以前: 1000 Terms and Phrases

• 以前
• ago
• since
• before
• previous
• former
• previously
• formerly
• already
• ex

• 中世以前
• In the medieval period or before

• 即位以前
• Before Enthronement

• 称徳以前
• Before the era of Emperor Shotoku:

• 華道以前
• Background of Kado

• 以前の報告
• previous report

• 種子島以前
• Before the introduction into Tanegashima Island

• 陽明学以前
• Before Yomei-gaku

• 院政期以前
• Pre-insei period (the period of the government by a Retired Emperor)

• 40代以前
• Before the age of 40

• 以前の研究
• previous study

• 町村制以前
• Before the town and village system

• 平安期以前
• Prior to the Heian period

• 燻乾法以前
• Before the age of the smoke seasoning method

• 明治時代以前
• Before the Meiji Period

• 相論発生以前
• Before the soron

• 将軍就任以前
• The period prior to Iesada's inauguration to Shogun

• 足利義満以前
• Before Yoshimitsu ASHIKAGA

• 平安時代以前
• Before the Heian period
• In and Before the Heian Period
• Prior to the Heian Period
• The Heian Period and Earlier Times

• カラオケ以前
• Before karaoke

• 江戸時代以前
• Before the Edo period
• Before and in the Edo period

• 織田家仕官以前
• Before Serving the ODAs

• 第二次大戦以前
• Before the World War II

• 日本軍成立以前
• Before the establishment of the Japanese army

• 1880年以前
• In 1880 and before

• 公伝以前の状況
• The situation before the official introduction

• 徳川氏以前の江戸
• Edo prior to the arrival of the Tokugawa clan

• カロリング朝以前
• Before Carolingians

• 関ヶ原の戦い以前
• Before the Battle of Sekigahara

• 『解体新書』以前
• Before 'Kaitai Shinsho' (New Book of Anatomy)

• 江戸時代以前の小判
• Koban before the Edo period

• 中世以前の主従関係
• The relationship between master and vassal until the medieval period

• 江戸時代以前の貨幣
• Currencies before the Edo Period

• 千利休以前の緒流派
• Schools Which Started Before SEN no Rikyu

• （以前から第4師団）
• (Formerly, the fourth division stationed there.)

• 律令制（大宝律令）以前
• Before the ritsuryo system (Taiho Code)

• 江戸時代以前のお家騒動
• Oie-sodo cases before Edo Period

• 近代以前の南北朝正閏論
• Nanbokucho-Seijun-ron before the modern era

• 唐手佐久川の以前と以後
• Prior to and after Toudee SAKUKAWA

• それ以前のもの（古系図）
• The genealogy before (old genealogy)

• 廃藩置県以前に廃止された藩
• Han (Domains) abolished before Haihan-chiken

• このことは以前にも記した。
• This is mentioned above.

• 廃藩置県以前に設置された府県
• Prefectures established before Haihan-chiken.

• 鎌倉幕府開設以前からの古社。
• It was an old shrine founded before the establishment of the Kamakura bakufu.

• 近代以前の日本における教科書
• School Textbooks in Japan Prior to the Modern Times

• 詳しくは以前の記事を見てね。
• Please see previous news reports for details.

• 明治時代から第二次世界大戦以前
• From the Meiji period to a period before the World War Ⅱ

• 廃藩置県以前に移転・改称した藩
• Han (Domains) relocated or renamed before Haihan-chiken

• それ以前は、新見左近と称する。
• Before that, he was known as Sakon SHINMI.

• 雰囲気が以前と全然違いました。
• The atmosphere was totally different from before.

• しかし、慶応元年七月以前に離隊。
• He, however, left the Shinsengumi before August 1865.

• 中世以前によく行われたとされる。
• Tradition has it that this idea had been widely accepted since before the middle ages.

• 室町中期以前は、太刀が主である。
• They were mainly Tachi (long swords) before the mid Muromachi era.

• 建保四年（1216）以前の成立。
• It was compiled before 1216.

• 建長寺創建以前に蘭渓道隆が住した。
• Rankei Doryu had lived here before Kencho-ji Temple was founded.

• 斎藤道三以前の美濃国斎藤氏の一族。
• His family was descended from the Saito clan of Mino Province, which was headed by Dosan SAITO at the time he was born.

