葉にもわざにも、力があった。 (使徒行伝 7:22)
Moses was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians. He was mighty in his words and works. (Acts 7:22)

初め奥村孚について漢学を修め、静岡警察署の雇吏となりつつ、学問を好み倦むところを知らなかったという。
He studied Shinology under 孚 OKUMURA in the beginning, then became a part-time worker at the Shizuoka Police Station, and reportedly was always academically oriented and never grew tired of learning.

同地で郡役人の間崎哲馬に学問を、また城下に出て武市半平太に剣術を学び尊攘思想に傾倒するようになった。
In the above-mentioned place, he learned academics from Tetsuma MAZAKI, who was a kori yakunin (official for county), and, by going out to the castle town, swordplay from Hanpeita TAKECHI and devoted himself to antiforeign imperialism.

斉彬の死後は江戸に留学、江川英龍や安井息軒の門下で学問を取得し、のち塾頭に就任、後進育成に当たった。
After Nariakira's death, he went to Edo to study under Tarozaemon EGAWA and Sokken YASUI and later assumed the position of the head teacher of a private school to bring up the next generation.

『学問のすすめ』への批判は、特に第6編「国法の貴きを論ず」と第7編「国民の職分を論ず」に集中していた。
Harsh critiques against Gakumon no Susume at the time were focused on the sixth volume 'Kokuho no totoki wo ronzu' (Consideration of the importance of national laws), and the seventh volume 'Kokumin no shokubun wo ronzu' (Consideration of the jobs of people).

また、経典を読まず学問もしない者は往生出来ないとするのも、阿弥陀仏の本願を無視するものだと論じている。
In addition, he said that the priests saying that people could not reach Ojo without reading and studying Buddhist sculptures did not understand the original vow of Amida-butsu.

また漢唐訓詁学の語義のみを重視する解釈学を批判し、その中身である道徳精神を重視する学問が打ち出された。
Additionally, they criticized the interpretation learning of old words of Han and Tang, which was an interpretation learning focusing solely on meaning of words, and a learning focusing on the moral spirit implied was put forth.

新羅、奄美訳語生・卜部・留学生・学問僧・傔従・雑使・音声生・玉生・鍛生・鋳生・細工生・船匠・柂師・傔人
Silla and Amami interpreters, diviners, students studying abroad, Buddhist monks studying abroad, attendants, servitors, musicians, glass workers, hammer men, casters, wood craft workers, ship carpenters, chief quartmaster, and attendants of the mission

小袖の発生に関する研究は、極めて学術的で専門的な学問の研究対象であり、簡単に答えが出せるものではない。
As the origin of Kosode is a quite academic and technical theme of study, it cannot be easily found out.

江戸時代には、道真が生前優れた学者・歌人であったことから、天神は学問の神として信仰されるようになった。
During the Edo period, Tenjin was worshipped as the god of learning, due to the fact that Michizane was a great scholar and poet in real life.

エリザベス朝時代の男の生徒は無価値なものを博識を持って賞賛する学問であるアドクソグラフィーを教えられた
Elizabethan schoolboys were taught adoxography, the art of eruditely praising worthless things

そしてそれが森鴎外や西周 (啓蒙家)などを生んだ津和野藩の学問的気風を培ったのではないか、としている。
And he thought that this fostered the scholarly ethos in Tsuwano Domain, which Ogai MORI and Amane NISHI were from.

土佐藩陪臣岩村英俊を父に長男として生まれた通俊は、酒井南嶺の下で学問を学び岡田以蔵の下で剣術を学んだ。
Michitoshi, born as the eldest son of baishin (indirect vassal) serving for Tosa Domain, Hidetoshi IWAMURA, was given academic education under Nanrei SAKAI while he learned art of swordplay under Izo OKADA.

すなわち「学問とは心を尽くし性を知る」として心が自然と一体になり秩序をかたちづくる性理の学としている。
This philosophy was based on the concept that 'learning is to do one's best and to understand nature'; in other words, this philosophy requires learning about nature and the law wherein mind and nature are united to form order.

漢文学（かんぶんがく）とは、漢文（古典中国語）で書いた作品の総称と、それに対する研究の学問のことである。
Chinese classical literature is a general term for the works written in Chinese (classical Chinese) and the study of these classics.

幼い頃から学問を好み、彦根の野村東皐（のむらとうこう）に詩文を学び、その後江戸に出て宮瀬龍門に師事した。
He had been an avid student since childhood, and he learned prose and poetry under Toko NOMURA of Hikone; later he moved to Edo and studied under Ryumon MIYASE.

唐には使者の他にも学問僧や学生が渡り、隋の頃に渡った者も含め、僧霊雲、僧旻、僧清安、高向玄理が帰国した。
Not only the envoy but also trainee monks and students visited Tang Dynasty China, and Ryoun the priest, Min the priest, Shoan the priest, TAKAMUKO no Kuromaro and those who visited China during the Sui dynasty, returned to Japan.

後世、清原氏はこうした夏野の業績を深く一門の誇りとし、史上において学問や文芸に秀でた人物を多く輩出した。
In tribute to Natsuno's accomplishments, the Kiyohara clan went on to produce many outstanding figures in the field of study and literature through the ages.

学問を広めることで町を良くしようと考えた茶山は、京都の那波魯堂に朱子学を学び、和田東郭に古方派を学んだ。
Chazan, who thought that promoting the learning attitude would improve the town, studied Shushigaku (Neo-Confucianism) under Rodo NABA in Kyoto and Kohoha (a school of Chinese herbal medication) under Tokaku WADA.

一方、在野の学者である藤原惺窩などは秀次を低く評価し、「学問が穢れる」と相手にしなかったと言われている。
On the other hand, scholars who were out of power such as Seika FUJIWARA were known to devaluate Hidetsugu and ignored him, saying 'Learning becomes corrupt.'

保元元年（1156年）に勧学院学問料を支給されていることから、大学寮で紀伝道を学んでいたことが知られる。
Judging from the issuance of Gakumonryo (the scholarship for Monjosho who study at Daigaku-ryo in the Heian period) for Kangakuin (educational institutions) in 1156, he seemed to learn Kidendo (the study of the history) in Daigaku-ryo (Bureau of Education under the ritsuryo system).

しかし、蘭学は蛮学（野蛮な学問）と罵られた時代、東洋医学を内科、西洋医学を外科とみなされるようになった。
However, oriental medicine was considered as internal medicine and Western medicine was considered as surgery in that period when Rangaku was abused to call Bangaku (barbaric studies).

日本文学（にほんぶんがく）とは、日本語で書かれた文学作品、もしくはそれらの作品や作家を研究する学問のこと。
Nihon bungaku (Japanese literature) refers either to literary works written in Japanese or to the academic field that studies such works and their authors.

辰野の教え子、伊東忠太は法隆寺が日本最古の建築であることを学問的に論じ、ここに日本建築史が第一歩を記した。
The first step in the study of Japanese architectural history occurred when one of Tatsuno's students, Chuta ITO, academically proved that Horyu-ji Temple was Japan's oldest structure.

武帝 (漢)の時、賢良文学の士で挙げられた董仲舒は儒学を正統の学問として五経博士を設置することを献策した。
In the era of Emperor Wu (Han), To Chujo (Dong Zhongshu), who was praised as the man of intelligent and good-natured literature, made a proposal to establish Gokyo hakase (the expert of Five Classics) for Ju-gaku, treating it as a legitimate learning.

明の遺臣たちは明滅亡の原因を理論的な空談にはしった陽明学にあると考え、実用的な学問、経世致用の学を唱えた。
The surviving retainers of Ming blamed the theoretical idle talk of Yomei-gaku for the fall of the Ming Dynasty, and called for practical learning and that is practical and useful to rule a country.

北宋代は書作よりも昔の書の研究や蒐集・鑑定が広く行われ、書に対して学問的アプローチの行われた時代であった。
In the Northern Sung period, people took an academic approach to calligraphy, and studying, collecting and appraising of old works were more popular than creating calligraphy works.

時の公卿は恐懼して道真の神霊を北野天満宮として篤く祀り上げることで、祟り神を学問の守護神として昇華させた。
Court nobles at the time were frightened to death so they enshrined with great care the spirit of Michizane in the Kitano Tenmangu Shrine to let the tatari spirit ascend to be a guardian god.

第1回遣唐使は2年間唐に滞在し、632年（舒明天皇4年）に唐使の高表仁を伴い、学問僧旻らとともに帰国した。
The first Kentoshi had been in Tang for two years, and in 632, they came home bringing the Tang's envoy Gao Biaoren, a learning priest Min and others.

生体の中にある科学働体が摂取されておこる変化を攻究する学問(実験薬理学）を日本に導入したのは高橋であった。
TAKAHASHI introduced experimental pharmacology to Japan: the study of changes on a living organism induced by the ingestion of a chemical agent.

蔵書家として知られた養父の影響で学問に励み、後に政敵となる近衛家熙からも「当世の才」として高く評価された。
Influenced by his adoptive father, who was known as a book collector, he studied hard and was highly praised as 'a talent of the period' by Iehiro KONOE, who would later be a political enemy.

若いときから学問に長じ、本居大平に国学と歌学、藩の本草家で小野蘭山の高弟であった小原桃洞に本草学を学んだ。
He excelled academically from an early age and learned Japanese classical literature and Kagaku (Uta Poem Study) from Ohira MOTOORI, and herbalism from Todo OHARA who was a scholar of herbalism in the Domain and a high-caliber disciple of Ranzan ONO.

幕末には日本も開国を余儀なくされて英語による英学、ドイツ語による獨逸学などの新たな学問が流入するようになった
At the end of the Edo period, Japan was forced to open up to the West, and new learning such as German studies in the German language flew into Japan.

教官の人事権を事実上教授会が掌握するという慣行を文相が承認したことで、学問の自由大学の自治は大きく前進した。
As the Minister for Education approved a practice under which faculty councils held essential authority over personnel issues of professors, academic freedom as well as university autonomy became solid.

しかし、『白山記』と郡山記を比較してみるとき、伴存の学問が円熟期を迎えていたことをうかがい知ることができる。
However, it is clear that Tomoari's learning reached its maturity then, comparing 'Hakuzanki' and Gunzanki.

1206年（建永元年）後鳥羽上皇から山城国栂尾（とがのお）を下賜されて高山寺を開山し、観行と学問にはげんだ。
In 1206, he founded Kozan-ji Temple when Toganoo of Yamashiro Province was given to him by the retired Emperor Gotoba and strove for kangyo (practice of observation and contemplation) and study.

また平和の時代が続いたことで易学、兵学などの実践的な学問が好まれなくなったために、足利学校は衰微していった。
In addition, practical studies such as the art of divination and military science became less popular in the era when peaceful time had been lasting, and thus Ashikaga School began to wane.

鐵胤の人物は温厚・学者肌・学問一筋の勉学家であり、人と競わず緻密で物事をおろそかにせず、生一本の人であった。
Kanetane devoted his life to studying and worked hard for which he obtained a lot of endowments as a scholar; he was a good-tempered person, disliked arousing rivalry, earnestly devoted himself to close examinations, and never neglected his duties.

学問は儒学者であり漢詩人の細合半斎を師と仰ぎ、31歳のとき半斎像を画いたが、これが玉洲の唯一の肖像画である。
Studying Confucianism, KUWAYAMA sought instruction from Hansai HOSOAI (a poet who wrote in the Chinese style) and at age 31 painted a portrait of HANSAI which was however, KUWAYAMA's only known rendition of a portrait.

養父の歿後家業を継ぐ一方、学問を堀越開山・置賜晰斎・西島蘭渓・中村六右衛門・亀田鶯谷・伊能穎則らより受ける。
After his adoptive father's death, while he succeeded to the family business, he learned under Kaizan HORIKOSHI, Sekisai OKITAMA (置賜晰斎), Rankei NISHIJIMA, Rokuuemon NAKAMURA, Okoku KAMEDA, Hidenori INO, and others.

しかし江戸時代には京都から関東に伝えられた朱子学の官学化によって易学中心の足利学校の学問は時代遅れになった。
Later in the Edo period, however, Neo-Confucianism was introduced from Kyoto to the Kanto region and became the subject advocated by the Tokugawa shogunate, which made obsolete the learning of Ashikaga School that centered on the art of divination.

京都市伏見区の伏見稲荷大社境内に隣接する東丸神社は学問の神様で知られ、合格祈願の絵馬や折鶴が奉納されている。
Azumamaro-jinja Shrine in Fushimi Ward, Kyoto City, adjacent to the precincts of Fushimi Inari-taisha Shrine is known by a god of studies, therefore Ema (a votive horse tablet) for praying the success in examination and folded-paper cranes are dedicated.

これらの言葉は初編からの引用であるが、虚実渦巻く理想と現実の境を学問によって黎明するといった意図が読み取れる。
Those passages are included in the first edition, and we can understand his intention to clarify complicated boundaries between the ideal and real worlds.

黄宗羲は、陽明学左派のようなひたすら唯心的に事柄を論ずる学風を好まず、事実に即した実証的な学問の確立を求めた。
Huang Zongxi did not approve of the Yomei-gaku left-wing's approach of discussing matters idealistically, and sought to establish empirical scholarship that was based on fact.

このため、藤原氏出身者はより簡単な勧学院の学問料を志望し、給料学生出身者と同じ社会的待遇を受けるようになった。
Under such circumstances, students of the FUJIWARA clan opted to apply for Kangaku-in's Gakumonryo, which was easier to receive, and enjoyed the same social treatment with Daigakuryo's Kyuryo-gakusei.

江戸中期に国学 (学問)がさかんになり、記紀や国史、神道などの研究が行われ、武士や豪農などの知識層へも広まる。
In the middle of the Edo Period, the study of the Japanese classics (National Learning) became popular, and the shinto religion in addition to such famous historical works as the Records of Ancient Matters and Chronicles of Japan were increasingly studied, and the study of Japanese classics spread among the intellectual class including samurai warriors and rich farmers.

ロイヤル・タイラーの訳(2001年）は一層この傾向を強めたもので、豊富な注を持ち、学問的な精確さを持っている。
A translation by Royall TYLER (2001) enhanced this inclination with academic precision and copious notes.

悪人というよりは偽悪家といった性格付けであり、剣の腕前に加えて人望と学問も備えた一廉の人物として描かれている。
He was portrayed not as a villain but as a man who pretended to be a villain; he was also portrayed as an educated and popular man of consequence in addition to being a good swordsman.

文人（ぶんじん）とは、中国の伝統社会に生じたひとつの人間類型であり、「学問を修め文章をよくする人」の意である。
The term 'Bunjin' refers to a type of people in traditional society in China and 'an educated person who is good at literature.'

ほとんどの士人は高い志をもち学問に励んでいるが、その中で経世済民に相応しい官位に就ける士人は至極わずかである。
Most of Shijin had high motivation and studied hard, but only a few among them were able to take an appropriate official position to govern a nation and provide relief to people.

この時代に隆盛した学問は老荘思想と『易』に基づく玄学であるが、玄学の側からも儒教の経書に注を作るものが現れた。
The learning which flourished in this period was Xuanxue (Neotaoism) based on the thought of Laozi and Zhuangzi and 'I Ching' (Classic of Changes), and some wrote annotations for Ju-kyo Keisho from the Xuanxue side.

さらに山城国山科安祥寺 (京都市)の興雅に師事して安祥寺流を受け、高野山における密教の学問（事相）を大成した。
He also studied under Koga of Ansho-ji Temple in Yamashina, Yamashiro Province (Kyoto City) where he learned the ways of the Anshoji School, and found achieved great success with his Esoteric Buddhist studies on Mt. Koya

また、勧学田の拡張や大学教官への職田設定、学生に対する学問料・給料（学資）支給制定などの財政支援策も採られた。
Daigaku-ryo also promoted financial assistance measures such as the expansion of kangakuden, the offering of shikiden (a rice field provided for dainagon and the higher rank) to professors, and the provision of a study stipend and salary (financial aid) to students.

江戸時代の学寮、学林時代からの仏教に関する学問的、資料的蓄積があり、多くの宗教学者や著名な僧侶を輩出している。
Since the university started in the form of 'Gakuryo'and then 'Gakurin' in the Edo period, it has accumulated academic acievements and historical materials about Buddhism and has produced many religious scholars and famous Buddhist priests.

戦国時代には、足利学校の出身者が易学等の実践的な学問を身に付け、武将に仕えるということがしばしばあったという。
During the Sengoku Period (Period of Warring States), graduates from Ashikaga School, who mastered practical studies such as the art of divination, are said to have often served busho (Japanese military commander).

トワイフォード氏は学問的な目つきで裾の長い黒衣を見ていたが、困惑した様子でたずねた。「あなたは修道士ですか？」
Mr. Twyford was looking at the long black gown with a learned eye.'Are you a monk?' he asked, in a puzzled fashion.

「我古道の学問に考徴すべきこと少なからず、然れど此は容易く神の道を知らざる凡学の徒に示すべきものには非らず。」
I have studied knowledge of Kodo for a long time, however this is not something to be shown to those who does not know god's way and only hold mediocre knowledge'

仁孝天皇の信任が厚く、天皇より学問所（後の学習院大学）設置の意向を受けると、武家伝奏として江戸幕府と交渉した。
He was deeply relied on by Emperor Ninko, and negotiated with Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) as buke tenso (liaison officers between the imperial court and the military government) after he was shown a plan to found gakumonjo (later Gakushuin University) by the Emperor.

10歳になるまでに四書などの教えを受けるが、非凡な才能を示したため、周囲の大人はこの子に学問を仕込もうとした。
Until the age of 10, he was taught the teachings of Shisho (The Four Books of Confucianism), but since he displayed remarkable talents, the adults around him tried to educate him.

そして、第4代将軍・徳川家綱時代から続いていた学問を奨励する文治政治を見直し、武芸を奨励する武断政治を志した。
He then amended the bakufu's policy that had been promoting studies since the era of the fourth shogun Ietsuna TOKUGAWA so as to promote martial arts.

そうした中、赦免されたばかりの岩倉具視らが参内し、御所内学問所において明治天皇が「王政復古の大号令」を発令した。
Despite this, the recently pardoned Tomomi IWAKURA and others entered the Palace, and Emperor Meiji issued the Decree for the Restoration of Imperial Rule in the Palace's the study room.

仏教の発展は、遣唐使にしたがって留学した道慈（三論宗）や玄ボウ（法相宗）ら学問僧たちの努力によるところが大きい。
Development of Buddhism was owed largely to the efforts of gakumonso (literally, studying monks) such as Doji (of the Sanron sect) and Genbo (of the Hosso sect) who accompanied the envoys to Tang to study.

一方、一般民衆においては、石田梅岩の石門心学等わずかな例外を除き、学問としての儒教思想はほとんど普及しなかった。
Meanwhile, among the common people, other than the few exceptions such as the Sekimon-shingaku (popularized blend of Buddhist, Shinto and Confucian ethical teachings) of Baigan ISHIDA, the thought of Ju-kyo hardly spread.