• 歌舞伎以前（林屋辰三郎、1954）
• Before Kabuki (Tatsusaburo HAYASHI, 1954)

• のち病死。（3月以前に戦死とも）。
• Later he died of a disease (he is also said to have died in battle before March 1481).

• これ以前に死去したものと思われる。
• It is assumed that he died before the establishment of the new government.

• 704年1月14日 (旧暦)以前。
• Before January 14, 704

• それ以前は、愛宕郡上賀茂村であった。
• Before that it was Kamigamo Village, Atago County.

• それ以前は、羽柴筑前宰相と称される。
• Until then, he had been called Hashiba Chikuzen Saisho (prime minister).

• 鎌倉移住以前は椙谷上杉家ともいった。
• They were also called the Sugitani-Uesugi family before they moved to Kamakura.

• ただ近江八幡時代以前の記録は少ない。
• However, there are few records of his times in Omihachiman and before.

• 日本では大宝令以前から用いられてきた。
• It has been used since before the Taiho Code in Japan.

• 紫衣を許される住職は以前は少なかった。
• Only a small number of chief priests were allowed to wear the purple robe before.

• これ以前に来日した明極楚俊・竺仙梵僊。
• Minki Soshuns, Jikusen Bonsens, and so on had visited Japan previously.

• これ以前の広成の経歴は知られていない。
• Hironari's previous career is unknown.

• それ以前はみどりの日（1989年より）
• From 1989 to 2006, April 29 was set as Midori no Hi (Greenery Day).

• それ以前は1月15日（1948年より）
• From 1948 to 1999, Seijin no Hi was set on January 15.

• それ以前は9月15日（1966年より）
• From 1966 to 2002, Keiro no Hi was set on September 15.

• それ以前は7月20日（1995年より）
• From 1995 to 2002, Umi no Hi was set on July 20.

• 以上はいずれも近世以前からの由緒を持つ。
• These are all historical town names that have continued since pre-modern times.

• 時政以前の系譜は系図によりすべて異なる。
• The lineage of the HOJO clan before Tokimasa varies considerably, depending on the genealogical table.

• 国家による弾圧以前にも問題を抱えていた。
• Therefore, they had enough problems of their own even before pressure from the government to re-organize.

• 江戸時代以前に目黒・目白が存在している。
• Meguro and Mejiro existed prior to the Edo Priod.

• 火災以前の写真は1面分が残るのみである。
• A photograph taken prior to the fire showed only one of the murals.

• それ以前は10月10日（1966年より）
• From 1966 to 1999, Taiiku no Hi was set on October 10.

• それ以前には5枚しか発掘されていなかった。
• Before that only five coins were discovered.

• 安土城之図 - 天正9年（1581年）以前
• Azuchi-jo no zu (a folding screen with a painting of Azuchi-jo Castle) (painted before 1581)

• これ以前の2月に閣議で台湾征討が決定した。
• Before that, the conquest of Taiwan has been decided in a Cabinet meeting in February.

• 定型が完成する以前の和歌を上代歌謡という。
• Before the fixed form of Waka was established, it had been called Jodai Kayo.

• だが、現在では以前に比べ少なくなっている。
• However, such cases have declined in number today.

• 江戸時代以前は「両」を基本の単位としていた。
• Ryo' was the basic unit of mass in and before the Edo period.

• ※日付＝旧暦（明治5年12月2日以前を適用）
• * Lunar calendar used for the dates on and before December 2, 1872.

• 漏洩が関係したのか、同年六月以前に脱走した。
• He ran away from the Shinsengumi some time before July 1867, and the reason might be related to this secret leak.

• これにより以前に法官で勤務したことがわかる。
• This shows that he had worked as Norinotsukasa before.

• 江戸時代以前は上方と江戸では色が違っていた。
• During and before the Edo period, the color of used tokkuri was different in Kamigata (Kansai District) and Edo.

• 関ヶ原の戦い以前から徳川家に仕えていた譜代大名
• Fudai daimyo, who had been serving the Tokugawa clan before the Battle of Sekigahara.

• 縄文時代以前 瀬田川西岸に石山貝塚が築かれる。
• Before the Jomon period, Ishiyama Shell-Mound was made on the west bank of the Seta-gawa River.

• 一家…連枝の次男以下と蓮如以前に分かれた一族。
• Ikke: The second and younger sons of renshi and the families branched before Rennyo.

• 和同開珎以前に別の銭貨が造られた可能性がある。
• Before Wado-kaichin coins, other currencies might have possibly been cast for use.

• 近代以前は港に設置され灯台としても使用された。
• In pre-modern times, toro was placed at a harbor to be used as a beacon.

• 「それ以前にそなたとは何の因果もないはずだ。」
• First of all, it is none of your business.'

• 数え年の計算例（新暦導入以前に亡くなった人物）
• The example of the calculation method of the age based on the traditional Japanese system (people who died before the new calendar was introduced)

• さらにそれ以前は天皇誕生日（1948年より））
• Before 1989 (from 1948 to 1988) it was known as Tenno Tanjo Bi (The Emperor's Birthday)

• 平安時代以前から木材の供給地として開かれていた。
• This area was already developed in the pre-Heian period as an area for supplying wood.

• 奈良時代以前（律令制日本の律令制下）から続いた。
• The history of Sechi-e dates back to the time before the Nara period (the time when Japan was under the Ritsuryo system).

• それ以前に伊勢国や大和国で私札の発行が見られた。
• Before han bills were issued, private bills were issued in Ise Province and Yamato Province.

• 成立は14世紀半ば、延文元年（1356年）以前。
• It was completed in the mid-14th century, before 1356.

• 通常日本刀の分類に入らない、古刀以前の刀をさす。
• This indicates swords older than Koto (Old Swords), which are not normally categorized into Japanese swords.

• なお、遊女の呼称が一般的だったのは中世以前である。
• Moreover, it was before the Medieval period when the naming of yujo was common.

• だが、僧尼令制定以前から私寺は建立され続けていた。
• However, private temples had been erected before the establishment of Soni ryo.

• 群は大宝令（701年大宝元年）以前は評と呼ばれた。
• Before Taiho-ryo (Taiho Code) (in 701), gun were called kori/hyo.

• 長元2年（1029年）以前の成立と考えられている。
• However, it is said that it was established before 1029.

• すくなくとも正治以前である蓋然性は高いと言えよう。
• At the very least, it is highly probable that Roei Hyakushu was completed prior to 1199.

• 前身として筑紫館や難波館が奈良時代以前から存在した。
• Tsukushi Lodge and Naniwa Lodge existed before the Nara period as the predecessors of Korokan.

• 律令制以前において、体系的な官制は整備されていない。
• Before the ritsuryo system, no systematic bureaucracy was established.

• なお近代以前の日朝関係については朝鮮通信使に詳しい。
• Refer to 'the Messenger of Korea' for details of the Japan-Korea relation before the modern era.

• 新選組の隊名を用いる以前（壬生浪士組）の時期を含む。
• Including periods prior to using the group name of Shinsen-gumi (Mibu Roshi-gumi).

• 従って、第3巻までは延文以前の作であることが分かる。
• Therefore, the first three volumes were written before the Enbun era.

• 下人（げにん）とは近世以前の家内隷属民に対する呼称。
• Genin denotes domestically subordinative people in pre-modern society.

• しかし、それ以前に扶余豊（扶余豊璋）は逃亡していた。
• However, Buyeo Pung (Hosho FUYO) had already retreated before that moment.

• 日本では律令制定以前から氏族制的序列が存在していた。
• The hierarchy system by the clans had been existed before the establishment of Ritsuryo system in Japan.

• という系譜が記載されるが、如成以前は不明な点が多い。
• This genealogy is written, however, there are a lot of uncertainties before Josei.

• その他、以前はクジラ骨製のものもしばしば使用された。
• Other than the above, products made of whale bone were also often used previously.

• 明治以前はこの行事は歌垣などの風習に結びついていた。
• Before the Meiji period, the Bon festival dance related to other customs, such as utagaki (a religious event of ancient times, at which people exchanged forms of poetic verses such as waka, a form of Japanese poem consisting of 32 syllables).

• それ以後は以前の政策も鎖国の名で呼ばれることになった。
• Since that time, seclusionism in the past was also referred to as 'Sakoku.'

• 山梨県内では戦国以前からの馬の全身骨格が出土している。
• The complete skeleton of a horse before the Sengoku period was excavated in Yamanashi Prefecture.

• 賀茂武角身命は平安京ができる以前に山城地域を開拓した。
• It was Kamotaketsunomi no mikoto who developed the Yamashiro area prior to the establishment of Heian-kyo (the ancient capital in present-day Kyoto).