元は、個人所有の書斎・書庫の意味で用いられていたが、鎌倉時代以後に学問教授の場所としても用いられるようになった。
Originally, 'gakumonjo' referred to a privately-owned study or library, but after the Kamakura period, people came to use gakumonjo as a place to instruct academics.

菅原文時に師事し、文章生に挙げられ、師貞親王に学問を教え、師貞親王が花山天皇として即位すると式部丞に任じられる。
He had SUGAWARA no Fumitoki as his teacher, became monjosho (student of literary studies in the Imperial University), and gave Imperial Prince Morosada an education; thereafter, he was appointed as Shikibu no jo (Secretary of the Ministry of Ceremonial) when Imperial Prince Morosada assumed a throne as Emperor Kazan.

厚恩院の許で養育された忠親は元禄11年（1698年）～12年（1699年）にかけて学問を習うため、京都へ上った。
After being nurtured by Koonin, he went to Kyoto to study from 1698 to 1699.

一方で学問にも励み、鷹見星皐、後に松崎慊堂から儒学（朱子学）を学び、昌平坂学問所に通い佐藤一斎からも学んでいる。
He was also dedicated to learning; he studied Confucianism (Neo-Confucianism) under Seiko TAKAMI and later under Kodo MATSUZAKI and eventually under Issai SATO while he attended Shoheizaka Gakumonjo (Shoheizaka School).

一方、には大坂の豪商が朱子学を中心に儒学を学ぶ懐徳堂を設立して、後に幕府官許の学問所として明治初年まで続いている。
On the other hand, a wealthy merchant in Osaka established Kaitokudo school, where Confucianism, mainly the doctrines of Zhu Xi, was taught, and later this school was officially licensed by the shogunate government as gakumonjo (a school) and existed until 1886.

ある日、学問の師匠の神官、安倍弓麿のもとから帰るとき、東南からの激しい雨になり、傘をたたんで漁師小屋で雨宿りした。
One day, when he goes back home from his mentor ABE no Yumimaro, a priest at Shingu, the rain began to pour down from the southeast, so he folds his umbrella and takes shelter from the rain in the fisherman's hut.

武芸や学問を学ぶことに関しては、最高の環境で生まれ育ち、様々な武術の中から、手裏剣術に熱心で、手裏剣の達人だった。
As far as education and studying of martial arts are concerned, he was born and raised under the very best circumstance; among many forms of martial arts he was especially interested in and was an expert in shuriken (dirk-throwing).

律令制の継承に伴い、官吏養成及び学問研究として取り入れられ、式部省の被官の大学寮において、明経道として教授された。
When the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code) was inherited, it was adopted for training government officials and for academic research, and was taught in the Daigaku-ryo (Bureau of Education under the ritsuryo system) for the hikan (low-level bureaucrat) of Shikibu-sho (the Ministry of Ceremonial) as Myogyo-do (the study of Confucian classics).

江戸幕府の元では学問に優れて弁舌が巧みな大納言級の公卿が任じられ、就任の際には京都所司代より血判提出を求められた。
Under the control of the Edo bakufu, a court noble of the dainagon (Major Counselor) class, who was an academically superior and eloquent speaker, was appointed to the job and requested by the Kyoto shoshidai (the Kyoto deputy) to present a paper sealed in blood.

「少女 (源氏物語)」では、人柄はきっぱりしていて立派、思慮もしっかりしており、学問に熱心で政務に詳しい、とある。
In the Otome chapter, he is described as having a distinct and magnificent character and also of being thoughtful, passionate about learning and well-versed in government affairs.

また、和語通音を絶賛していた本居宣長からは、垂加神道に基づく古典の解釈がこじつけが多く非学問的だと批判されている。
In addition, Norinaga MOTOORI, who gave wago tsuon the highest praise, criticized that his theories were not academic, because there were a lot of strained interpretations about classics based on Suika Shinto.

その後は子弟の養成と共に東京文学院を設立し、以後も國學院大學学監や東亜同文書院院長、東宮御学問所御用掛などを歴任。
Then, he founded Tokyo Bungakuin College while teaching young people, and assumed a series of posts of the dean of Kokugakuin University, the president of Toa-Dobunshoin University, and instructor of the school for crown prince.

西郷は三日間高熱にうなされたものの一命は取り留めたが、刀を握れなくなったため武術を諦め、学問で身を立てようと志した。
Saigo survived even though he had a high fever for three days, but he gave up Bujutsu (martial arts) because he couldn't hold a sword, and decided to pursue scholarship.

文武一道（ぶんぶいちどう）とは、文武両道とは異なり、学問も武芸（スポーツ）も詰まるところは同じであるという意である。
Bunbu ichido (literally 'the single path of the cultural and martial arts') means that both scholarship and martial arts (sports) are essentially the same, unlike bunbu ryodo (the dual path of the cultural and martial arts).

その緻密な方法による業績群は当時にあっては異彩を放っており、近現代になってからも、その学問的評価は揺らぐことがない。
His achievements of precise approaches stand out prominently among others of those days, and the academic value of his works never wavered in modern times and in the present day.

学問を好み、譲位後、院伺候衆であった唐橋在熙や高辻福長に命じて、『孟子』『貞観政要』『白居易』等の進講をさせている。
She loved to study, after her enthronement, she asked Arihito KARAHASHI and Tominaga TAKATSUJI who were Inji (In no tsukasa served closely to the Emperor) to teach 'Moshi' (The Book of Mencius), 'Jogan Seiyo' (a book written about Taiso, the second Emperor of Tang Dynasty in China) and 'Haku Kyoi' (Bai Juyi (Chinese poet between 772 and 846).

改革後の洛南高等学校は、風紀は堅く守られ、又、学問、スポーツともに成績全国トップクラスの進学校として生まれ変わった。
After all the reforms, students began to obey the code of school discipline and Rakunan High School became a high-ranked school in terms of its educational offering and sports teams.

江戸時代には道真の御霊としての性格は薄れ、学問の神として広く信仰されるようになり、寺子屋などで当社の分霊が祀られた。
During the Edo period, the image of Michizane as a vengeful spirit began to lose favor as he came to be regarded as the patron of scholars, and divisions of Kitano-tenmangu Shrine's Tenjin deity enshrined in Terakoya (private elementary schools in Edo period).

特に藤原氏の大学別曹である勧学院の学問料は著名であり、藤原氏の学生の中から別途に学問料を受ける給料学生が選抜された。
Gakumonryo granted by Kangakuin, Daigaku-besso of the FUJIWARA clan, was particularly famous and Kyuryo-gakusei who were granted Gakumonryo were selected from the students of FUJIWARA clan.

諸藩の藩校でもこれにならうものも出、朱子学に反対する学問を唱えていた儒者は生徒が少なくなり困窮したものもあったという。
Some domain schools followed these examples, and as a result, some Confucians who had taught different leanings opposed to Neo-Confucianism lost many of their students and fell into great difficulty.

この「学問を修める」とは経書経学（儒学的知識）を中心に、史学・漢学など幅広い知識を有する読書人であることを前提とする。
It was assumed that 'an educated person' had wide knowledge of studies such as History and Sinology, centering on Keisho (most important documents in Confucianism) and Keigaku (study of Keisho in Confucianism).

すなわち、徳行に顔回・閔子騫・冉伯牛・仲弓、言語に宰我・子貢、政事に冉有・子路、文学（学問のこと）に子游・子夏である。
Specifically, Gankai, Bin-Shiken, Zen-Hakugyu, and Chukyu of virtuous deed, Saiga and Shiko of language, Zen-Yu and Shiro of political affairs and tasks, Shiyu and Shika of literature (meaning learning).

なお、学問的・専門的にではなく、あくまでも一般的な理解のためという前提で補足すると、日本酒の製法という文脈に限っては、
The following is the general context of Japanese sake production, not academic or professional terms.

これは、これまで「無形の民俗資料」といわれてきたものであり、民俗学が「民間伝承」として学問の対象としてきたものである。
Such properties have been called 'intangible folklore materials' in the past and have been studied as 'folk traditions' in the field of folklore.

仏教に関する諸問題を広い視野に立ちながら厳密な学問的方法をもって分析・検討し、その意義を明らかにすることを目的とする。
The purpose of this is to analyze and review various issues in regard to Buddhism with a strict academic approach and a wider vision to clarify their significance.

智積院は南北朝時代 (日本)、この大伝法院の塔頭として、真憲坊長盛という僧が建立したもので、根来山内の学問所であった。
Chishaku-in Temple was constructed as a sub-temple of Daidenpo-in Temple during the Northern and Southern Court Period by a monk named Shinkenbo Chosei and served as an academic temple on Mt. Negoro.

医学校で訓練する卒業生によって習得されて、病気と負傷を予防するか、軽減するか、または治療するのにささげられる学問的職業
the learned profession that is mastered by graduate training in a medical school and that is devoted to preventing or alleviating or curing diseases and injuries

富子の前で『源氏物語』を講じ、『樵談治要』を義尚に贈り、政道の指南にあたると共に公武を問わず好学の人々に学問を教えた。
He lectured on 'Genji Monogatari' in front of Tomiko, presented 'Shodanchiyo' to Yoshihisa, and taught the art of politics to lovers of academics, regardless of whether their backgrounds were kuge or samurai.

村役人外山伝の子として生まれた脩造は、17歳で江戸へ行き、清川八郎、塩谷宕陰のもとで学業を修め、昌平坂学問所に入った。
Shuzo who was born as the child of Den TOYAMA, the village officer went to Tokyo at the age of 17 to study under Hachiro KIYOKAWA and Toin SHIONOYA and joined Shoheizaka Gakumonjo (Shoheizaka School).

1968年に日本近代文学館から「名著複刻全集　近代文学館　明治前期　29」として『学問のすすめ　初編』が復刻されている。
The first edition of Gakumon no Susume was reprinted in 1968 as 'Great books reprinted series, Modern museum of literature, the first half of the Meiji period, 29', from Nihon Kindai Bungakukan.

江戸時代後期ごろ、日本の古典を研究する学問国学のなかから、“外来宗教伝来以前の日本人固有の考え方”という発想が起こった。
During the latter half of the Edo period, the idea of 'original way of thinking by Japanese people prior to the introduction of foreign religions' arose in the studies of Japanese literature and culture, which emphasized Japanese classical literature.

建保元年（1213年）に鎌倉幕府征夷大将軍源実朝の学問所の警備と学友を兼ねた学問所番18名（6名ずつ3番）が設置された。
In 1213, eighteen guards of gakumonjo (three groups of six) were deployed who would play the roles of not only the guards of the gakumonjo owned by Seii Taishogun (literally, 'great general who subdues the eastern barbarians') of the Kamakura bakufu MINAMOTO no Sanetomo but also fellow students.

だが、平安時代末期になると、大学寮の衰退、穀倉院自体の機能低下に伴って、試験のみならず、学問料自体も名目化することとなる。
In the late Heian period, however, not only examination, but also Gakumonryo itself became the nominal ones due to the decline of Daigakuryo as well as the decrease in the function of Kokuso-in.

大使をはじめとする遣唐使には、留学生や学問僧なども加わり、多いときには約500人におよぶ人びとが4隻の船に乗って渡海した。
The envoys consisted of approximately 500 people (including the chief, scholars and monks sent to Tang to study) and they made the voyage to Tang with four vessels.

この点につき『学問のすすめ』や『文明論之概略』の執筆時期と重なるとはいえ、少なすぎると指摘する研究もある（戸沢1991）。
Some researches pointed out that this number of his articles were too small even though they were written in the same period when he was writing 'Gakumon no susume' and 'Bunmeiron no gairyaku' (An Outline of a Theory of Civilization).

まず最初に学問的に暗殺説を論じたのは、『孝明天皇は病死か毒殺か』『孝明天皇と中川宮』などの論文を発表したねずまさしである。
It was Masashi NEZU who first argued scholarly about the theory of the Emperor's assassination, he published an essay of 'Did Emperor Komei die of disease or poison?' 'Emperor Komei and Nakagawanomiya'

昭和時代からは、学問の神様である天神として菅原道真を祀った天満宮に受験生が合格祈願の絵馬を奉納することが盛んになっている。
Since the Showa period, students preparing for examinations often dedicate ema to pass exams at the Tenmangu Shrine where SUGAWARA no Michizane is honored as Tenjin (heavenly gods), the god of learning.

戊辰戦争に従軍後、明治2年（1869年）、東京に上り昌平坂学問所（東京大学の前身）に学び、さらに薩摩藩の造士館にも学んだ。
After taking a part in a campaign for the Boshin War, he went to Tokyo in 1869 to study at Shoheizaka Gakumonjo (Shoheizaka School), the predecessor of Tokyo University, and further more at Zoshikan school of Satsuma Domain.

明朝の政治・思想に多大な影響を与えた陽明学であったが、その明朝と共に衰退し、清朝では考証学に学問の主役の座を奪われるに至る。
Yomeigaku deeply influenced politics and thought during the Ming Dynasty; it then declined with the Ming Dynasty and during the Qing Dynasty, Kosho-gaku replaced Yomeigaku as the main school of the academic thought.

寛政異学の禁（かんせいいがくのきん）とは、1790年（寛政2年）、江戸幕府老中松平定信が寛政の改革で行った学問の統制である。
Kansei Igaku no Kin was an academic control performed during the Kansei Reforms in 1790, by a roju (senior councilor) of the Edo Shogunate, Sadanobu MATSUDAIRA.

そのために、紀伝道発展の要素も絶たれて伝統を固守するだけの学問となり、その結果として文章博士の家による独占・家学化が進んだ。
This cut off any possible development of kidendo and the subject became one in which only traditions were maintained, resulting in domination by certain monjo hakase families and making it their kagaku (hereditary learning).

天文道（てんもんどう）とは、天文現象の異常（天文異変/天変現象）を観測・記録し、その地上への影響について研究する古代の学問。
Tenmondo (ancient horoscopy) is an ancient study involving the observation and recording of unusual astronomical phenomena (extraordinary astronomical events/extraordinary natural phenomena) and investigation of their effects on the Earth.

綱吉は林信篤をしばしば召しては経書の討論を行い、また四書や易経を幕臣に講義したほか、学問の中心地として湯島大聖堂を建立した。
Tsunayoshi often called Nobuatsu HAYASHI to discuss the Confucian Classics, gave lectures on The Four Books of Confucianism and the 'I Ching' (The Book of Changes) to retainers in the government, and built Yushima Daiseido as the center of scholarship.

明治時代以後になると古い儒学系統の学問は衰微して、代わって西洋の学問研究を取り入れた「支那学」として再構築されるようになる。
From the Meiji period, the studies of old form of Confucianism declined and was replaced and restructured as 'shinagaku' which incorporated studies of western studies.

大学別曹は元々一族の学生に対する学問及びその生活の支援に重きを置いていたことから、これを奨励する意図から学問料が支給された。
As Daigaku-besso focused on supporting the study and living of the students of their families, Gakumonryo was granted in order to encourage these students.

幕府直轄の昌平坂学問所（しょうへいざかがくもんじょ）は、昌平坂に面していたので昌平坂学問所、または昌平黌(こう)とよばれた。
Shoheizaka Gakumonjo, which was under the direct control of the bakufu, was given this name or was called Shoheiko, since it faced the slope of Shohei-zaka.

その反面、18世紀以降の蘭学流行に見られるように、植民地にならなかったアジア諸国でこれだけヨーロッパの学問が広まった国はない。
On the other hand, among Asian countries that were not colonized, Japan was the only country in which the study of Europe spread, typified by the Western learning boom observed in and after the 18th century.

しかしその中に含まれていた旧勧学田が穀倉院に与えられたため、大学寮と穀倉院の間で紛争が起き、後の学問料設置のきっかけとなった。
But as the former kangakuden which was included in Yoshio's confiscated property was given to Kokusoin (Imperial Granary), a conflict between Daigakuryo and Kokusoin occurred, and this became the motivation for establishing Gakumonryo (the scholarship for Monjosho who study at Daigaku-ryo in the Heian period).

「私営田経営者」「私営田領主」という概念は、戦後第一世代の石母田正の『中世的世界の形成』により、学問的に定着された概念である。
The concept of 'Shieiden Managers' and 'Lord of Shieiden' settled academically from 'The Formation of Medieval Period like World' by the Tadashi ISHIMODA, who was among the first generation born post-World War II.

一方、東国では上杉憲実が下野国足利市に足利学校の蔵書を充実させて再興し、全国の僧侶や武士が学問を学ぶために集まるようになった。
Meanwhile, in the eastern part of Japan, Norizane UESUGI reestablished the Ashikaga Gakko (Japan's oldest academic institution) by adding a collection of books, so priests and warriors from all over the country gathered to learn.

また、漫画などで流布された、流行廃りの風説の類であり、民俗学や文化人類学などの、学問の机上にものらない、いい加減な言葉である。
They are also often outlandish words not used in the study of the fields of folklore and cultural anthropology, spread through cartoons or hearsay, and subject to the whims of fashion.

養父玄斎は江戸で杉田玄白に蘭法医術を学んだことから家には蘭書が多く、長英も幼いころから新しい学問に強い関心を持つようになった。
As his foster father, Gensai, studied Western medicine under Genpaku SUGITA in Edo and had a lot of Western books at home, Choei had strongly become interested in studying since he was young.

西欧言語習得が簡単になること、翻訳の際、西欧学問の用語をそのまま、つまり適切な訳語を作る苦労無しに、移入できることを理由とした。
This was because learning Western languages became easier and because it became possible to import academic terms of Western leaning directly and without any trouble to create suitable translations.

学問の中心としての性格ははやくに薄れ、江戸時代の学者たちは貴重な古典籍を所蔵する図書館として足利学校に注目していたのみであった。
Its role as the academic center soon came to an end; scholars during the Edo period saw Ashikaga School as a library that stored precious ancient books.

イタリア人の1878年から1903年までの教皇で、作品が学問の振興に興味を持ち、バチカン市国の機密公文書をすべての学者に公開した
Italian pope from 1878 to 1903 who was interested in the advancement of learning and who opened the Vatican secret archives to all scholars

やがてそれは当時新たにつくられ始めた洋学（欧米学問）を教授する学校の法律用教科書として採用されるようになっていった（田2001）。
Before long, it started to be adopted as a text book for jurisprudence in newly established schools where Western studies (Western and American knowledge) was taught (田 2001).

当人は学問の方に興味があり、後に彦根藩家老となった岡本黄石を師として儒学を学び、その紹介により梁川星巌、梁川紅蘭夫妻と親交を結ぶ。
He was also interested in studying, and learned Confucianism under Koseki OKAMOTO, who later became a chief vassal of the Hikone Domain, and through his teacher came to know Seigan YANAGAWA and Koran YANAGAWA (husband and wife).

大師様が小豆粥を食する際に用いたと考えられた箸は、地方によっては講の後に魔除けや子女の学問・技術の向上のまじないなどに用いられた。
In some regions, the chopsticks, which were believed to be the same as those used by Daishisama (the Great Teacher) when eating azuki-gayu, were used after the event as a charm against evil or as a charm for children's excellence in studies and skills.