• また、馬身の死がこれより以前であったことも推測できる。
• And based on this article of 'Nihonshoki,' Mami is considered to have died before this date at the latest.

• それ以前に養子を迎えていたが、これを廃して嫡子とした。
• Naotsune had adapted a child before Naoaki was born; therefore, he abandoned the adapted child and made Naoaki his heir.

• これ以前に新見も切腹させられており、水戸派は壊滅した。
• Before that, Niimi was also forced to commit seppuku and the Mitoha goup was destroyed.

• 狭義の日本刀が制作されてから、慶長以前の日本刀をさす。
• This indicates from the first Japanese swords in a narrow sense to the ones before the Keicho Period.

• 日本に於いては古く、桓武天皇以前は即位と同義であった。
• Before the reign of Kanmu, the term Senso had been used to mean enthronement.

• ちなみに花というと平安期以前は梅を指すことが多かった。
• Note that 'flowers' meant Japanese apricot blossoms in the Heian and earlier periods.

• 6世紀以前は、各々の豪族が土地と民衆を直接支配していた。
• Before the sixth century, each gozoku (local ruling family) directly governed the land and the people.

• （勧農使は建久2年（1191年）以前に免じられている。）
• (He was dismissed from the post of Kannoshi before 1191.)

• 中山柵延暦23年（804年）以前不明不明不明『続日本紀』
• Nakayama no Ki, prior to 804, unknown, unknown, unknown, 'Shoku Nihongi'

• 2人はこれ以前から交友があり、密典の貸借が行われていた。
• They had form a friendship prior to that point and allowed each other to use their Esoteric Buddhism scriptures.

• 「白鳳より以来、朱雀以前、年代玄遠にして、尋問明め難し。」
• 'Beginning in the Hakuho ('white firebird' era) and continuing up until the Suzaku (vermilion bird era), the age was shrouded in darkness and distance, and it was very difficult to clarify our questioning.'

• 総石垣で、安土城以前の中世城郭においては特異な点とされる。
• The base of the castle was made up entirely of stonewalls, which was rare for medieval castles before Azuchi-jo Castle.

• なお、大宝令以前の職田・公廨田についてはよく判っていない。
• There is not enough information on shikiden and kugaiden before the Taiho code.

• つまり庄内式土器は、古墳出現以前の土器であると推定できる。
• This suggests that Shonai type pottery dates back to the period prior to the age of tumulus construction.

• 奈良時代以前には「御簾中」という言葉は存在していなかった。
• The term 'Gorenju' had not existed before the Nara period.

• 承和 (日本)2（835）年以前に九州（国名不明）に開設。
• This Fuseya was established in Kyushu (province unknown) in 835.

• 江戸時代以前は、仮名 (通称)(けみょう)の一種であった。
• Before the Edo period, it was a kind of kemyo (assumed name).

• 律令以前の初穂儀礼に由来するのではないか、とする説もある。
• There is a theory that this system might originate in the etiquette of the first years of rice before the enforcement of the Ritsuryo codes.

• 没年は不明だが、正治元年（1199年）以前に死去している。
• The year of his death is unknown, but it is certain that he passed away before 1199.

• 飛鳥宮（飛鳥時代）以前に、首都に相当する都城は存在しない。
• Before the Asuka Imperial Palace (Asuka period), there was no capital corresponding to a capital zone.

• 縄文時代以前、旧石器時代 (日本)末期に存在したとされる。
• Katakamuna civilization is said to have existed at the end of the paleolithic period (Japan) before the Jomon period.

• 最も古い写本は、鎌倉時代以前に筆写された宮内庁書陵部蔵本。
• The oldest reprint is one that was copied before the Kamakura period and is owned by the Archives and Mausolea Department of the Imperial Household Agency.

• 合併以前は、寺号の金剛峯寺は高野山全体を指す名称であった。
• Before the merger, the temple name of Kongobu-ji Temple was the name for the entire Koyasan (Mt. Koya).

• 孔子以前には、｢おもねること｣という意味では使われていた。
• Before Koshi, the word was used to mean 'to flatter.'

• 譲葉金（無銘大板）　16世紀後半：規格化される以前の大判。
• Yuzuriha-kin (mumei-obankin - an unsigned large sheet of gold): a oban in the latter half of the 16th century produced before it was standardized.