多才で知られており、学問に熱心であり、また400年近く途絶えていた石清水八幡宮や賀茂神社の臨時祭の復活や朝廷の儀式の復旧に努めた。
He was known to have many talents and loved to study; additionally, he worked hard to restore the events for the Imperial Palace, such as the special festivals of Iwashimizu Hachiman-gu Shrine and Kamo-jinja Shrine and also to restore ceremonial rites of the Imperial Palace.

また貧しい武家の次男・三男は、口減らしと学問習得などの理由で寺に売られるなどして、「寺小姓」として僧侶の身の回りの世話などをした。
Alternatively, in order to reduce mouths to feed and give their sons an education, second and third-born sons of an impoverished samurai family were often sold to a Buddhist temple where they worked as 'Tera-Kosho' and took care of the personal needs of Buddhist monks.

幼少時から学問好きの才媛として公家社会の中では有名人であったが、一方で野暮で理屈っぽい醜女として避けている人も多かったようである。
From one perspective, she was studious in her childhood and well known amongst court noble society, while on the other hand there were many who avoided her because of her unrefined demeanor and ugly looks.

一時東京を離れて静岡で学問所に努めていたが、抜群の語学力を新政府に認められ、1870年（明治3年）、外務省弁務少記に任ぜられ渡米。
He was away from Tokyo and working at a school in Shizuoka for a while, but because the new government recognized his outstanding language abilities, he was appointed to Benmu-Shoki in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and went to the US.

また学問分野では寛政異学の禁で朱子学を公式の学問とし、林家の私塾であった昌平坂学問所（昌平黌）を官立とするなど文武の奨励を行った。
In the academic field, he issued 'Kansei Igaku no Kin' (Prohibition of heterodoxies in the Kansei era) and authorized 'Shushigaku' (Neo-Confucianism) as the official study, nationalized 'Shoheizaka Gakumonsho' (or called 'Shoheiko,' which had been the private school of the Hayashi family), and took other measures to encourage literary and military arts.

従来の通説では西洋の学問を中心にした集まりとされたが、主宰の勝助は儒学者であり、蘭学に限らない、より幅の広い集団であったようである。
According to the traditional prevailing view, it was considered as a group centered on Western learning, but it seems to have been actually a group based not only on the Dutch, but also on a wide range of varied learning as the promoter, Katsusuke was a Confucianist.

それまでの加持祈祷や学問中心の仏教から、内面的な深まりを持ちながら、庶民など広い階層を対象とする新しい仏教への変化が胎動していった。
The Buddhism focusing on incantation and prayer, and study was beginning to change into a new Buddhism focusing on internal maturity for broad range of people including common people.

しかし夕霧が12歳で元服したころ、源氏が彼を大学寮に入れ学問を習得させようと二条の東の院に夕霧を移し、なかなか大宮邸へ通えなくなる。
However, at the age of twelve, around the time when Yugiri celebrates his attainment of manhood, Genji moves him to the east pavilion at Nijo in order to put him in Daigaku-ryo (Bureau of Education under the ritsuryo system) and makes him study, so he cannot often visit the residence of Omiya.

1968年、形骸化した学問の自由と大学の自治の回復を目的として、故・岡本清一初代学長を中心に、現在の所在地に京都精華短期大学を開設。
In 1968, the first president--the late Seiichi OKAMOTO--took the lead in founding Kyoto Seika Junior College for the purpose of offering freedom from framework study and the restoration of the student council.

門弟に対しては「学問は心と身を善に移す外無之候」という自筆の書付を手渡し、学問とは人の道を歩み実践するためのものであることを説いた。
He tried to instill in his pupils that the purpose of study is to practice moral principles, by, for example, giving his hand-written memo that says, 'The purpose of study is nothing but to make one's spirit and deeds good.'

そもそも柳原家は藤原北家日野家の名家 (公家)で学問の家として知られていたものの、一時家系が断絶した事もあってその学問は衰えていた。
The Yanagihara family was originally a family of noble race (court noble) which was the Hino family of the FUJIWARA Hokke (the Northern House of the Fujiwara clan) and known for being an academic family, however, its scholastic tradition had declined after the temporary discontinuation of the family line.

小室正紀・西川俊作編　『福澤諭吉著作集〈第3巻〉学問のすゝめ』　慶應義塾大学出版会、2002年、ISBN 978-4766408799
The 3rd volume of the works of Yukichi FUKUZAWA edited by Masanori KOMURO and Shunsaku NISHIKAWA, Keiogijuku University Press, 2002, ISBN 978-4766408799

字面から「偽り」すなわち無用と誤解されがちであるが、完全に学問にとって無意味とされる物は後述のオカルト的・詐欺的な例外を除けば少ない。
Although gisho are apt to be misunderstood as being of no use, there are a few that are meaningless from an academic standpoint except for examples that involve the occult or are fraudulent.

「太平記」は中世から物語僧の「太平記読み」によって語られ、初等学問に置けるテキストの役割や江戸時代には講談で語られる物語の1つとなる。
Taiheiki' was passed on from the medieval period by monogatari-so (storytelling priests) through taiheiki-yomi (taiheiki storytelling or storytellers) and was used as a text for primary study, later becoming one of the stories told in the kodan (vaudeville storytelling) of the Edo period.

一方、顔元は朱子学・陽明学ともに批判し、聖人となる方法は読書でも静坐でもなく「習行」（繰り返しの実践）であるとする独自の学問を興した。
Meanwhile, Gan Gen (Yen Yuan) criticized both Neo-Confucianism and Yomei-gaku, and created an original learning which preaching that the way to become a saint is not through reading or sitting on the floor calmly, but through shuko (repeated practices).

江戸時代になると、それまでの仏教の僧侶らが学ぶたしなみとしての儒教から独立させ、一つの学問として形成する動きがあらわれた（儒仏分離）。
During the Edo period, a movement occurred which moved Ju-kyo away from its previous role as accomplishments for Buddhist monks to learn, and establish it as a single learning (the separation of Confucianism from Buddhism).

明治時代に入り、西洋の知識・学問・文化が一気に流入するようになると、岡倉天心らによって、それらを日本流に摂取すべきという主張が現れた。
The sudden influx of Western knowledge, scholarship, and culture during the Meiji period led Tenshin OKAKURA and others to claim that they should be assimilated into the Japanese style.

公家達の側でも壺井に触発されるかのように、野宮定基・滋野井公麗・裏松光世（裏松固禅）らによってその学問的水準が高められるようになった。
Within the field of kuge kojitsu research, academic standards were raised by Sadamoto NONOMIYA, Kinkazu SHIGENOI, Mitsuyo URAMATSU (Kozen URAMATSU) and others as if they were inspired by Tsuboi.

1793年に林述斎（じゅっさい）が林家をついで大学頭となると、それまで林家の家塾だった「湯島聖堂」が、正式に幕府直轄の学問所となった。
In 1793, when Jussai HAYASHI inherited the Hayashi family and became Daigaku no kami, 'Yushima Seido,' which had been a government-backed school operated by the Hayashis, officially became Gakumonjo (a school) under the direct control of the bakufu.

この質的な水準を維持する精神的な基盤として京都大学では「自由の学風」を謳っており、学問領域以外でも学生自治活動等が活発に行われている。
This high quality is kept on the spiritual basis of 'academic freedom', the motto of Kyoto University, and this spirit can be seen in, besides the academic field, energetic activities, such as those of the student autonomy.

一方、天正年間に日生によって開かれた日蓮宗の檀林（松ヶ崎檀林）が本涌寺となり、京都における日蓮宗の僧侶の養成・学問所のひとつとなった。
Meanwhile, the Nichiren Sect Danrin school (Matsugasaki Danrin) founded by Nissho during the Tensho era became Honyu-ji Temple and served as one of the places of study and training for the Nichiren Sect monks of Kyoto.

ときには学問上の問題で対立したこともあったが、私には、少なくとも私の側からしてみれば、私たちの友情を損なうようなことは思い当たらない。
and although we may have differed at times on scientific questions, I cannot remember, at least on my side, any break in our affection.

安政3年（1856年）には幕府が新設した長崎海軍伝習所に入所、国際情勢や蘭学と呼ばれた西洋の学問や航海術・舎密学（化学）などを学んだ。
In 1856, he entered the Naval Training Center in Nagasaki, which had been newly established by bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun), where he studied the international situation, Western studies called Rangaku, seamanship, chemistry, etc.

この点、日本は鎖国とはいえ完全に国を閉ざしたわけではなく、キリスト教以外はオランダ語を通じて自由に諸外国の情勢や最新の学問を研究できた。
Despite being under seclusionism, Japan had not closed the country completely, giving people the freedom to learn about the state of affairs of foreign countries as well as the latest studies, excluding Christianity through the Dutch language.

こういうわけで、明治初期までイデオロギー的発言は活発だったが、学問上の論争にとどまる限り、それがいずれかの有利不利に働くことはなかった。
Various ideological theories were advocated before the early Meiji period, but none of them were judged correct as long as they were academic disputes.

この事件は親王時代に学問を教え、当時式部丞になっていた紫式部の父藤原為時や、尾張国郡司百姓等解文で有名な藤原元命の運命にも影を落とした。
While Emperor Kazan was a prince, this incident had a detrimental effect on the fates of Murasaki Shikibu's father, FUJIWARA no Tametoki, who taught and was appointed to the position of Shikibu no jo (a position within the Bureau of Ceremony) at that time and FUJIWARA no Motonaga, who was well known for the ”Letters of local government officials and farmers from Owari Province” (Owari no kuni Gunji Hyakusho ra no Gebumi).

江戸時代には、戦乱が静まり社会が安定し平和になったことと経済活動が活発になったことにより人びとの言論活動も活発になり多様な学問が開花した。
After the settling of the warring period, the Edo period saw the social stability and peace and the revitalization of economy, and people began to speack freely to lead flourishing various studies.

奈良仏教との反撃と真言密教の興隆という二重の障壁の中で天台宗の確立に立ち向かう師最澄に忠実に仕え、学問と修行に専念して師から深く愛される。
Through his loyalty and devotion to study and training, Ennin earned the deep affection of Saicho, who was trying to establish the Tendai Sect in the face of a resurgence of Nara Buddhism and the prosperity of Shingon Esoteric Buddhism.

明治維新によって武家の学問としての朱子学は立場を失ったが、宮中の保守的な漢学者の影響によって儒教の忠孝思想が教育勅語などに取り入れられた。
Shushigaku (Neo-Confucianism) lost its position as part of the education of samurai due to the Meiji Restoration, but chuko shisho (thought of loyalty and filial piety) of Confucianism was adopted in the Imperial Rescript on Education due to an influence of conservative scholars of the Chinese classics in the imperial court.

しかしながら、日本においては科挙制度が取り入れられなかったためか儒教の価値が定着せず、学問の主体は、実学的な紀伝道に移り、次第に衰退した。
However, perhaps due to the fact that Kakyo system was not adopted in Japan, Ju-kyo values did not take root, and it gradually faded as the subject of the learning shifted to practical Kidendo (the study of the histories) learning.

漢学（かんがく）とは、狭義で言えば宋明理学に対する伝統的な経学及び清代の考証学の事を指し、広義では洋学・国学に対する中国伝来の学問の総称。
In a narrow sense, 'kangaku' refers to traditional keigaku (study of Keisho in Confucianism) and the study of old documents during the period of Qin dynasty as opposed to Neo-Confucianism in the Song and Ming dynasties; in a broad sense, it is a general term for studies of knowledge imported from China, as opposed to Western learning and the study of Japanese classical culture.

この時期には『農家益』や『農業全書』などの農業技術書が多く出版されたが、田守たちが伝承してきた技術が学問として体系化された時期でもあった。
In this period, many books on agricultural techniques, such as 'Noka eki (farming handbook)' and 'Nogyo zensho (Compendia of agricultural knowledge),' were published and the techniques that had been handed down by the tamori were recorded systematically.

さらに、教わった学問に満足できなかったので、手元にきた本はすべて読み尽くしたし、えらく風変わりで珍しいと思われている分野も相手にしてみた。
and not contented with the sciences actually taught us, I had, in addition, read all the books that had fallen into my hands, treating of such branches as are esteemed the most curious and rare.

当時の征夷大将軍徳川吉宗は西洋の学問のうち、実用的なものについては禁を緩め導入を図ったが、この吉宗の命を受けて青木昆陽とともに蘭語を学ぶ。
The then seii taishogun (literally, 'great general who subdues the barbarians') Yoshimune TOKUGAWA was open-minded to introduce practical kinds of Western studies and he ordered Noro and Konyo AOKI to learn Dutch.

学識に優れ将来を嘱望されるが、実母に「学問だけをして偉くなるよりも、黒衣の非俗として菅笠裸足で往来し、済度衆生を果たしなさい」と諭され下山。
Although he excelled in scholarship and was a promising priest, he left the temple because of his mother's admonition saying 'You should endeavor to enlighten people as an inconspicuous priest by preaching to them whilst wearing a sedge hat and no sandals, rather than by pursuing high status only through studying.'

幼くして学問にすぐれ林鵞峰・林鳳岡に学んだが、延宝7年（1679年）、父の蟄居にともない、14歳にして上総国の本納村（現・茂原市）に移った。
He excelled academically at a very young age and studied with Gaho HAYASHI and Hoko HAYASHI, but he moved to Honno village (current Mobara City) in Kazusa Province due to his father's chikkyo (being confined to one's house) in 1678.

17世紀後半から18世紀にかけて活躍した詩人・儒学者の程順則は、琉球における最初の学校明倫堂創設の建議を行うなど、琉球の学問に大きく貢献した。
Shunze CHENG, who was a poet and Confucian scholar active from the late 17th century to the 18th century, proposed the foundation of the Meirindo school, the first school in Ryukyu, and greatly contributed to learning in Ryukyu.

しかし、学問的な興味だけではなく、生活様式や風俗・身なりに至るまで、オランダ流（洋式）のものを憧憬し、模倣するような者まで現れるようになった。
However, not only from academic interest, but also the yearning of their way of living, customs, and personal appearance, people copied the Dutch (or Western) style came to appear.

そうした閉塞感がただよう年に『ファスチェス』（発禁問題）、『沈黙の塔』（学問と芸術）、『食堂』（クロポトキンや無政府主義等を記述）などを発表。
In such stifling year, he published 'ファスチェス' (about the issue of the ban), 'Chinmoku no to' (The Tower of Silence) (about learning and art), 'Shokudo' (diner) (covering Kropotkin, anarchism and so on).

特に、仏教思想・仏教史を近代的学問体系からの批判に耐え得る形で研究するとともに、その成果を自ら整備に関与した公私の諸教育機関において公開した。
He researched Buddhist concepts and history while coming under fire from the modern academic system, and he disclosed his accomplishments in various public and private educational institutes in which he was involved when they were established.

羅山にとって惺窩との出会いは、精神的、学問的に大きく影響を受けることになり、惺窩も羅山の英明さに驚き、翌年の1605年には徳川家康に会わせる。
Razan was greatly influenced both spiritually and academically by his encounter with Seika, and Seika was surprised by Razan's brilliance and introduced Razan to Ieyasu TOKUGAWA in the following year, 1605.

この論争の意義については、かつては学問的な論争と考えられていたが、実際には言いがかり的な論争も多く、中心は政治的・派閥的な争いとする見方も強い。
The significance of the disputes was once regarded as an academic one; however, in fact, there were so many arguments just for objection that many people take the disputes mainly as political and sectional conflicts.

庚午事変（こうごじへん）は、1870年に当時の徳島藩淡路島洲本城下で洲本市在住の蜂須賀氏臣の武士が、家老稲田邦植の別邸や学問所などを襲った事件。
Kogo Jihen was an incident in which vassals of the Hachisuka clan, who lived in Sumoto City, attacked the second residence of chief retainer Kunitane Inada and a place of study and other places near the Sumoto-jo Castle on Awaji-shima Island, Tokushima domain of that time in 1870.

馬子は聖徳太子と合議して政治運営し、仏教を奨励し、冠位十二階や十七条憲法を定めて中央集権化を進め、遣隋使を派遣して隋の社会制度や学問を輸入した。
Governing in consultation with Prince Shotoku, Umako promoted the spread of Buddhism in Japan, drew up the Seventeen-Article Constitution to establish a centralized political system and sent Kenzui-shi (imperial envoys to China) to introduce advanced social systems and academic disciplines from China.

学問の神として知られる菅原道真にまつわる行事であり、洗い清めた硯にカジノキの葉を添えて供えた北野天満宮（京都府）の神事がその原型であるとされる。
This event is connected to Michizane SUGAWARA known as the god of learning, and it is assumed that the origin of the event were Shinto rituals of Kitano Tenmangu Shrine (Kyoto); leaves of mulberry paper are offered to an ink stone that had been washed and purified.

江戸時代には、江戸幕府が設置した昌平坂学問所の略称として知られた他、江戸幕府が設置した学校や諸藩の藩校の中にもこの名称が採用されるものがあった。
In the Edo period, 'gakumonjo' was known as the abbreviation of Shoheizaka Gakumonjo (Shoheizaka school) established by the Edo bakufu, and in addition, the name was adopted by some of the schools established by the Edo bakufu and hanko (domain schools) owned by domains.

朱子学は学問体系としては非常に整ってはいたが、その成立過程に流入した禅学や老荘思想といった非儒教的な思想のために経書の解釈において偏りがあった。
Neo-Confucianism was a very systematic study, but had a biased interpretation of scriptures because of the influence of non-Confucian philosophy it had received in the process of its establishment, such as the Zen study and philosophy of Lao-tse and Chuang-tse.

祖父は俳諧などの文芸や経書に親しんでいたようで、則義も農業より学問を好み、さらに多喜との結婚を許されなかったため駆け落ち同然に江戸に出たという。
Her grandfather seems to have been familiar with creative writings such as haikai (seventeen-syllable verse) and keisho (the most important documents in Confucianism); it is said that Noriyoshi preferred academics to farming and, as his marriage with Ayame was not permitted, they practically eloped to Edo.

なお、大学頭（だいがくのかみ）は、3代林鳳岡（羅山の孫）の時代からであり、以後林家は代々幕府の学問の責任者を担ってゆく（駿河文庫の管理を担う）。
The Hayashi (or RIN) family provided the Director of the Bureau of Education from the time of Hoko HAYASHI (grandchild of Razan and the third generation of the family), and would later provide officials for the inherited post responsible for education in the bakufu (they were also entrusted with the management of the Suruga library).

西郷の評語が「学問あらしめば」ではなく、「学問の造詣あらしめば」となっていることを吟味すべきであろう（この場合の学問は四書五経を意味している。）
It should be noted that Saigo's comment was not 'if he had a talent for education' but 'if he would have acquired an education,' (and in this case 'education' means the learning of the Nine Chinese Classics).

江戸時代から建築に対する有職故実的な研究は行われていたが、学問として成立するのは明治時代以降である（建築という用語自体、明治時代に造られたもの）。
The study of architecture has been conducted since the Edo period as part of greater studies on the practices of ancient court and samurai families, but it was only in the Meiji period that architectural study emerged as an independent branch of learning (the term 'kenchiku' [建築], meaning 'architecture', was itself coined in the Meiji period).

その起源は『続日本紀』延暦4年12月23日 (旧暦)条に故遠江国国史菅原古人の子である菅原清公・菅原清綱ら4名に学問料を給付したこととされている。
Based on the records in 'Shoku Nihongi' (Chronicle of Japan Continued) dated on twenty-third day, twelfth month of the fourth year of Enryaku era (old calendar), its origin is believed to be fact that four persons including SUGAWARA no Kiyokimi, and SUGAWARA no Kiyotsuna, both were the sons of the late provincial governor of Totomi Province SUGAWARA no Furuhito, were granted Gakumonryo.

兄同様弟も求道の念篤く学問好きで後に師の遺著『大道或問』を編集して上梓し、安政2年には自ら神代巻を大要した『稽古要略』『神武沿革考』を著している。
Like his brother, Yoshihisa studied hard with a deep longing for Kodo; later he edited and published one of their teacher's literary remains 'Daido Wakumon' (Studies on the Great Kodo), besides, in 1855, he wrote 'Keiko Yoryaku', the summary of the volume of Jindai (the period of gods), which was his teacher's work, as well as 'Jinmu Enkaku-ko' (Studies on the History of the First Emperor Jinmu).

また、その学績は実証的学問法を確立して国学の発展に寄与し古典研究史上、時代を画するものであり、また後世の歴史的仮名遣いの成立に大きな影響を与えた。
Keichu established an empirical study method, and his academic achievements contributed to the development of early modern Japanology (Kokugaku) and became a landmark of the history of the study on the Japanese classics, thus greatly influencing the establishment of old kana orthography of the posterity.

一世源氏の尊貴な身分であり、学問に優れ朝儀に通じており、また実力者藤原師輔、その娘の中宮藤原安子の後援も得て朝廷で重んじられ、左大臣にまで進んだ。
MINAMOTO no Takaakira was also known as Issei Genji (Emperor's son who went out of Imperial family and had Genji name), a noble personage who excelled as a scholar at the chogi (Imperial court ceremony) and was highly respected at court through the patronage of the capable FUJIWARA no Morosuke and his daughter, FUJIWARA no Anshi, the wife of an Imperial Prince, and advanced to the post of Minister of the Left.

このように、理解ある藩主に恵まれたことや良きパトロンを得られたこと、さらに識見ある先達との交流を得られたことは、伴存の学問の大成に大きく影響した。
Being blessed with such an understanding feudal lord, being supported by such a good patron, and exchanging with insightful predecessors greatly influenced the perfection of Tomoari's learning.

編纂が進むにつれてその思想体系などが整備され、やがて水戸学と呼ばれる学問の一派へと成長し、水戸藩士は皆等しく水戸学の尊皇論の影響を受けることとなる。
As the compilation progressed, the system of thought came to be developed, which resulted in the formation of a school of learning called Mitogaku, and all the feudal retainers of Mito Domain were affected by the sonnoron (the thought respecting the Emperors) of the Mitogaku.

大和魂（やまと-だましい）は、外来の学問・知識を日本に採り入れる際に必要な判断力・能力、または情緒（もののあはれ）を理解する心などを指す用語・概念。
Yamato-damashii is a term and concept referring to the judgment and ability that are necessary in accepting foreign scholarship and knowledge in Japan, as well as the heart to appreciate feelings (mono no aware), etc.

豊臣秀吉や徳川家康の知恵袋の一人として知られ、特に諸法度や外交文書の起草、学問奨励策や寺社行政の立案や、法要などの仏事の運営に重要な役割を果たした。
He is known as one of the intellects of Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI and Ieyasu TOKUGAWA's governments, playing an important role in drafting Shohatto laws and diplomatic documents, planning education promotion and temple administration, and conducting Buddhist rites such as Buddhist memorial services.

慎重に言葉を選びつつ、ゆっくりと途切れ途切れに話したが、全体として、学問や教養のある人間であり、運命の手に翻弄されてきた男なのだという印象を受けた。
He spoke in a slow staccato fashion, choosing his words with care, and gave the impression generally of a man of learning and letters who had had ill-usage at the hands of fortune.

すると、ユダヤ人たちは驚いて言った、「この人は学問をしたこともないのに、どうして律法の知識をもっているのだろう」。 (ヨハネによる福音書 7:15)
The Jews therefore marveled, saying, 'How does this man know letters, having never been educated?' (John 7:15)

1910年代後半になると、争いを繰り返す政治に絶望した知識人たちは、文学や学問といった文化による啓蒙活動で社会改革を目指そうとする新文化運動を興した。
In the late 1910s, the intellectuals who were in despair over repetitive conflicts in politics, started a New Culture Movement, aiming at social reform through an awareness campaign involving culture such as literature and learning.

衆徒（しゅと）は、堂衆（どうしゅ/どうしゅう）とも呼ばれ、本来は平安時代以後に大寺院に居住して学問・修行の他に寺内の運営実務にあたった僧侶身分のこと。
The term 'shuto,' for which 'doshu' is also used, is a term from after the Heian period that referred to the status of a priest who originally resided in a big temple and was in charge of the management and practical business of the temple as well as studying and practicing ascetic training.

それでも京屋敷が置かれた背景には朝廷の政治的権威が失墜したこの時代にあっても京都は日本を代表する工芸品の生産地であり、学問・文化の中心都市でもあった。
Some of the reasons why the Kyo-yashiki residences were maintained despite such situations were the facts that Kyoto was a representative production district of Japan for artifacts and also the center of learning/culture even in the particular period when the political power of the Imperial court fell down.

学問料（がくもんりょう）とは、平安時代に大学寮紀伝道の学生である文章生から選抜されて支給された奨学のための費用であり、給料（きゅうりょう）とも称した。
The term Gakumonryo is a scholarship for Monjosho (students who study poetry and history) who studied Kidendo (the study of history) at Daigaku-ryo (Bureau of Education under the ritsuryo system) during the Heian period and it was also called Kyuryo.

無類の学問好きで、新井白石から初代将軍・徳川家康、曽祖父の2代将軍・徳川秀忠、祖父の3代将軍・徳川家光の事跡など、歴史について熱心に学んだといわれる。
It is generally understood that he was extremely dedicated to learning, and enthusiastically studied history under the tutelage of Hakuseki ARAI on matters including achievements gained by Ieyasu TOKUGAWA, the first shogun, Hidetada TOKUGAWA, the second shogun and his great-grandfather, and Iemitsu TOKUGAWA, the third shogun.

正保元年（1644年）、郷里の父を見舞いに帰って八幡神社に祈願しているが、こののち大願成就のため、八幡神社をはじめ各地で修行と学問の生活を続けている。
In 1644, Dokaku retuned to his hometown to see his father, who was ill, he prayed at the Hachiman-jinja Shrine, after his stay at the shrine, he continued to practice and learn as an ascetic monk in various places to make his big dream come true.

平安時代を通じて鎮護国家を担う山門（比叡山延暦寺）勢力は教義の教えや体系的な学問にはげむ一方、加持祈祷や僧兵の武力を通じて、政治権力を持つようになった。
And while on the one hand Enryaku-ji Temple (the main temple of Mt. Hiei, also called 'Sanmon'), which had shouldered the burden of spiritually protecting the state throughout the Heian period, zealously poured considerable effort into teaching its doctrine and promoting systematic study of its precepts, it also acquired political might through its prayers and incantations coupled with the military strength of its sohei (warrior monks).

その末川は「この事件は滝川個人に加えられた弾圧ではなく、日本の学問の自由と大学自治に加えられた弾圧だったから京大事件と呼ぶべきだ」と繰り返し語っていた。
Suekawa repeatedly said that 'This incident was not oppression of Takigawa as an individual but should be called the Kyodai Incident because this was oppression of academic freedom and university freedom in Japan.'

そんな生活を続ける中、学問の面でも『歎異抄』などをよく読み、その自戒生活の実践の中で得意の哲学的を駆使して『宗教哲学骸骨』『他力門哲学骸骨』を執筆する。
While maintaining this lifestyle, academically he repeatedly read texts such as 'Tannisho' (Lamentations of Divergences) and while practicing self-discipline, he introduced his 'being philosophical,' which was the area of his specialty, and wrote 'Shukyo Tetsugaku Gaikotsu' (The Skeleton of a Philosophy of Religion) and 'Tarikimon Tetsugaku Gaikotsu' (The Skeleton of a Philosophy of Gate of the Other Power).

ヨーロッパの学問（蘭学）を初期は主に西洋医学と天文学、後に化学、物理学、西洋建築学等を学ぶ場所として使われ、その後の日本の近代化に大きな役割を果たした。
As a place to study western learning (蘭学, Rangaku), it was used to teach western medicine and astronomy mainly in the beginning; chemistry, physics, and western architectonics additionally in the later years, and took a large roll in the modernization of Japan.

このように天台教学・戒律・密教・禅の4つの思想をともに学び、日本に伝えた（四宗相承）ことが最澄の学問の特色で、延暦寺は総合大学としての性格を持っていた。
Learning four thoughts of the Tiantai doctrine, the precepts, esoteric teachings and Zen, and transmitting them all to Japan (Shisosojo) was an important part of Saicho's scholarship; and Enryaku-ji Temple took shape as a general university.

天保3年（1832年）、紀州藩儒官遠藤勝助らによって天保の大飢饉の対策会として作られた学問サークルである尚歯会に入り、崋山らとともに中心的役割を担った。
In 1832, Choei joined Shoshi-kai, which was founded as an academic circle addressing the Tempo Famine by Shosuke ENDO, a Confucianism teacher of the Kishu Domain, and played a central role in it along with Kazan.

武家として身に付けるべき教養として真っ先に「弓馬」を挙げて、日々怠ることがないことを説き、続いて学問の必要性を説く（ただし、「弓馬」ほどは強調しない）。
Samurai should acquire skill in archery and horsemanship, which should be practiced daily; then comes the importance of academic training (not to be insisted upon as much as archery and horsemanship).

古くは富士門流・日興門流・大石寺派と称し、浄土真宗にみられるような強固な単一組織はつくらなかったが、人的交流、学問的交流を通じ、ゆるやかに結びついていた。
In old days they called themselves Fujimon School, Nikkomon School, and Taiseki-ji School, and even though they did not form a strong unified organization like that seen in the Jodo Shinshu (the True Pure Land Sect of Buddhism), they were connected loosely through personal and academic exchanges.

後醍醐に仕えたのは、学問や芸能、信仰などを通じて後醍醐と個人的なつながりのあった者や、新たに名家の家柄への上昇を目指す低い家格の家系の出身者が中心だった。
Those who worked for Godaigo were people who had a personal relationship with him through study, arts, religion, etc., and were mainly people who were descended from lower class families who wanted their family lines to become premier lineages.

幕府が学問に儒学の朱子学を採用したことから、覇者である徳川家より「みかど」が正当な支配者であるという尊王論が水戸徳川家（水戸藩）を中心として盛んになった。
Because the Bakufu chose Shushigaku (Neo-Confucianism) as the academic subject to be studied, Sonnoron (Imperialism), which placed 'Mikado' (the Emperor) as the legitimate ruler rather than a hegemon of the Tokugawa clan, became popular among people such as the Mito-Tokugawa family (Mito Domain).

その才女ぶりが宮中に聞こえるところとなり、慶応3年8月9日（1867年9月6日）には明治天皇女御となった一条美子（後の昭憲皇太后）の学問師範に抜擢される。
The Imperial Palace caught wind of her literary talent and on September 6, 1867 it selected her to be a tutor for Haruko ICHIJO, who later became Meiji Empress (Empress Dowager Shoken).

また中国から、朱子学と陽明学が静座（静坐）（座禅）などの行法をなくした純粋な学問として伝来し、特に朱子学は幕府によって封建支配のための思想として採用された。
Additionally, Neo-Confucianism and Yomei-gaku were introduced purely as a learning, without the gyoho (method of ascetic practices) such as sitting on the floor calmly (Zen sitting meditation), and Neo-Confucianism in particular was adopted by the bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) as thought for feudal governance.

さらに、『朝野新聞』同年11月7日号に「学問ノススメ之評」として転載され、『日新眞事誌』同年11月8～9日号、『横浜毎日新聞』同年11月9日号にも掲載された。
And the review appeared again on Choya Shinbun newspaper on November 7, Nisshin Shinji-shi on November 8 to 9, and Yokohama Mainichi Shinbun newspaper on November 9.

小室正紀・西川俊作編　『』　慶應義塾大学出版会、2002年、ISBN 978-4766408799 には、『学問のすゝめ　初編』初版本の影印が収録されている。
The seal placed on the first copies of the first edition of Gakumon no Susume can be found in a book by Masanori KOMURO and Shunsaku NISHIKAWA, Keiogijuku University Press, 2002, ISBN 978-4766408799

叙位・任官をはじめとする朝廷の政務儀式、天皇の日常の行動から学問などについての注意が示されており、宮廷における年中行事の研究には欠かせない内容が含まれている。
Kanpyo no goyuikai contains the instruction on the protocols of government affairs at the Imperial Court such as the conferment of court rank and appointment to an office, the emperor's daily activities, learning and other issues, which are essential to the study of the annual events at the Court.

マーティンは1850年に来華して以来中国に留まり、天津条約の起草や北京同文館や京師大学堂での西欧学問教授、キリスト教伝道など多方面にわたり活動した人物である。
After Martin came to China in 1850, he stayed in China and played important roles in various areas such as drafting of Treaty of Tianjin, teaching of western scholarship in Tongwen Guan in Beijing (literally, School of Combined Learning) and Imperial Capital University (former Peking University) and mission of Christianity.

この寺は、1616年（元和 (日本)2年）本阿弥光悦の開基により、日乾が開山となって創建され、日蓮宗における学問所である檀林が置かれて「鷹峰檀林」と称された。
Josho-ji Temple was founded by kaiki (founding patron) Koetsu HONAMI and kaisan (first chief priest) Nikken in 1616, and was a Nichiren Sect danrin (school annexed to a temple) named 'Takagamine Danrin.'

父シーボルトは、長崎・鳴滝に住居を構え昔の門人や娘・イネと交流し日本研究を続け、1861年幕府に招かれ外交顧問に就き江戸でヨーロッパの学問なども講義している。
Her father Siebold, who settled in a residence located in Narutaki, Nagasaki and returned to associate himself with his former disciples and his daughter Ine, continued his Japanese studies, and in 1861 he was invited by the bakufu (Japanese government headed by a shogun) to hold the post of diplomatic adviser in Edo (present Tokyo), where he also gave lectures on the European studies.

人は生まれながらにして貴賎上下の別はないけれどただ学問を勤めて物事をよく知るものは貴人となり富人となり、無学なる者は貧人となり下人となるのだ。」という事である。
There is no difference in nature between the noble and the common, but just those who work hard to gain knowledge will be noble and rich, and those who do not will become poor and uncivilized.

『魏志倭人伝』のような実録が元となっている書物と、『記紀』や古系図のような後世の編纂物を、1対1で結び付けることは学問的に正しい方法といえないという立場である。
It would be academically irresponsible to make a decision about Himiko based on a one-to-one correspondence between documents such as the Record of Japan in the History of Wei, the Kiki and old genealogies alone.

道真が生前優れた学者であったことから天神は「学問の神様」ともされ（人によっては“平安時代きっての秀才”と評する事もある）、今なお多くの受験生が合格祈願に詣でる。
Michizane's status as a renowned scholar during his lifetime (some people claim him to have been the greatest of the Heian period) led Tenjin to be regarded as the patron of scholarship and now many students visit the shrines to pray for success in examinations.

そのため、綱吉の寵愛を於伝之方から離すため、新上西門院を通じて宮中で最も学問に秀でているとの呼び声が高い典侍・右衛門佐局を、御台所付上臈御年寄として大奥へ招聘。
For this reason, in order to change Tsunayoshi's feeling of love for Oden no kata, she invited Uemon no suke no tsubone, that is, Naishi no suke (a court lady of the first rank) who was said to shine academically best in the Imperial Court, as Joro (high rank woman servant in the Imperial Court) Otoshiyori (a lady who controls the servants in O-oku) under Midaidokoro through Shinjosaimonin.

この活躍が認められ、1867年（慶応3年）に渋沢栄一らと共に幕命でフランスのパリ万国博覧会 (1867年)に随行、学問、工芸を学び、アメリカを経由して帰国した。
This distinguished service was well recognized, and he was allowed to accompany with the participants of Paris International Exposition in France (1867) to study liberal arts and industrial arts, while he also visit the United States before he came back to Japan.

『国意考』は、真淵の学問をまとめたいわゆる『五意考』の一つであり、明和元年（1764年）ころに起稿され明和6年（1769年）までには完成したというのが定説である。
'Kokuiko' is one of the so-called 'Goiko' (Five Ancient Matters), which is a record of Mabuchi's learning; an established theory has it that Mabuchi started writing it around 1764 and completed it around 1769.

洋書の多くは都合オランダ経由で入ってきたためオランダ（阿蘭陀）の書物「蘭書」と呼びオランダ以外の西洋学問のこともオランダ（阿蘭陀）学問「蘭学」で呼ぶようになった。
Many of the western books came to Japan through the Netherlands (阿蘭陀, Oranda) and were called the books of the Netherlands, '蘭書 (Ransho),' and those western studies from the other parts of Europe were also called the learning of the Netherlands, '蘭学 (Rangaku).'

五明とは、声明（音韻学・文法学）・工巧明（工芸・技術論）・医方明（医学）・因明（倫理学）・内明（自己の宗旨の学問、仏教者の場合は仏教学）の5種類の学問分野を指す。
Gomyo refers to five academic fields - Shomyo (phonology and grammar), Kugyomyo (technics and technology), Ihomyo (medical science), Inmyo (ethics) and Naimyo (study of a scholar's religion, as in Buddhism for a Buddhist).

この顔ぶれからも推察されるように、この京大人文研の活動範囲は狭義の人文科学から自然科学の領域にまでまたがった学際的なもので、今西は自らの学問領域を自然学とも称した。
As inferable from these members, the activity range of this Institute for Research in Humanities, Kyoto University, is interdisciplinary from narrow cultural science to natural science and IMANISHI also called his own academic field Physica.

ただ、この種の暗号説を用いれば、論者の都合でいかような解釈でも振り出すことができることは古代史ではよく知られており、今日学問的な論証として取り上げられることはない。
It is well known in the field of ancient history that advocates can make various interpretations to their advantage by using this kind of cipher theory, so it is not regarded as an academic approach anymore.

当時の日本では、歴史学界内部に限れば冷静な議論が可能であったが、一歩外に出れば学問の自由は存在せず、政府、政治家、神道家、新聞が、学者の不敬を格好の攻撃材料とした。
In Japan in those days, calm discussions were possible only within the academic circle of history, but there was no academic freedom outside the circle, and the government, politicians, shintoists and newspapers attacked the impiety of scholars.