• それ以前は人心の一新を目的とする改元もしばしばなされていた。
• Before that, an era name had often been changed to radically change public sentiment.

• これに対し、王陽明は朱子学以前のテキストをそのまま使用する。
• In contrast, Wang Yangming used the original text as it was before the establishment of Shushigaku.

• 明治以前には田租（たそ）・貢租（こうそ）などと呼ばれていた。
• Before the Meiji period it was called taso, koso, and so on.

• なので恐らくこの以前には根来衆に伝来していたと思われている。
• Therefore it is believed that guns had been introduced to Negoroshu before this.

• 以前は綾部都市圏があったが、現在は福知山都市圏に入っている。
• There used to be an Ayabe Urban Area, which is now a part of the Fukuchiyama Urban Area.

• 以前は一日に複数回捺印してもらえたが、現在は一日一回である。
• In the past, you got several stamps in a day, and currently, you can get one stamp in a day.

• （時期は不明だが、左衛門佐を称する以前は、中務大輔を称す。）
• (Although the period is unknown, he used the title of Nakatsukasa no taifu [Senior Assistant Minister of the Ministry of Central Affairs] before using Saemon no suke.)

• 以上のように、独立するよりも以前に活発な教育活動が行われた。
• As can be seen above, active education was conducted before the independence.

• それ以前は「打刀」（うちがたな）という呼称が一般的であった。
• Before then, the name 'Uchigatana' was popular.

• なお、本願寺が東西に分裂する以前は、「御文」と呼ばれていた。
• Before the Hongan-ji sect became divided into East and West, the letters had been called 'Ofumi'.

• 詳しい分類は捕具の室町時代以前の捕具：木矢・木鏃の項を参照。
• For a more intimate classification, see the description on Kiya and mokuzoku in the section of hogu before the Muromachi period in the article of hogu.

• 加悦地区の南東方には大江山があり、以前はニッケル鉱山もあった。
• Mt. Oe is located at the southeastern Kaya district, and there was a nickel mine previously.

• 舞踊の流派は以前は楳茂都流であったが現在は若柳流が主流である。
• The school of dance used to be the Umemoto school; however, the main school is now the Wakayagi school.

• 漢字伝来以前に日本にあったと言われている神代文字で綴られている
• They are written in the ancient Japanese characters, which are said to have existed in Japan before the introduction of kanji (Chinese characters).

• このことから、それ以前より頼朝に仕えていたものと見られている。
• From this, it is considered that he had already served Yoritomo at that time.

• ※「ザビエル」は彼以前からの地名（上記「人名について」参照）。
• *'Xavier' was the location name that existed before him (please refer to; 'Concerning the Person's Name' above).

• 明智秀満を名乗る以前、あるいは以降も三宅弥平次と称されていた。
• He was called Yaheiji MIYAKE before and after he took the name of Hidemitsu AKECHI.

• 伝奏屋敷以前は土井利勝や酒井忠勝の屋敷で行われたことがわかる。
• It shows that, before the denso-yashiki was used, the yoriai had been held in the residences of Toshikatsu DOI and Tadakatsu SAKAI.

• 日本においては律令制以前の段階から存在したことが知られている。
• In Japan, Mokkan is known to have been existed since the time before the ritsuryo system was established.

• 幕末の孝明天皇についで火葬にせず、天武天皇以前の古制に戻した。
• The Emperor Komei living in the last days of the Tokugawa shogunate was not cremated when he died, nor was the next Emperor Meiji, so their funerals were carried out in the ancient style as those preceding the Emperor Tenmu.

• そしてそれ以前に名塩に弥右衛門に関する史料が一切見あたらない。
• And prior to that, there were no historical records on Yaemon in Najio.

• 歴史的にみれば大正時代以前の生産形態へ回帰しているともいえる。
• From a historical point of view, we can say that the production system returned to its form in the Taisho period or earlier.

• 現在はすぐ近くに支店が出来たため、以前よりは食べやすくなった。
• With a branch located nearby, it is now easier to eat at Masutani.

• と諸説あり、鉄砲記の伝来年以前とするものもあり、はっきりしない。
• As mentioned above, there are various theories about the time of the introduction of guns into Japan such as some records saying it was before the introduction into Tanegashima Island, thus the precise time is not clear.

• 701年に評が郡とされる以前は、評衙（ひょうが）と呼ばれていた。
• Before Hyo became Gun (county) in 701, Gunga had been called Hyoga.