主な建物としては、紫宸殿（ししんでん）、清涼殿、小御所（こごしょ）、御学問所、常御殿（つねごてん）、迎春（こうしゅん）、御涼所（おすずみしょ）、皇后御殿などがある。
The main buildings in Kyoto Gosho inclulde Shishinden (Ceremonial Hall), Seiryoden, Kogosho, Gogakumonjo, Tsunegoten, Koshun, Osuzumisho, and Kogo Goten.

このため、後世紀伝道において主導的な立場に立った菅原氏が大学寮における自家の功績を顕彰するために、平安時代中期以後の学問料支給とこの史実を結び付けたと言われている。
Therefore, it is said that the Sugawara clan, which later got the leading position in Kidendo, associated this historical fact with Gakumonryo of the mid-Heian period aiming to demonstrate the family's achievement at Daigaku-ryo.

篤胤の提唱する古道に於ける幽顕の弁や神仙思想とは、実は皇国に古来から伝播した玄学(神仙道)の事であり、玄学とは現象を動かす物の奥にある本質を解明する学問の事である。
The theory of the Dark and the Light and the idea of unworldly men's world, which Atsutane taught based on Kodo, were, in fact, Chinese ancient philosophies that had been introduced in centuries past, especially Gengaku ('xuanxue', philosophy fused by Confucianism and Taoism during the period from the third century until the fifth century) and Shinsendo ('shenxiandao', method for becoming unworldly man); Gengaku was regarded as the scholar to analyze the essence beneath the surface of the phenomenon.

この時の教育ぶりについて後に昭憲皇太后は「（薫子の）厳しい教育に泣きそうになったこともたびたびであったが、自分の学問は薫子に負うところが大であった」と回想している。
Despite Nioko's strict teaching manner that often times almost made her cry, Empress Dowager Shoken largely owes her education to Nioko's teachings.

藤原四兄弟の子の系統はそれぞれ藤原南家、藤原北家、藤原式家、藤原京家と呼ばれ、それぞれの家に栄枯盛衰はあったものの、その後の政治や学問、文化に大きな足跡を残している。
Each lineage of descendants of four Fujiwara brothers was called 'Fujiwara Nanke' (the Southern House of the Fujiwara clan), 'FUJIWARA Hokke' (the Northern House of the Fujiwara clan), 'Fujiwara Shikike' (the Ceremonial House of the Fujiwara clan), and 'Fujiwara Kyoke' (the Western House of the Fujiwara clan); although they went through the rise and fall, they left a major mark on later politics, learning, and culture.

彼らは、輸入学問であった近代農学とは独立して、近世以前の在来農学の蓄積に基づき、単なる個人の経験の寄せ集めという段階を越えた実証主義的な態度からの技術改良を志向した。
Being independent of the modern agriculture studies imported from abroad, they intended to make improvements on techniques from the viewpoint of positivism, based on the accumulation of the conventional agriculture studies before modern times, which was beyond the phase of the mere collection of personal experiences.

もともとは旃檀林（せんだんりん：栴檀（せんだん）という木の林）の略で、寺院のことをいったが、時代を経るにしたがって僧侶を養成する寺院、学問所のことを指すようになった。
Danrin was originally an abbreviation of Sendanrin, which means a grove of trees called Sendan, for indicating a temple, but as times went by, Danrin began to indicate a temple for training monks, i.e., a Buddhist school.

文化という言葉は、芸術や学問など人間が生み出した高い達成度を持つもの（ハイカルチャー）を指すとともに、人間の社会が長年にわたって形成してきた慣習や振舞いの体系を指す。
The term 'Culture' refers to anything including art and learning, which was generated by people and has a high level of achievement (high culture), and also refers to a system of custom or behavior which has been formed by a human society over the years.

また義隆が学問・芸術に熱心で、キリスト教布教を許し、公家や宣教師を積極的に保護したことから、大内領内には独特の山口文化（大内文化）が生まれ、文化的にも全盛期を迎えた。
Additionally, because Yoshitaka was enthusiastic about learning and art, and also because he permitted Christian missionary work and voluntarily protected kuge (court noble) and missionaries, a unique culture of Yamaguchi (Ouchi culture) was born in the territory of Ouchi family, which led to a height also in terms of culture.

このようにして、源氏学（『源氏物語』を探求する学問）の権威として家学の隆盛に力を尽くし、親行が藤原定家の勧めによって著した仮名遣いの書を増補して「仮名文字遣」を著した
In this way, he made his efforts to further develop the family' hereditary learning as the leading authority in the studies of the Minamoto clan and he wrote 'Kana mojizukai' (Usage of the Japanese syllabary symbols) by revising the book on the Japanese syllabic usage that Chikayuki wrote, recommended by FUJIWARA no Teika.

かなり広く理解されもっと根源的な重要性をもつこうした一般化の別の例としては、今のところ漠然としか理解されていない究極の哲学問題である、エネルギー保存の学説があります。
Another, of still wider grasp and more radical significance, is the doctrine of the Conservation of Energy, the ultimate philosophical issues of which are as yet but dimly seen―

'予の精神は之を担堂先生に受け、学問は之を麹盧先生に受け、識見は之を月洲先生に受けた'と後に懐述するように、この三人より受けた教育的感化は彼の一生を支える程強かった。
Educational influence from the three teachers was strong enough to support him for life as he recalled later that 'I received sprit from Mr. Tando, studies from Mr. Kikuro, and knowledge from Mr. Gesshu.'

根拠に描写がこなれているとか不自然であるとかいった主観的なものについては、学問的に検証できるものではなく、武田論文においても具体的な検証は何も行われていないとするもの。
It is impossible to academically verify the subjective grounds such as that the descriptions are more sophisticated or less sophisticated, but TAKEDA didn't concretely examine these points in his thesis.

しかし明治24年（1891年）東京帝国大学教授久米邦武の「神道は祭天の古俗」という論文が皇室への不敬に当たると批判を受け職を追われ、学問的自由に制限が加わるようになる。
However Kunitake KUME, a professor of Tokyo Imperial University, wrote the essay titled; ' Shintoism is to Enshrine God in the Old Way,' which was criticized as being rude to the Imperial family, he was removed from his position in 1891 and political pressure started to mount against the freedom to study.

やがて、各地に祀られた祟り封じの「天神様」は、災害の記憶が風化するに従い道真が生前優れた学者・詩人であったことから、後に天神は学問の神として信仰されるようになっている。
As time passed and memories of the disasters faded, 'Tenjin-sama,' who was enshrined in various parts of Japan to suppress curses, became worshipped as a god of literature since Michizane was a brilliant scholar as well as a poet.

釜次郎は幼少の頃から昌平坂学問所で儒学・漢学、ジョン万次郎の私塾で英語を学び、19歳で遠国奉行堀利煕の従者として蝦夷地箱館（現北海道函館市）に赴き、樺太探検に参加する。
Kamajiro had learned Confucianism and Sinology at Shoheizaka Gakumonjo (Shoheizaka School) and English at a private school of John Manjiro since he was a child, and at the age of nineteen he went to Hakodate, Ezochi (inhabited area of Ainu, now Hakodate City, Hokkaido) as a follower of Toshihiro HORI, who was an ongoku-bugyo (the collective name of the magistrates placed at important areas directly controlled by the government in Edo period), and took part in the exploration of Sakhalin.

建暦2年（1212年）には実朝の鶴岡八幡宮参拝に随行しているほか、建保元年（1213年）2月に設置された学問所番のうち二番の一人としてその名がみえている（『吾妻鏡』）。
He visited Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gu Shrine as an escort for Sanetomo in 1212, and his name appeared as one of number 2 in the guard of Gakumonjo established in February 1213.

同じように、本に書いてある学問（少なくとも、実例に基づかずに、可能性としてありそうな理由づけだけに頼っているものも）は、いろいろ異なる人たちの意見の寄せ集めになっている。
In the same way I thought that the sciences contained in books (such of them at least as are made up of probable reasonings, without demonstrations), composed as they are of the opinions of many different individuals massed together,

下賀茂神社に自らの蔵書を奉納したときの目録である「蓼倉文庫蔵書目録」には経学・史学を中心に3,386部（11,252巻）が記され、菘翁が学問を重視していた姿勢が窺われる。
In 'the list of book collection in Tadekura Library,' which was a list of his books dedicated to Shimogamo-jinja Shrine, 3,386 books (11,252 volumes), centering on keigaku and history, were listed, which shows Suo emphasized the learning.

お雇い（御雇）外国人（おやといがいこくじん）とは、幕末以降明治初期に、「殖産興業」などを目的として、欧米の先進技術や学問、制度を輸入するために雇用された欧米人のことである。
The term 'oyatoi-gaikokujin' refers to the practice, common from the late Edo period into the early Meiji period, of hiring Europeans and Americans to foster the importation into Japan of the advanced technologies, scholarship and systems of Europe and the United States under the banner of 'Shokusan-kogyo' (encouragement of production and industry).

その一方で、超長期の政権安定、特に前半の百数十年は成長経済基調のもと、町人層が発展し、学問・文化・芸術・経済等様々な分野の活動が活発化し、現代にまで続く伝統を確立している。
From one point of view, the ultra long-term stable government, especially for the first hundred and dozens of years, enjoyed economic growth, which brought about development of the merchant class, who played active roles in flourishing fields such as studies, culture, art, and business, and accomplished traditions unswerving even today.

江戸時代以後、古典研究の発展に伴って民間でも有職故実の研究をする者が現れ、世襲化されて学問としては停滞が見られた公家や武家の有職故実の伝統に囚われない独自の研究が見られた。
During and after the Edo period, researchers of yusoku kojitsu emerged among ordinary citizens along with the development of the study of classical literature, and made original studies free from the traditions of kuge and buke yusoku kojitsu, which showed stagnation as academics because they were transferred by heredity.

当時の学問水準より比定の誤りなどが見られるが、平安初期以前の薬物の和名をことごとく記載しておりかつ来歴も明らかで、本拠地である中国にも無いいわゆる逸文が大量に含まれている。
Although there are some errors in the identification of the medicines by analogy due to the low level of the study at that time, every single Japanese name of the medicines used before the early Heian period is recorded, and the origins and histories of them are revealed, and plenty of so-called itsubun (lost writings), which previously existed but do not exist now even in its home country, China, are included in the dictionary.

が、本格的な学問としての源氏物語の解釈が始まるとともに、源氏物語には作中に描かれていない期間が存在したり、各巻で描かれる時間帯に「重なり」が存在することが明らかになってきた。
However, with the start of serious scholarship on interpreting the Tale of Genji, it became clear that some periods of time are not described and that there is some 'overlap' between chapters.

「男子は国許で養育する」という斉昭の教育方針に則り、生後7ヶ月にして水戸藩に移り、一橋徳川家を相続するまでの多くを同地で過ごす間、会沢正志斎らから学問・武術を教授されている。
Based on Nariaki's educational policy, 'a boy should be educated in his home domain' Yoshinobu moved to Mito at the age of seven months and spent most of his time there until he succeeded to the Hitotsubashi Tokugawa Family, during which time he was educated and taught martial arts by Seishisai AIZAWA.

陰陽道自体が中国の学問、思想、呪術、祭祀等を包括して体系化したものである為、日本に取り入れた中国の諸文化を元に日本流に昇華させた文化行事であると言うのが正確であると思われる。
It is believed to be true that Shihohai is a cultural ceremony that came from China and was changed to suit the Japanese culture while retaining various aspects of Chinese culture, since the Way of Yin and Yan originally came from China and has been systematized, including Chinese studies, thinking, magic and rituals.

最後に、わたしはここで、学問の未来のために自分がもたらそうとしている進歩について、あまり断言するつもりはないし、自分が果たせるかもできない公約をして自分をしばるつもりもない。
In conclusion, I am unwilling here to say anything very specific of the progress which I expect to make for the future in the sciences, or to bind myself to the public by any promise which I am not certain of being able to fulfill;

京都においては学者としての実績は格別なものは無かったが、博学ぶりはそれなりの評価があったらしく、学問に優れた人材に乏しい鎌倉においては幼少の将軍の教育係に適した人物とされた。
Even though he didn't have a special record in Kyoto as scholar, he had certain extensive knowledge and he was said to be qualified as the shogun's tutor in Kamakura where there were not many academically superior persons.

また、衆徒・神人とよばれる俗人を多数配下において大人口を誇り、経済・学問・工芸活動などが盛んだった寺社周辺は、近年の日本歴史学で「境内都市」と呼ばれる一大メガロポリスであった。
The temples had many laypeople called Shuto, Jinin who made up large megalopolises surrounding temples with high economical, learning and craft-making activity called 'Keidai toshi' (temple city) in recent Japanese history studies.

主務大臣は、前三条の規定により個人情報取扱事業者に対し報告の徴収、助言、勧告又は命令を行うに当たっては、表現の自由、学問の自由、信教の自由及び政治活動の自由を妨げてはならない。
In collecting a report from, or giving an advice, a recommendation or an order to a business operator handling personal information pursuant to the provisions of the preceding three articles, the competent Minister shall not disturb freedom of expression, academic freedom, freedom of religion, or freedom of political activity.

「いつ兵隊にとられるか分からない。戦場に行けば必ず死が待っている。そういった緊迫した状態で学問に打ち込んでいた。寄宿舎の連中は皆そうだった。それだけにお互いの連帯感は強かった」
I didn't know when I was to be called up for military service. Being called up inevitably led to my death. I concentrated on my study in such a tense atmosphere. So did all of my colleagues in the dormitory. For that reason alone, we had a strong sense of solidarity.

だが、南北朝時代 (日本)を経て、室町幕府が京都を支配して朝廷・院庁の政治機能を吸収するようになると、形骸化していくようになり、有職故実の学問として命脈を保つに過ぎなくなった。
However, after the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (Japan), the Muromachi bakufu dominated Kyoto and took over the government function of the Imperial Court and Innocho, and Myohodo became a mere name and survived only as a study of historical precedents.

江戸時代はヨーロッパの学問（西洋医学、化学、物理学等）と言えば蘭学であるが、これは鎖国時代に清（中華人民共和国）を除けば海外と交易していた相手はオランダのみであったためである。
In the Edo period, the studies of Europe (western medicine, chemistry, physics) mean the western learning (蘭学, Rangaku), because in the period of national isolation, Netherlands was the only trading partner for Japan with the exception of Qing (current People's Republic of China).

開港以後は、国学 (学問)の発展によって強化されつつあった日本は神国であるというナショナリズムの発想である尊皇論と結びつき、尊皇攘夷論となって諸藩の志士や公卿によって支持された。
After the opening of the port, the theory of Joi was related to the Sonno ron (theory of 'Revere the Emperor'), which was becoming prevalent due to the development of kokugaku (the study of Japanese literature and culture) and was transformed into Sonno joi ron (the theory of Sonno joi); the Sonno ron believed that Japan was the country of god and became origin of the thought of nationalism, and was supported by patriots of various domains and kugyo (court nobles).

江戸時代の学問の特徴としては、研究者個人の直感的、連想的な思考を軸とする中世的な発想で研究を進めるのではなく、文献などに基づき実証的に研究するという態度が現れたことが挙げられる。
One of characteristics of studies in the Edo period was the appearance of the positivistic approachs based on written materials, which was different from those in the medieval times laying stress on the intuitional and associational thoughts of the researcher.

藤堂の性格については、江戸っ子で有意の人材であり（御陵衛士同志鈴木三樹三郎談）、経済に達し戟剣をよくする（学問においても武術においても秀でていた）、等といった記録が垣間見られる。
According to Mikisaburo SUZUKI, his comrade in the Goryoeji, Todo was of a typical Edo-ite and a motivated worker and there are several records showing that he was familiar with economics and had also mastered kenjutsu (he excelled in both academics and martial arts).

その動きは早くは中世から見られるが、一般には江戸時代中期後期以後の儒教や国学 (学問)や復古神道に伴うものを指し、狭義には明治新政府により出された神仏分離令（正式には神仏判然令。
The earliest movement had already appeared in the Medieval Period, but the Shinbutsu-bunri usually refers to the separation carried out in accordance with the advancement of Confucianism, Kokugaku (the study of Japanese classical literature), and the Fukko-shinto (Reactionary Shintoism) which occurred in and after the mid or late Edo period.In a more limited sense, it refers to the separation carried out throughout the country according to the ordinance issued by the new Meiji government, called Shinbutsu Bunri-rei (officially named Shinbutsu Hanzen-rei, which means the Edict for Separation of Shinto and Buddhism), which was a general term representing a series of official notices issued between April 5, 1868 and December 1, 1868, such as the edict of the Daijokan (Grand Council of State), the notification of the Jingikan (Department of Worship), and the notification of the Daijokan.

また、幕末の志士たちの多くが江戸の有名道場で学び、全国に人脈を広げていった例からわかるように、武術の道場は、学問所と同じように、ある意味サロン的な役目を果たすようになっていった。
And as we can see from the cases in which a lot of the patriots during the end of the Edo period practiced at famous dojo (training halls) in Edo and expanded the networks of personal relationships all over the country, the dojo of bujutsu were getting to perform a function as some salon in a sense just the same as with gakumonjo (academic temples).

それまでの「四書五経」をはじめとする儒教の古典や仏典の研究を中心とする学問傾向を批判し、日本独自の文化・思想、精神世界を日本の古典や古代史のなかに見出していこうとする学問である。
Kokugaku criticized the heretofore strong academic focus on Confucian and Buddhist classics, especially the 'Four Books and Five Classics' of Confucianism, trying instead to unearth native Japanese cultural, philosophical, and spiritual traditions to be found in the Japanese classics and ancient histories.

また、出兵に参加した大名たちによって連れてこられた朝鮮人儒学者との学問や書画文芸での交流、そして陶工が大陸式の磁器の製法、瓦の装飾などを伝えたことで日本の文化に新たな一面を加えた。
New aspects were added to Japanese culture by intercommunion in scholarship and calligraphy and painting as well as creative writing with Korean Confucians who were brought to Japan by daimyo who took part in dispatch to Korea and transmission by potters of manufacturing process of continental ceramics and the decoration of roof tiles.

この時代の歌論はその枠を超えて一つの芸術論、思想体系とも言うべきものになっており能の大成者世阿弥も「能楽師に必要な学問は歌学のみである」と述べるなど他の芸能にも大きな影響を与えた。
Karon in this period had already moved beyond its original narrow focus on poetry and began to include essays on art in general or essays that outlined an entire ideological system, and thereby came to have a deep influence on other art forms; Zeami, who perfected the art of Noh, commented that 'Kagaku is the only type of learning a Noh actor really needs.'

吾妻鏡など、同時代の史料には那須与一の名は見えないため、与一の事跡は軍記物語である平家物語や源平盛衰記に伝えるところが大きい（そのため、学問的には与一の実在すら立証できていない）。
The name NASU no Yoichi is not seen in Azuma Kagami (history book) and other historical materials of the period, so the assessment of Yoichi's performance relies heavily on the descriptions written in Heike Monogatari and Gempei-Josuiki as military epics (therefore, the existence of Yoichi has not been proved academically).

この為、絵画作品としての浮世絵研究にあっては、正当かつ体系的・学問的な研究は為されておらず、個々の収集家や研究者によって、知見の異なる主張が部分的・断続的に繰り返されるのみである。
Consequently, no legitimate, systematic and academic study could be conducted for Ukiyoe as a pictorial art work, and opinions based on different knowledge sources were partially and continually repeated only by individual collectors and researchers.

このうち「国替え説」は、唯一史料として変19日前の5月14日付けの丹波国人、土豪への軍役を課した織田信孝の軍令書が存在し、この人見家文書の花押の真偽を巡る学問的な論議となっている。
With respect to the 'view that the cause of the incident was transference of the fief,' as only one historical material, there is Nobutaka ODA's military order dated May 14, nineteen days before the Incident, that imposed military service on local lords and powerful local clans in Tanba, and it became the subject of academic arguments whether or not kao (written seal mark) on this military order is genuine.

その意志とは、一つには、とかく学問に縁遠い当時の婦女子にも読めるようにという事において、二つには物質文明を支える知識学識万能主義に対する警告として、であると現在では理解されている。
It is now understood that the will means to make it possible for the women of the day who were far from study to read it in part, and to warn against the principle depending only on knowledge and learning backing up the material civilization in another part.

通説によれば、西郷とは初対面から大いに意気投合し、西原から1里弱(3.4km)離れた和泊の西郷の座敷牢まで毎日のように通っては、時世を論じ学問を語り、書や詩作を教えるようになった。
According to the popular theory, Kawaguchi got on very well with Saigo from the first time they met; and everyday Kawaguchi visited Saigo's cell of the prison of Wadomari which was 3.4 kilometers away from Nishihara and discussed current issues and talked about learning, and he came to teach calligraphy and poetry to Saigo.

和漢方医が7割以上を占めていた当時の医学界は、ドイツ医学界のような学問において業績を上げた学者に不遇であり、日本の医学の進歩を妨げている、大卒の医者を増やすべきだ、などと批判する。
He criticized the medical world of Japan, saying it was over 70% occupied by Chinese and Japanese doctors, so specialists who made progress studying other fields such as German medical science were disregarded, and this situation prevented the medical progression of Japan, so the number of doctors graduating from medical school should be increased.

受給者は給料学生と呼ばれ、定員2名で文章生の中から自薦・他薦によって推挙され、大抵の場合には希望者多数ということにより、学問料試（給料試）と呼ばれる詩賦などによる選抜を経て選ばれた。
Recipients were called Kyuryo-gakusei and two were selected out of recommended or self appointed applicants of Monjosho through Shi-fu (examination) called Gakumonryoshi (a selection exam for the award of Gakumonryo) (Kyuryoshi - a selection exam for the award of Kyuryo) since the number of applicants usually exceeded the quota.

多くの学者の努力によって「大島本」などの「青表紙」系統の写本や当時はすでに失われてしまったと考えられていた「河内本」系統の写本など多くの古写本が発見され、学問的な比較作業が行われた。
Many old manuscripts such as 'Oshimabon (Oshima book),' which is a manuscript in the 'Aobyoshibon' line, and the 'Kawachibon' line manuscripts (which had already been considered lost in those days) were found, and these manuscripts were compared from the academic perspective.

冶金学的現象に対応した日本刀独自の名称が存在する事で、個別の刀の特徴を言い表す事が可能となり、文字による作風の伝承、異なる刀の比較考量、即物的な観賞を超えた学問的研究が可能となった。
Existence of names which are unique to Japanese swords and associated with metallurgical phenomena makes description of the features of each sword possible, and transmission of work styles by letters, comparison, and consideration of different swords and academic research more than physical appreciation have also become possible.

学問的・専門的にではなく、あくまでも一般的な理解のためという前提で補足すると、日本酒の製法という文脈に限っては、「酛（もと）」＝「酒母（もと/しゅぼ）」はほぼ同義語として考えてよい。
As a supplement, neither academic or professional, but to promote general understanding, we can consider, limiting the context related to the production method for sake as being synonyms like 'moto' = 'shubo.'

名前を挙げきれないくらい多数のコメントが寄せられ、ハッカーの所有権慣習は学問世界、特に科学研究コミュニティの行いと密接に関連し、そこから直接派生したものかもしれないと指摘してくれた。
Respondents to this essay too numerous to list have pointed out that hacker ownership customs seem intimately related to (and may derive directly from) the practices of the academic world, especially the scientific research commmunity.

元禄のころになると、彼の学識は広く知られるところとなり、学問、教育に熱心であった加賀加賀藩主前田綱紀も彼の名声を知り、元禄6年（1693年）に彼を儒者として召抱えられることとなった。
Around the Genroku Era his wisdom became well-known, and Tsunanori MAEDA who was the lord of Kaga Domain, Kaga Province heard of his fame and took Jakusui into his service in 1693 as a Confucian.

学問的・専門的にではなく、あくまでも一般的理解のためという前提で補足すると、日本酒の製法という文脈に限っては、「醪（もろみ）」＝「仕込み」＝「造り」としてほぼ同意に使われることが多い。
As a supplement not academic or professional, but for helping the general understanding, limited to the context related to the production method for sake, 'moromi,' 'shikomi' and 'tsukuri' are often used meaning the same.

天長・承和期の淳和天皇と仁明天皇の治世は、学問が興隆し、後世の故実ともなった宮廷儀式が確立するなど、王朝文化が花開いた時期であるが、これらは勅旨田収入に支えられたものと考えられている。
In the reigns of Emperors Junna and Ninmyo in the Tencho and Showa periods, a royal court culture was in full bloom with academics flourishing as well as court ceremonies that would be practiced in later ages, all supported by the income from Chokushiden.

8代・幟仁親王（1812年-1886年）は、國學院大学の前身である皇典講究所や神道教導職の総裁に任ぜられ、明治天皇、和宮親子内親王の学問師範を務めた功績を以って大勲位菊花大綬章を賜った。
The eighth successor, Prince Takahito (1812-1886), was ordered to become the president of Koten Kokyu sho (the former Kokugakuin University) and Shinto Kyodo shoku; after teaching Emperor Meiji and Princess Kazuno miya Chikako in various studies, he was given the Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the Chrysanthemum in recognition of his achievements as a teacher.

昭和天皇は学習院時代、院長であった乃木希典については「印象深く、尊敬もしている」と述べているが、東宮御学問所総裁であった東郷については、後年、記者の質問に「何の印象もない」と答えている。
The Emperor Showa said that Maresuke NOGI, the principal of the school, that NOGI left deep impression on him during his time as a student of the Gakushuin School and he did respect Nogi, but when he was asked about Togo, president of the Togu School (a school to educate the crown prince), by press reporters later in his life, he answered he had no impression about Togo.

信州小布施町を生地とし造酒業を主とした豪農商にして陽明学等学問にも通じた高井鴻山（文化3年- 明治16年〈1806年- 1883年〉）は、江戸での遊学の折、北斎と知り合い、門下となっている。
Kozan TAKAI (1806 - 1883), a wealthy farmer and merchant who was born at Obuse in Shinshu, managed a brewery and had a wide knowledge including Yomei-gaku (neo-Confucianism based on the teachings of Wang Yangming), met Hokusai when he traveled to study at Edo, and became his disciple.

福澤は、上記の批判に対して、慶應義塾　五九樓仙萬（ごくろうせんばん）というペンネームで「学問のすすめ之評」という弁明の論文を記して投稿し、『郵便報知新聞』明治7年11月5日号付録に掲載された。
Fukuzawa responded to those views, by posting an article of 'A review on Gakumon no Susume' which appeared in an additional edition of Yubin Hochi Shinbun newspaper on November 5, 1874, under the name of Kokuro Senban (which nearly sounds 'thanks for your efforts') of Keiogijuku.

従来の通説では、このことによって儒教が国教となったとしていたが、現在の研究では儒家思想が国家の学問思想として浸透して儒家一尊体制が確立されたのは前漢末から後漢初にかけてとするのが一般的である。
Conventionally, it was believed that this was what made Ju-kyo the state religion, but in current studies it is commonly believed that it was between the end of former Han and early later Han that the thought of Ju-ka spread as the national learning of thought and the system admiring Confucianist alone was established.

というのも、自分のすべての思考をその規則に従って行おうと自らを律する一方で、わたしはときどき時間をとって、その手法を数学の問題に適用したり、あるいはほかの学問分野に属する問題に適用したりした。
for, besides taking care in general to conduct all my thoughts according to its rules, I reserved some hours from time to time which I expressly devoted to the employment of the method in the solution of mathematical difficulties, or even in the solution likewise of some questions belonging to other sciences,

というのも、学問でだんだん真理を発見していくのは、人がお金持ちになるにつれて、貧乏だった頃にはごく少額の買い物でも苦労したのが、高価な買い物でも大した苦労をしなくなるのと同じようなものだからだ。
for it is much the same with those who gradually discover truth in the sciences, as with those who when growing rich find less difficulty in making great acquisitions, than they formerly experienced when poor in making acquisitions of much smaller amount.

兼良は、当時の人々からは、「日本無双の才人」と評され、兼良自身、「菅原道真以上の学者である」と豪語しただけあって、その学問の対象は幅広く、有職故実の研究から、和歌、連歌、能楽などにも詳しかった。
Kaneyoshi was praised by people at that time as an 'unprecedented person of wisdom' and Kaneyoshi bragged about himself as 'a greater scholar than Michizane SUGAWARA'; he knew a wide range of academic subjects in detail from Yusoku kojitsu (ancient practices and usages), Waka (Japanese poetry), Renka (linked poetry), and Noh gaku (Japanese Noh play).

祖母から祖先が立派な武士（蒲生氏郷公）だと聞かされた時「幼い胸は高鳴り感激で夜も眠れないほどだった、しかし今は町人の子でどうにもならない、学問で身を立て立派な祖先に恥じない人になる決意をした」。
When he was told that his ancestor was an admirable samurai (Uzisato GAMO) by his grandmother, 'his young heart beat and he could not sleep at night with deep emotion, but the fact was that he was just a son of a townsman and there was no way to change it, so he decided to study hard to establish himself so that he could make himself deserving to have a great ancestor.'

また、ヤマト王権をめぐって主として愛好家により日本神話や記紀編年の自由な解釈に基づく「謎解き」に類する説が多く主張されているが、そのほぼ全ては史料批判を満たしていないものであり学問的価値に乏しい。
Also, many theories of the 'mystery-solving' type, based on loose interpretations of Japanese mythology and the chronologies in the 'Kojiki' (Record of Ancient Matters) and 'Nihonshoki', have been asserted by Yamato Kingdom enthusiasts, but these nearly always fail to satisfy historical scrutiny and are of limited academic value.

上総国出身で商人だった伊能忠敬（1745年 - 1818年）は隠居後に学問を本格的に開始し、江戸で幕府天文方の高橋至時（1764年 - 1804年）に師事し、測量・天体観測などについて修めていた。
Tadataka INO (1745 - 1818), a merchant from Kazusa Province, started to study in earnest after retiring from the business and studied measurement and astronomical observation in Edo under Yoshitoki TAKAHASHI (1764 - 1804) of Tenmonkata (Astronomical Institute) of the Edo Bakufu.

そういう意見が燃え盛り広がることはありませんが、真の光であれ欺きの光であれ、それは人類の諸事万端を照らすことなく、その意見が生み出された思慮深く学問好きな人々の狭いサークルでくすぶり続けるのです。
they never blaze out far and wide, but continue to smoulder in the narrow circles of thinking and studious persons among whom they originate, without ever lighting up the general affairs of mankind with either a true or a deceptive light.

しかし、当初祭政一致を掲げていた明治政府は、近代国家を目指して政教分離・信教の自由を建前に学問の自由を尊重する方向に政策転換し、明治十年代には記紀神話に対する批判など比較的自由な議論が行われていた。
Although the Meiji government insisted upon the unity of Japanese Temples, Shrines, and the state, the policy was changed to respect the freedom to study as they were pushing for the separation of religion and politics, and the freedom of religion to achieve a modern nation, during the last half of 1870s and the first half of 1880s, there were a free discussion held about criticizing the Kojiki (The Records of Ancient Matters), Nihonshoki (Chronicles of Japan) and mythology.

曾祖父源光行によって始められ、祖父源親行の代にほぼ完成した「源氏物語」の注釈書「水原抄」に加筆、また「原中最秘抄」を完成して源氏学（『源氏物語』を探求する学問）の権威として家学の隆盛に力を尽くした。
He made additional corrections to the commentary known as 'Suigen-sho Commentary' on 'The Tale of Genji,' the work that his great-grandfather MINAMOTO no Mitsuyuki had started to compile and his grandfather MINAMOTO no Chikayuki had almost completed, and he also completed 'Genchu saihisho' (Secret Notes of the Suigen-sho).

大学寮の実体が無い時代であったとは言え、文筆を業とした広橋家の出身でなおかつ後円融天皇の生母崇賢門院の義理の甥にあたることから、3歳で学問料を与えられ、5歳で文章得業生となるなど破格の扱いを受ける。
Although the Daigaku-ryo (Bureau of Education) no longer physically existed, the fact that he was from the Hirohashi family, whose profession was writing, and that he was the nephew of Emperor Goenyu's mother, Sukenmonin, meant he received special treatment such as being granted Gakumonryo (a scholarship to study at Daigaku-ryo dating from the Heian period) at the age of three and being selected as Monjo Tokugosho (Distinguished Scholars of Letters) at the age of five,

漢才、すなわち中国などから流入してきた知識・学問をそのまま日本へ移植するのではなく、あくまで基礎的教養として採り入れ、それを日本の実情に合わせて応用的に政治や生活の場面で発揮することが大和魂とされた。
Yamato-damashii was to adopt karazae -- that is, the scholarship and knowledge introduced from China and other countries -- as a basic education and apply it to politics and other aspects of life in accordance with the actual condition of Japan, instead of transplanting it as it is in the country.

その後この学問サークルはモリソン号事件とともにさらに広がりを見せ、蘭学者の長英や小関三英、幡崎鼎、幕臣の川路聖謨、羽倉簡堂、江川英龍（太郎左衛門）などが加わり、海防問題などで深く議論するようになった。
Their study circle further grew with the occurrence of the Morrison Incident, involving Dutch scholars (a person who studied Western sciences by means of the Dutch language), with Choei, Sanei KOSEKI and Kanae HATAZAKI, the shogunate retainer Toshiakira KAWAJI, Kando HAKURA and Hidetatsu EGAWA (Tarozaemon) being members, covering a range of themes to discuss in detail, even extending to issues of naval defense.

戦国の武士の気風を受け継ぎ殉死などを行なうかぶき者を公秩序維持のため徳川家綱の代に禁止し、江戸幕府が、儒教の朱子学を公の学問としたため、信・義・忠を重んじ、気高い振る舞いを行なうのが武士であるとされた。
The kabuki-mono (the crazy ones, dandy), who followed their master to the grave with the moral tone of bushi during the Sengoku period, were forbidden for the maintenance of public order during the generation of Ietsuna TOKUGAWA and the Edo bakufu authorized Shushigaku (Neo-Confucianism) of Confucianism as public scholarship and thus the bushi should emphasize the faith, justice and loyalty and behave nobly.

学問的・専門的にではなく、あくまでも一般的な理解のためという前提で補足すると、日本酒の製法という文脈に限っては、「仕込む」　=　「造る」、「仕込み」　＝　「造り」というように、ほぼ同義語として考えてよい。
As a supplement neither academic or professional, but for promoting general understanding, we can consider, limiting the context related to producing method for sake, that they are synonyms like 'shikomu' (to prepare) = 'tsukuru (to produce) and 'shikomi' (preparation)='tsukuri' (production).

ところが、ヨーロッパの書籍から直接知識を得ようとする洋学（蘭学）が出現するようになると、従来の学問（日本固有の学術及び中国伝来の学術）はこれと区別する意味で「皇漢学（こうかんがく）」と称されるようになる。
However, when form of studies referred to as western studies (Dutch studies) which sought to directly obtain knowledge through books from Europe started, the traditional way of studies (studies typical of Japan as well as studies introduced from China) had come to be referred to as 'koukangaku' to distinguish from western studies.

清代の朱子学は、理気論や心性論よりも、朱熹が晩年に力を入れていた礼学が重視され、社会的な秩序構築を具体的に担う「礼」への関心が高まり、壮大な世界観を有する学問よりは、具体的・具象的な学問へと狭まっていった。
Neo-Confucianism in the Qing Dynasty focused on Reigaku (courtesy science), which Hsi CHU concentrated in his later years, rather than the theory of Li-Ch'i and the theory of Mind, and interest in 'courtesy' increased, which was practically responsible for the establishment of public order, so that Neo-Confucianism was narrowed down from learning having a grand world view to becoming practicable and concrete.

このため、穀倉院領となった旧勧学田を大学寮に返還することは、財政政策上採るところではなかった朝廷はその代償として、穀倉院から一部学生への学問料支給を行うことで大学寮側からの不満の緩和に努めたと考えられている。
Under such circumstances, the Imperial court couldn't return the former kangakuden, which was then the territory of Kokuso-in, to Daigaku-ryo and intended to ease the dissatisfaction of Daigaku-ryo by getting Kokuso-in to grant Gakumonryo to selected students in return.

1874年（明治7年）9月9日 - 1878年（明治11年）9月8日と1879年（明治12年）2月3日 - 1881年（明治14年）7月4日に滞日し、東京開成学校および東京大学理学部で農学関係の学問を教えた。
He stayed in Japan during September 9, 1874 - September 8, 1878 and February 3, 1879 - July 4, 1881 and he taught agricultural studies at Tokyo Kaisei School and Faculty of Science, University of Tokyo.

1873年に明治政府による海外の学問や技術の国内導入制度において、内務省土木局に招かれ、ジョージ・アーノルド・エッセル（エッセルは大学でもエリート）らと共に来日した。（エッセルは1等工師でデ・レーケは4等工師）
In 1873, as a part of a project to introduce overseas learning and technologies in Japan, Johannis de Rijke, George Arnold Escher (G. A. Escher was among the university elite), and others were invited to Japan by the Meiji government. (G. A. Escher was a grade-one engineer and Johannis de Rijke was a grade-four engineer.)

桐野は禄5石という貧窮の家で育ったが故に農民同様の生活を送り、系統的な学問をせず、剣術も小示現流の伊集院鴨居門下あるいは薬丸自顕流の薬丸兼義（江夏仲左衛門とも）門下というが、多くは独力で修得し、達人の域に至った。
Because he was brought up in a poor samurai family with a stipend of only five koku and lived the same as a farmer, he could not study systematically, and although he was said to learn swordplay from Kamoi IJUIN of the Kojigenryu school or Kaneyoshi YAKUMARU (or Chuzaemon ENATSU) of the Yakumaru-jigenryu school, he learned it almost by himself and reached the level of master.

これは、律令の母国である中国において、儒教（＝明経道）のみを君子の学問として、法学を含めたその他の学術を方技として扱って学問としての価値を認めない風潮があったことに日本の律令法も影響を受けたためと考えられている。
It is because in China, the native land of ritsuryo, only Confucianism (=Myogyodo) was recognized as the study of worthy men and the other studies including law were recognized as Hogi which were regarded as less worthy and the ritsuryo legal codes in Japan were affected by such a trend.

教育の精神は単に学問を授けるばかりではない、高尚（こうしょう）な、正直な、武士的な元気を鼓吹（こすい）すると同時に、野卑（やひ）な、軽躁（けいそう）な、暴慢（ぼうまん）な悪風を掃蕩（そうとう）するにあると思います。
The spirit of education is not only in imparting technical knowledges, but also in encouraging honest, ennobling and samurai-like virtues, while eliminating the evil tendency to vulgarity and roughness.

というわけで、わたしはほかのあらゆる人物を、勝手ながら自分一人で判断させてもらった結果として、わたしがそもそも信じさせられたような性質を持った学問というのは、実はまるっきり存在していないのだと結論するしかなかった。
I was thus led to take the liberty of judging of all other men by myself, and of concluding that there was no science in existence that was of such a nature as I had previously been given to believe.

貞観年間までに文章博士2名、文章生20名（うち文章得業生2名）、擬文章生20名（文章生の予備生）という構成となり、それでも学問が成就して文章博士になれば貴族に達するために志願者数が絶えず、そのために試験制度が導入された。
Until the end of the Jogan era, the establishment was settled in two monjo hakase, 20 monjosho (including 2 monjo tokugosho) and 20 gimonjosho (the monjosho reserve); however, as people would be ranked as nobles when becoming monjo hakase with distinguished achievements in the study, the position was endlessly sought after, resulting in the introduction of an examination system.

翌9日未明、公卿たちが退廷した後、待機していた薩摩藩・芸州藩・尾張藩など5藩の軍が御所9門を固め、摂政二条斉敬をはじめ要人の御所への立ち入りを禁止した後、明治天皇臨御の下、御所内学問所において王政復古の大号令が発せられた。
Before the dawn of the next day, the court nobles left the court and the armies of five domains, such as Satsuma Domain, Geishu Domain and Owari Domain, who had been on standby, guarded the nine gates of the Imperial Palace to prohibit Nariyuki NIJO and other government officials from entering the Imperial Palace, then the Decree for the Restoration of Imperial Rule was announced at the Emperor's study room inside the Imperial Palace under the presence of the Emperor Meiji.

1872年（明治5年）、同年に公布された学制に基づき、東京の湯島聖堂内に、1871年に閉鎖された昌平坂学問所を一部引き継ぐ形で官立の師範学校が設立され、その後、大阪・仙台・名古屋・広島・長崎・新潟と各学制学区に設置された。
Based on the educational school system published in 1872, a normal school was established by the government in Yushima Seido Temple, succeeding part of Shoheizaka-Gakumonjo closed in 1871, and then they were established in each school system district such as Osaka, Sendai, Nagoya, Hiroshima, Nagasaki, and Niigata.

いま伝わるものとしては、塙保己一が紅葉山文庫本・学問所古本などをもって校訂を加え1803年（享和2年）に出版した刊本をはじめ、写本としては1304年（嘉元2年）、金沢貞顕が吉田定房の本をもって校訂した金沢文庫本系のものがある。
Documents handed down to the present include the book published in 1803 by Hokiichi HANAWA, who revised old books of Momijiyama Library, old school textbooks and so on, and manuscripts of Kanazawa Library book line written in 1304 by Sadaaki KANESAWA who revised Sadafusa YOSHIDA's books.

彼らは篤胤の八家の学問を吸収するとともに、篤胤同様に死後の世界の存在に深く関心を抱いており、夫々の弟子達がさらにその研究を敷衍し、各人が独自の解釈に於ける幽冥観の認識を持ち其々の立場から幽冥思想を展開して敷衍して行く事となる。
They not only learned classical literature and ideas ('hakka') from Atsutane but also had deep interest in the underworld like their teacher, and each of them evolved theories of mysterious things based on their own views.

また武家階級という新たな社会層も、自らの後進のために、学問を身につけるための施設、学校の整備に配慮するようになり、鎌倉時代には北条実時が金沢称名寺 (横浜市)（現、神奈川県横浜市金沢区）に金沢文庫を設置し、多くの文書を収集した。
A new stratum of society, the bushi class arms, also came to make arrangements for schools, being facilities where their juniors could learn; in the Kamakura period, Sanetoki HOJYO established the Kanazawa Library at Kanazawa Shomyo-ji Temple, (Yokohama City; present-day Kanazawa Ward, Yokohama City, Kanagawa Prefecture), and collected numerous documents.

鳥居は元々幕府の儒学（朱子学）を担う林家の出であり、蘭学者が幕府の政治に介入することを好まなかったし、加えてそもそも崋山や江川も林家（昌平坂学問所）で儒学を学んだこともあり、鳥居からすれば彼らを裏切り者と感じていたともいわれる。
Torii was originally from the Hayashi family, which traditionally served the shogunate as Confucianist (New-Confucianist) and, given that background, did not like the interference of Dutch scholars in the politics of the shogunate and, according to some interpretations, considered Kazan and Egawa as traitors of Confucianism because they had once studied Confucianism under the Hayashi family (Shoheizaka School).

おれみたような無鉄砲（むてっぽう）なものをつらまえて、生徒の模範（もはん）になれの、一校の師表（しひょう）と仰（あお）がれなくてはいかんの、学問以外に個人の徳化を及（およ）ぼさなくては教育者になれないの、と無暗に法外な注文をする。
He expected that I should make myself an example to the students, should become an object of admiration for the whole school or should exert my moral influence, besides teaching technical knowledge in order to become a real educator, or something ridiculously high-sounding.

むしろ、多少なりとも学問を学んだ者たちが行うよりも自由に自分の無知について告白し、そしてひょっとしたら、他の人たちが確実と思っている多くのことに対してなぜ疑問を抱くようになったかについて、理由を説明したりしたせいなのだろうと思う。
than those are accustomed to do who have studied a little, and expounded perhaps, the reasons that led me to doubt of many of those things that by others are esteemed certain, than from my having boasted of any system of philosophy.

このことは特に陳献章の弟子湛若水（甘泉）と王守仁とに交流があること、また王守仁と陳献章との学問的関係も絶無とされないことなどが注目され、明初期の江南地方の儒学者と、明中期以後の陽明学者との関係を意味づけるものと考えられる場合もある。
One important aspect of this is that Zhan Ruoshui (Ganquan), a disciple of Chen Xianzhang, had exchanges with Wang Shouren (Wang Yangming) and, also, that the existence of a scholarly relationship between Wang Shouren and Chen Xianzhang cannot be denied; thus, some believe that all those indicate a relationship between the Confucians in the Jian Nang area in the early Ming period and the scholars of Yomei-gaku after the middle of the Ming period.

『義公行実』など各種伝記史料によれば、水戸徳川家世子として教育を受けていた青年時代の光圀は非行も多かったが、正保2年（1645年）に『史記』「伯夷伝」を読んで伯夷・叔斉に感銘を受け、以来は反省して学問に精励し、史書編纂を志したという。
According to various biographical materials such as 'Giko kojitsu,' Mitsukuni in his youth who was educated as an heir of the Mito Tokugawa family committed some acts of delinquency, but came to regret what he had done and study hard after he read the chapter Hakuiden of 'Shiki' and was moved by Hakui and Syukusei, and then aspired to compile history.

また、建築史学者と歴史家の間に法隆寺の建設年代に関する論争（法隆寺再建・非再建論争）が起こったが、現存する建物の様式論や、六国史などの文献研究はもとより、遺構調査など考古学の発掘成果も取り入れられるようになって、学問の深化が見られた。
Historians and scholars of architectural history were in dispute about the year of construction of Horyu-ji Temple (and whether or not the temple had been rebuilt), which led to a more in-depth study of Japan's architectural history using methods such as archaeological excavation and surveying remnants of ancient structures, examining the styles of existing buildings and studying literature such as Rikkokushi (Japan's six national histories).

たとえば、江戸時代の儒学者、太宰春台は『聖学問答』で「一向宗の門徒は、弥陀一仏を信ずること専らにして他の仏神を信ぜず、いかなることありても祈祷などすることなく、病苦ありても呪術・お守りをもちいず。みなこれ親鸞氏の力なり」と書いている。
For instance, Shundai DAZAI, a Confucian scholar in the Edo period, wrote in his book 'Seigaku Mondo' (Questions and Answers on Religious Scholarship) as 'Believers of Ikko Sect (Jodo Shinshu Sect) solely believe in Amida Buddha, do not believe in any other Buddha and deities, do not conduct a prayer under any circumstances and do not use magic rituals or charms even when they are sick. All of the above are attributable to Shinran's influence.'

学問の神として広く崇敬を受けていた天神様の菅原道真としての姿を見せたこと、また三つ子を貴族に仕える舎人として配置し庶民にも政治の混乱が及ぶ様を描いたこと、そして劇的な展開を備えた本作は大きな評判を呼び、義太夫狂言の人気を大いに高めた。
This work and Gidayu Kyogen (Kabuki adaptations of puppet plays) received great popularity by showing the greatly worshipped academic god Tenjin in the form of SUGAWARA no Michizane, and having the story told from the point of view of a servant of a nobles with triplets to show the influence of political turmoil to the public, and having the theatrical like turn of events.

地蔵菩薩、将軍地蔵等と変じ、嘉祥元(848)年三月、学問行者が飯縄山を訪れ飯縄明神の尊容を拝して後、天福元(1233)年、千日太夫の開祖、荻野城主伊藤豊前守忠縄が約四百年ぶりに飯縄明神を拝し、衆生済度の為の「十三の誓願」を掲げられたという。
It turned to Jizo Bosatsu and Shogun Jizo etc. and after an academic practitioner visited Mt. Izuna and saw Izuna-myojin in April 848, in 1233, castellan of Ogino-jo Castle ITO Buzennokami Tadatsuna, the originator of Sennichi-dayu, worshipped Izuna-myojin after a 400 year blank and raised the 'Thirteen Oaths.'

蘭癖らの舶来趣味に加え、新しい学問である蘭学が一定の市民権を得ていたことを受け、日本の伝統的正月行事に把われることなく、蘭学者たちが親睦を深め、自らの学問の隆盛を願い、最新情報の交換を行う集まりとして、以後も毎年行われるようになっていった。
In addition to those Ranpeki's pursuit of foreign goods, and the fact that the new academic subject of Rangaku became widely accepted, the party was held from those time, not being tied to traditional Japanese New Year events, but as the place for the scholars to get together and exchange the latest information to increase their knowledge.

そして、毀誉褒貶の種にならず、さらにわたしが望むよりも自分の原理を先にまで進めてしまうようなこともないけれど、一方で自分が学問の領域でなにを達成できて、なにを達成できないかをじゅうぶんにはっきりと示すような材料を選ぶのは、簡単だろうと思えた。
And I thought that it was easy for me to select some matters which should neither be obnoxious to much controversy, nor should compel me to expound more of my principles than I desired, and which should yet be sufficient clearly to exhibit what I can or cannot accomplish in the sciences.

なお、徳富蘇峰の『近世日本国民史』以来、天皇が幕府の圧力によって退位したとする説があるが、実際には退位後においても積極的に政治や学問の振興策を主導しており、むしろ幕府からの干渉を避けるために院政による政治運営を行う狙いがあったと考えられている。
There is a theory that the Emperor abdicated under pressure from the government after the publication of 'Modern Japanese History,' by Soho TOKUTOMI; however, it is considered that after his abdication, he aimed to focus on ruling the cloister government without pressure from the government, doing so by actively promoting political and academic programs.

館内には、末川博士の社会的・学問的業績、遺品などを展示する「メモリアルルーム」のほか、京都地方裁判所で1928年から15年にわたって実際に使われていた陪審法廷が「松本記念ホール陪審法廷」として移築され、1999年4月より無料で一般に公開されている。
Within the hall, in addition to the 'Memorial hall' where Doctor SUEKAWA's belongings as well as his social or academic accomplishments are exhibited, a jury court that was in fact used in Kyoto District Court for 15 years from 1928 was moved and reconstructed as 'The MATSUMOTO memorial hall, a jury court' and is open to the public free of charge.

現在の学問的水準からみれば問題の多い江戸時代の治定作業ではあるが、それらは決していい加減なものではなく、天皇陵について記載された文献資料を集め、それと地名や土地の伝承などを照らし合わせることで行われており、当時としてはかなりの高水準のものであった。
Judged by current academic standards, the identifications of mausoleums during the Edo period had various problems, but these identifications were never made based on arbitrary standards; various documents regarding imperial mausoleums were collected and compared against place names and local traditions in order to identify mausoleums and relatively high levels of research was conducted by the standards at the time.

この時、学生として倭漢直福因（やまとのあやのあたいふくいん）・奈羅訳語恵明（ならのおさえみょう）高向玄理（たかむくのあやひとくろまろ）・新漢人大圀（いまきのあやひとだいこく）・学問僧として新漢人日文（にちもん、後の僧旻）・南淵請安ら8人、隋へ留学する。
Eight people went to Sui for study, including students such as YAMATOAYA no Ataifukuin, NARA no Osaemyo, TAKAMUKU no Ayahitokuromaro, IMAKI no Ayahitodaikoku and priests-in-training such as IMAKI no Ayahito Nichimon (who later became Somin) and MINABUCHI no Shoan.

5世紀から6世紀頃、陰陽五行説が仏教や儒教とともに日本に伝わったとき、陰陽五行説と密接な関係をもつ天文、暦数、時刻、易経といった自然の観察に関わる学問、占術とあわさって、自然界の瑞祥・災厄を判断し、人間界の吉凶を占う技術として日本社会に受け入れられた。
When the Ommyo-gogyo-setsu theory was introduced to Japan together with Buddhism and Confucianism during the 5th and 6th centuries, it combined the studies and art of divination that involve the observations of Nature, including astronomy, Rekisu (a study to establish a calendar by calculating the solar and lunar movements), time science, Iching (Book of Changes), and became adopted in Japanese society as fortune telling techniques that could serve human needs based on the auspicious and inauspicious signs identified in Nature.

このように現在の源氏物語の本文研究の学問的水準から考えると問題も多く、批判されることもしばしばある校本ではあるが、歴史上初めて完成した学術的な源氏物語の校本でありながら、21世紀に入っても通常の研究に利用しうる源氏物語の校本としては最も整ったものである。
As mentioned above, there are many problems from the view of an academic level of the present text study of The Tale of Genji, and the variorum is often criticized, but it was the best organized variorum among those of The Tale of Genji which can be used for the regular study even in the 21st century, although it was the earliest academic variorum of The Tale of Genji in history.

神職として奉仕するばかりでなく神道学の学者として学問にも貢献、白山比咩神社時代に『白山比咩神社叢書』全7冊の編纂、函館八幡宮時代に『函館戦争資料』、弥彦神社時代に『弥彦叢書』第一輯、八坂神社につとめて間もなく『八坂神社記録』『八坂神社文書』など刊行した。
He served as a Shinto priest and also contributed to learning as a scholar of Shinto studies, he published 'Shirayamahime-jinja Shrine Sosho,' compilation of seven volumes, when he served at Shirayamahime-jinja Shrine, published 'Battle of Hakodate Records' when he served at Hakodate Hachiman-gu Shrine, published the first collection of 'Yahiko Sosho,' when he served at Yahiko-jinja Shrine, and published 'Yasaka-jinja Shrine Records' and 'Yasaka-jinja Document' right after he started to serve in Yasaka-jinja Shrine.

日本美術史（にほんびじゅつし）とは、日本の美術の流れ、様式の変遷、各時代の代表的な作品や作家の研究、相互の影響関係、作品や作家を生んだ時代背景（政治、経済、信仰、風俗、社会、文学などとの関連）などについて述べたもの、またはそうした分野を研究する学問のこと。
'Nihon bijutsu-shi' refers to the chronological explanation - or the academic field - of Japanese art history, such as the trend of Japanese art, the transition of its style, the research of the representative works and artists in each period, their mutual influence, and the historical background of the works and artists - that is, the works' and artists' relation with Japanese politics, economy, religion, customs, society, literature and others.

また、鑑真和上が将来した小乗戒を授ける戒壇院を独占する奈良仏教に対して、大乗戒壇を設立し、大乗戒を受戒した者を天台宗の僧侶と認め、菩薩僧として12年間比叡山に籠山して学問・修行を修めるという革新的な最澄の構想は、既得権益となっていた奈良仏教と対立を深めた。
His innovative initiatives to establish Daijo kaidan, recognize monks who received Daijokai (the commandment of Mahayana Buddhism) as Tendai Sect monks and train them as Bosatsuso (priests of Mahayana Buddhism) by containing them in Mt. Hiei for 12 years deepened the confrontation between Nara Buddhism, which monopolized, due to vested interests, and Kaidan-in which were authorized to grant Shojokai (commandments of Theravada Buddhism) brought by Ganjin Wajo.

『今昔物語集』巻24第22及び『宇治拾遺物語』185話に登場する高階俊平入道の弟が算道で人の生死を操って、人々から「おそろしき算の道」と恐れられたとされる話は最早、算術・数学が科学どころか学問ではなく、呪術として人々に怖れ嫌悪されていった実情を示していた。
In 'Konjaku Monogatari (Shu)' (The Tale of Times Now Past) Volume 24, Chapter 22 and 'Uji Shui Monogatari' (a collection of the Tales from Uji) Episode 185, a younger brother of Nyudo Toshihira TAKASHINA controlled human life and death with Sando, and people feared it, calling it 'terrible Sando,' which mirrored the actual condition that arithmetic and mathematics were no longer considered learning, much less science, and were feared and detested as magic (spells).

どうか私と同じ志（仏教への信仰）をもってここに来た人達には、（様々な考え方の）空か有か（といった瑣末な事）を論じて（志を）滞らせることなく、自分の欲望を忘れて（学問や修行に励み）、後進の人達には世俗の苦労などを超越して悟りの境地を開いて欲しいと願うものである。
I sincerely wish that those who come here with the same aspirations (faith in Buddhism) will abandon one's own desires (focus on learning and training) without wasting themselves on trivial matters of various thoughts, and those who are to follow will transcend worldly matters and open the path toward revelation.

わたしはといえば、わたしが学問において何らかの真理を発見しおおせたとするなら（そしてこの文に含まれている内容で、多少の真理が発見できたことは示せていると信じるが）、それはわたしが原理的な困難5つか6つを克服しおおせたことの帰結にして結果にすぎないと断言できる。
As for myself, if I have succeeded in discovering any truths in the sciences (and I trust that what is contained in this volume 1 will show that I have found some), I can declare that they are but the consequences and results of five or six principal difficulties which I have surmounted,

例えば、食べ物、飲み物、着る物、靴、家、庭、土地、家畜、金銭、所有物、献身的な配偶者、ff献身的な子供たち、献身的な雇い人、献身的で信仰深い施政者、よい政府、よい天気、平和、健康、学問、名誉、よい友人、信仰深い隣人、そしてこれに類する他の全てのもののことです。
such as: Food, drink, clothing, shoes, house, yard, fields, cattle, money, possessions, a devout spouse, devout children, devout employees, devout and faithful rulers, good government, good weather, peace, health, discipline, honor, good friends, faithful neighbors and other things like these.

ぼくの憶測だけれど、学問の世界とハッカー文化が同じ適応パターンを示すのは、それが出自の点で親戚だからではなく、物理法則と人間の本能の仕組みを千手としたときに、それぞれ自分たちがやろうとしていたことを実現するための、唯一最適な社会組織を発達させたんじゃないだろうか。
I suspect academia and the hacker culture share adaptive patterns not because they're genetically related, but because they've both evolved the one most optimal social organization for what they're trying to do, given the laws of nature and the instinctive wiring of human beings.

朱子学では「理」（万物の法則であり、根拠、規範。「然る所以の故であり、且つ当に然るべき則」）はあらゆるものにあるとし（「一木一草みな理あり」）、そうした理について読書など学問することにより理解を深めた後に「性」（個々に内在する理、五常五倫）へと至ることができるとした。
In Shushigaku, it is considered that 'ri (理)' (the law of everything, basis or standard for all things, 'it exists because it should be, and thus this is the law that should be so') exists in everything ('there is ri in each tree and each blade of grass'), and that people can reach 'sei (性)' (the 'ri' existing in each individual, the five constant relations and the five cardinal virtues of Confucianism) when they deeply understand 'ri' through study including reading about it.

『日本後紀』にある広世の父・和気清麻呂の薨条（延暦18年2月乙未（21日）条）に、広世が式部少輔と大学別当（大学頭）を兼務し、父・清麻呂の遺志を継いで大学寮の南側にあった私邸を弘文院として内外の経書数千巻を集め、また墾田40町を寄付して学問料を支給したと記されている。
The entry for the date when Hiroyo's father WAKE no Kiyomaro died (April 4, 799) in 'Nihon Koki' (Later Chronicle of Japan) contains the description that -- Hiroyo concurrently assumed the offices of Shikibu shoyu (Junior Assistant of the Ministry of Ceremonies) and Daigaku Betto (Chancellor of the University) (Daigaku no kami; Director of the Bureau of Education), and, as his father Kiyomaro had wished, located his private residence south of the daigaku-ryo the Kobunin where he collected thousands of Chinese classics from inside and outside Japan, and donated 0.4 square kilometers of new rice fields for awarding scholarship funds.

具体的には王心斎は、『孝経』と四書を重視したが、経書の注釈に拘らない自得の学問を説き、独特な「淮南格物」を主張したこと、古代を理想とする尚古思想をもっていたことがその思想的特徴といえるが、なによりも重要なのは、知識人層以外の階層に陽明学を広めることを己が責務としたことである。
Specifically, Wang Xinzhai put emphasis on the 'Classic of Filial Piety', or 'Xiao Jing', and The Four Books but, ideologically, was characterized by preaching the teachings that he had learned himself without being obsessive about commentaries on the Classics, advocating his original idea of 'Junnan kakubutsu,' and maintaining a primitivism whereby he made the ancient times his ideal, but above all he made it his duty to propagate Yomeigaku outside of the intellectual classes.

明治維新では昌平坂学問所は新政府に接収され、併設された開成所（天文方の流れを組む）、医学所（種痘所の流れを組む）も共に1869年（明治2年）昌平学校、開成学校、医学校として再開し、同年大学本校、南校、東校となり、のち合わせて大学校となるが、1870年（明治3年）の学制改正で休校。
Due to the Meiji Restoration, Shoheizaka Gakumonjo was condemned by the new government; Gakumonjo included Kaiseijo (which had a channel of tenmonkata (an astronomer appointed by bakufu)) and Igakusho (which had a channel of shutosho (vaccination institute)); they were reopened as a Shohei school, Kaisei school and medical school in 1869; these three became Daigaku Honko, Nanko and Higashiko in the same year and were later combined to be Daigakko, which was ultimately closed due to the revision of the school system in 1870.

京都市内の繁華街からはなれた古都の風情を残す落ち着いた環境の中にあり、何よりも静かな環境の中で学問に集中することができ、何事も学生の自主性に任せるという「自由の学風」を標榜しており、毎年行われる11月祭や折田先生像をめぐる落書き、卒業式での仮装などにもその一端を垣間見ることができる。
Far from the downtown of Kyoto City, Kyoto University is in the calm surroundings that still retain some traces of the historic city, so students and teaching staff can concentrate on the studies in such calmness, and the university's motto 'academic freedom', implying everything related to students' affairs should be left to their autonomy, can be seen in, for example, the annual November Festival, the graffiti on the statue of Prof. Orita, and the students' disguise in the graduation ceremony.

しかし、前述の菅原氏や大江氏など優秀な学者を代々輩出した一族や給料学生以外の学生でも勧学院より同じような学問料が支給された藤原氏（主として藤原北家日野流・藤原南家・藤原式家）などによる文章博士や文章生の世襲や文章博士による門人の推挙による一種の学閥化の風潮が次第に見られるようになった。
However, there came the trend of forming kinds of academic cliques as the families which produced excellent scholars, such as the above mentioned Sugawara clan as well as the Oe clan and families like the Fujiwara clan (mainly Hino Line of the Northern House of the Fujiwara clan, the Southern House of the Fujiwara clan and the Ceremonial House of the Fujiwara clan), which were able to receive similar education at Kangakuin (educational institutions) despite their not being kyuryo gakusei, started to pass down monjo hakase and monjosho and monjo hakase began recommending their followers to the positions.

学問の歴史にもっとも普通の知識を持ち合わせているひとはだれもが知っていることですが、もっとも気高くまた価値のある道徳的教えの大部分が、キリスト教の信仰を知らない人だけでなく、それを知ってはいたが拒絶した人たちの仕事であったという事実を、無視することは、真理になんの貢献もなしえないのです。
It can do truth no service to blink the fact, known to all who have the most ordinary acquaintance with literary history, that a large portion of the noblest and most valuable moral teaching has been the work, not only of men who did not know, but of men who knew and rejected, the Christian faith.38

平安時代初期の刀剣の遺品は乏しく、作風の変遷や、いつごろどのようにして日本独自の湾刀が形成されたかについては、学問的に十分解明されていないが、承平天慶の乱などが発生した平安時代中期以降（10世紀ころ）従来の直刀に代わって騎乗時に扱い易い刀身に反りのある蕨手刀（彎曲刀）が使用されるようになった。
Although relics of swords from the early Heian period are scarce, and the transition of styles or how and when Japanese original curved swords were formed are not fully figured out academically, after the mid Heian period (around the 10th century), when the turmoil of Johei and Tengyo occurred, Warabiteno Katana (curved sword) which was easy to use when riding with its warped body of blade was used instead of conventional straight swords.

朱熹は、それまでばらばらで矛盾を含んでいた北宋の学説を、程頤による性即理説（性(人間の持って生まれた本性)がすなわち理であるとする）や程顥の天理（天が理である）をもとに、仏教思想の論理体系性、道教の生成論および静坐という行法を取り込みつつも、それを代替する儒教独自の理論にもとづく壮大な学問体系に仕立て上げた。
Hsi CHU organized various and contradictory theories in Northern Sung Dynasty into a great learning system which replaced these previous theories, and was based on a theory unique to Confucianism, by being based on the Seisokuri setsu (Chinese philosophy, a theory that 'sei' [human inborn nature] is 'Li' [the law of moral act]) advanced by Yi CHENG, and the Tenri (a theory that 'ten' [providence] is 'Li' [the law of moral act]) advanced by Hao CHENG, while adapting the logical system of Buddhistic thought, the generative theory of Taoism, and gyoho (method of ascetic practices) of sitting calmly and quietly.

例えば、波多野秀治の件は現在では城内の内紛による落城と考えられており、光秀の母を人質とする必要性は考えられないとされている）、織田信長・豊臣秀吉を英雄とした明治以来の政治動向に配慮し、学問的な論理展開を放棄してきたことが挙げられる（ただし、ルイス・フロイスの記述など、明らかに同時代の資料も存在しない訳ではない）。
for example, the incident with Hideharu HATANO is now considered to have been a surrender due to internal strife, which does not require Mituhide's mother for a hostage), and academic rationality was put aside in favor of government policy starting in the Meiji Period, when Nobunaga ODA and Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI were honored as heroes (although there are some materials from, such as Luis Frois's writings).

松平定信が随筆『閑なるあまり』で、足利義政の茶の湯、大内義隆の学問とともに今川氏真の和歌を挙げて戒めている様に、江戸時代中期以降に書かれた文献の中では、和歌や蹴鞠といった「文弱」な娯楽に溺れ国を滅ぼした暗君として描かれていることが多く、このイメージは今日の歴史小説や歴史ドラマにおいてしばしば踏襲されている人物像である。
Just as Sadanobu MATSUDAIRA admonishes in 'Shizukanaru Amari,' which he authored, by citing Ujizane IMAGAWA's waka poems along with the tea ceremony of Yoshimasa ASHIKAGA and the learning of Yoshitaka OUCHI, in the documents written after the mid-Edo Period Ujizane is often described as an inept lord who destroyed his province by spending too much time in 'weak culture' such as waka poetry and kemari, and this image often persists in portraying his character in today's historical novels and period dramas.

この法律による規制及び規制のための調査は、第一条に規定する目的を達成するために必要な最小限度においてのみ行うべきであつて、いやしくも権限を逸脱して、思想、信教、集会、結社、表現及び学問の自由並びに勤労者の団結し、及び団体行動をする権利その他日本国憲法の保障する国民の自由と権利を、不当に制限するようなことがあつてはならない。
The control and investigations for control under this Act shall be conducted only to the minimum extent necessary to achieve the purpose prescribed in Article 1, and shall not under any circumstances whatsoever be carried out, in deviation from the prescribed authority, to unlawfully infringe freedom of thought, freedom of religion, freedom of assembly and association, freedom of expression, academic freedom, the right of workers to organize and act collectively, or any other liberty or right of the people which is guaranteed by the Constitution of Japan.

そのほか、学問と政治のむすびつきを論じた嘉永5年（1852年）執筆の「学校問答書」、マシュー・ペリーやエフィム・プチャーチンへの対応についての意見書である嘉永6年（1853年）執筆の「夷虜応接大意」、元治元年（1864年）の井上毅との対話の記録「沼山対話」、慶応元年（1865年）の元田永孚との対話の記録「沼山閑話」などがある。
There are more written materials such as 'Gakko Mondo Sho' written in 1852 discussing about the relationship between academia and politics, 'Iryo Osetsu Taii', an opinion about Matthew (Calbraith) PERRY and Evfimiy Vasil' evich Putyatin, in 1853, 'Shozan Taiwa', the record of dialogue with Kowashi INOUE, in 1864 and 'Shozan Kanwa', the record of dialogue with Nagazane MOTODA, in 1865.

延喜・天暦以来、儒教が仏教に圧倒されて儒教が禅僧の学問と化したこと、藤原惺窩が日本における宋学の端緒を付けたこと、その後伊藤仁斎・伊藤東涯父子や山崎闇斎・中江藤樹・荻生徂徠らが、名利をもって陽明学や古文辞学などの異説を掲げて朱子学の排撃を試みたこと、だが朱子学こそが名利を捨てて学問として成就された正統な儒学であることを論じている。
He writes that Confucianism had been overwhelmed by Buddhism since the Engi and Tenryaku Period and it changed into the learning of Zen monks, that Seika FUJIWARA began the serious study of Shushigaku, and that later Jinsai ITO and his son Togai ITO, Ansai YAMAZAKI, Toju NAKAE, and Sorai OGYU tried to criticize Shushigaku for meiri (fame and profit), insisting on different theories from Shushigaku such as Yomeigaku (Neo-Confucianism based on teaching of WANG Yangming) and Kobunjigaku (study of ancient rhetoric school), and finally he stresses that Shushigaku is the right and completed Confucianism from which meiri was eliminated.

また朱子学（旧来の思想に対抗して生れたように考えられた）、特に陽明学（後に説明されるように、これは明朝が正式に認めた学問であった朱子学に対抗して生まれ出たように見えた）は、敗戦後の日本に於ける近代思惟・反権力・人間解放などの概念と容易に結びつき、朱子学及び陽明学の中、比較的それらの概念に近似する部分を抜き取り、そこに思想的価値を与えるという試みが盛んに行われた。
Shushigaku (considered to have arisen in opposition to traditional thinking), and especially Yomei-gaku (as described later, considered to have arisen in opposition to Shushigaku, which was officially authorized by the Ming Court), were easily linked in a defeated Japan to concepts such as modern thinking, antiauthoritarianism and human emancipation; as a result, most scholars have frequently attempted to extract from Shushigaku and Yomei-gaku the elements that are relatively close to these concepts and attempt to attach an ideological value to them.

一方、100石から200石程度の小禄の旗本は、小十人の番士、納戸、勘定、代官、広敷、祐筆、同朋頭、甲府勤番支配頭、火之番組頭、学問所勤番組頭、徒（徒士）目付の組頭、数寄屋頭、賄頭、蔵奉行、金奉行、林奉行、普請方下奉行、畳奉行、材木石奉行、具足奉行、弓矢槍奉行、吹上奉行、膳奉行、書物奉行、鉄砲玉薬奉行、寺社奉行吟味物調役、勘定吟味改役、川船改役をはじめとする諸役職についた。
On the other hand, the governmental posts assumed by the Hatamoto with a small salary of around 100 koku to 200 koku included the following: a member of Kojunin-ban (Kojunin group), Nando, Kanjo, daikan (local governor), hiroshiki (inner apartment supply officer for Edo-jo Castle), Yuhitsu, Doho-gashira, Kofukinban-shihaigashira, Hinoban-kumigashira, Gakumonshokinban-kumigashira, Kumigashira of Kachi-metsuke, Sukiya-gashira, makanai-gashira (chief of cooks), Kura-bugyo, Kane-bugyo, Hayashi-bugyo, Fushinkata-shitabugyo, Tatami-bugyo, Zaimokuishi-bugyo, Gusoku-bugyo, Yumiyayari-bugyo, Fukiage-bugyo, Zen-bugyo, Shomotsu-bugyo, Teppodamayaku-bugyo, Jisha-bugyo-ginmimonoshirabeyaku, Kanjo-Ginmi-aratame yaku (inspector of the documents inspected by assistant minister of treasury) and Kawabune-aratameyaku.

つまり、門閥、閨閥政治や中華思想また小中華思想など民族（人種）差別、日本蔑視思想で、「平等」の精神に真っ向から反する思想、親子（姑、嫁）が血みどろの権力闘争を繰り広げ、そのために事大主義に走り独立心がなく外交の一貫性がないこと、と福澤諭吉らから見れば、そう見える朝鮮王朝政府に対し、「天は人の上に人をつくらず...」（『学問のすゝめ』)とする思想を重んじる立場から「脱亜論」に至ったのだ、という解釈がある。
For Fukuzawa, the government of the Korean Dynasties appeared to be totally against 'Equality' by discrimination by putting too much value on lineage and Keibatsu blood connection, Sinocentrism or petit Sinocentrism and disrespect for Japan as well as families repeating bloody strife over authority, no intention to be independent with their Sadaejuui policy and no consistency in their diplomacy; these things led him to write 'Datsu-A Ron' with his standpoint of 'ten wa hito no ue ni hito o tsukurazu...' (The heavens do not create Man above his station...) ('Gakumon no Susume' [An Encouragement of Learning]).

入門当初から鐡胤は薄々感じ取っていたが、父篤胤の幽冥・死後の世界の研究は、失われて埋没され、そして封印された古代信仰の雛形を元の姿に復元させる為の学問であり、其の為に古道の道に足を踏み入れて幽冥の存在を立証しようと試みていた事も知悉していたが、文政3年頃に知友屋代弘賢を通じ下谷長者町の博学の好事家山崎美成を介在して、後に父のもとを訪ねてきた異境を往来すると言う仙童寅吉の姿形を目の当たりに見て、父篤胤が唱える幽冥界の実在をしかと確認し、以後は自らも寸暇を惜しみ、不可解な奇譚の情報やその他の幽冥関連の資料類の蒐集に没頭する事になる。
Since entering the school, Kanetane knew that his teacher Atsutane studied mysterious things and the underworld to restore the ancient belief which had been lost or sealed up, besides Kanetane understood that Atsutane tried to prove the existence of mysterious things by Kodo; about 1820, by Yoshinari YAMAZAKI, a learned amateur living in Shitayachoja-machi and an acquaintance of Kanetane's friend Hirokata YASHIRO, Kanetane was introduced to Sendo Torakichi, who could come and go freely to the underworld, then Kanetane became convinced of the existence of the underworld, and began to put in serious efforts to collect information of mysterious stories and materials of such things.

政府は曩に一の帝国大学を京都に新設し、天下学問の中心を東西二都に置くの制を採れり、蓋し東西二大学の競争をして学問進歩の動機たらしめんとするに在るべし、而して東京には帝国大学の外各種の官私学校ありて各般学生の志望に充つることを得、青年の志を立つる者此に集合し自ら既に天下学問の中心たり、然るに京都に在りては帝国大学新たに設置せられ関西の学術大に振るわんとし青年の志を有して京都に集まり来るもの頗る多きも、大学の門戸は未だ高等学校卒業生以外の志望者を迎ふるに至らず、大学以外に在りて高等の学術を修めんとするも其機関あることなし、是れ頗る恨事なり、爰に於てか有志の者相図り京都法政学校を新設し、講義を京都帝国大学教授及其他博学知名の諸氏に嘱託し、政治法律経済に関する高等の学術を広く社会に紹介するの一機関たらしめんとす、是れ蓋し、一は政府か学問の中心を東西の二都に置かんとするの趣意に賛同の意を表し、又一は帝国大学か広く門戸を開放して高等学校卒業生以外の志望者を迎ふる能はさるの欠点を補はんとするの微意に出つるものなり　（「立命館大学沿革略」『立命館学報』二　一九一五・大正4年3月）
The government established one campus of Teikoku (Imperial) University in Kyoto. It had been decided that there would be two universities (in the east and west, respectively) as the center of the best education, and that the two universities would compete with each other as motivation for progress in education; and in Tokyo, several public and private schools as well as Teikoku （Imperial) University already began accepting various applicants; thus the students who had youthful resolution gathered, which is the center of education. However, there were many good, enthusiastic young students gathered at Teikoku (Imperial) University, which was newly established in Kyoto, but the university couldn't accept the applicants who had not graduated from high school, so there was no school to study high education without status as a university, which was the problem of greatest concern, so volunteers who were of the same mind gathered and established the Kyoto Hosei School, entrusting the lectures to the professors of Kyoto Imperial University and other well-known teachers; thus the institution could provide higher education in politics, law and economics to society. Certainly, a reason for that was to demonstrate the government's approval concerning the establishment of education in two places (east and west), and another reason was to make up for the flaw in the educational system whereby Teikoku (Imperial) University was not widely open to applicants who had not graduated from high school ('A Brief History of Ritsumeikan University,' 'Ritsumeikan Gakuho,' March 1915).