• 室町時代以前の武士の所領支配とは異なった新しい支配の形態である。
• It was a new control pattern that was different from the samurai's control over their territory before the Muromachi period.

• 乱の以前、平氏政権は主要官職を占めて多くの知行国を保有していた。
• Before the rebellion, the Taira clan government held many principal posts and had obtained governorship of many provinces.

• また、近世以前の古道跡が不明になっている箇所もしばしば見られた。
• And many sections of the older road which had been used before the early-modern period had collapsed and were not found.

• つまり、それ以前の武に従事した者は、武官ではあるが武士ではない。
• That is, those who were involved with military affairs before this period were military officers, but not bushi.

• 職業としての「酒屋」への移行に関しては「中世以前」を参照のこと。
• For how the 'sakaya' business started, refer to the section of 'In the medieval period or before.'

• 中世以前の歌人の自撰・自筆の歌集としては日本で唯一のものである。
• It is the sole surviving poetry anthology from pre-medieval Japan compiled by the poet himself and completed in the poet's own hand.

• 「鰹節」の称は燻製法ができる江戸時代以前から既に用いられている。
• The name 'katsuobushi' was used even before the Edo period, when the smoke seasoning method was invented.

• 以前は能舞台は神社等に作られ、舞台の屋根が青天井に晒されていた。
• Noh stages were used to be built in shrines and the like, and the roof of the stage was exposed to the sky.

• 受領した金銭の額及びそれ以前に受領した金銭があるときはその合計額
• the amount of money received and the total amount if any money has been received previously;

• 天正10年の焼失以前に一度天主が倒壊したとの説も近年出されている。
• On the other hand, a new theory has been formed in recent years that the castle tower had once collapsed before it was burnt down in 1582.

• 世阿弥晩年の著で、永享4年（1432年）7月以前の成立と見られる。
• Written by Zeami in his final years and likely published before July and August of 1432.

• 和同開珎以前に存在した貨幣として、無文銀銭と富本銭が知られている。
• Coins issued before Wado-kaichin included the Mumonginsen Coin and the Fuhonsen Coin.

• 元禄赤穂事件以前に起こった江戸城内での刃傷沙汰には次のものがある。
• Examples of affairs of sword fight happened inside the palace before Genroku Ako Incident are the following.

• また、以前はAFNでも毎日午前0時のニュース明けに演奏されていた。
• Previously, AFN performed Kimigayo also at the end of news at 0:00 at midnight every day.

• ※これ以前に編成された備の小荷駄は口取40人、駄馬40頭を数える。
• Konida of sonae composed prior to this counted 40 kuchitori and 40 packhorses.

• しかし、家督相続以前の寛永13年（1636年）に19歳で早世した。
• He however died in 1636 at the age of 19 before he took over the headship of the family.

• が、少なくても平安時代以前にこうした事件があったとする記録はない。
• However, before the Heian period no record of such a matter was found.

• このため、これらの物語が文永八年以前の成立であることは確認できる。
• Therefore, the stories were certainly written before 1271.

• （これは中世以前の源氏物語の古注釈ではよく行われた数え方である。）
• (This counting method was often used in old commentaries on the Tale of Genji before the medieval age.)

• その起源には諸説あるが、登場以前からの類似品に胴服、十徳等がある。
• There are various opinions about its origin, and similar things before its emergence include dofuku, juttoku, and so on.

• その実施の相当以前よりマスメディアに取り上げられる等注目を浴びた。
• It had been getting attention through reports generated by the mass media long before the first certification test was held.

• 金貨・丁銀は鎌倉時代以前の発足時はその質量によって価値が定められた。
• When gold coins and Chogin were first introduced before the Kamakura period, those values were evaluated by measuring the mass.

• 明和年間以前は銀座は専ら丁銀および豆板銀すなわち秤量銀貨を鋳造した。
• Before Meiwa Period, the ginza minted coins was based on weight, such as Chogin silver and mameitagin silver.

• しかし、それ以前も、古代から歴史認識および歴史叙述の展開が見られた。
• However, even before that, history was considered and descriptions of history had been made.

• 室町時代に至ると、武家の主従関係はそれ以前よりは強固とな関係となる。
• As it became the Muromachi period, the relationship between master and vassal among samurai became comparably stronger to earlier times.

• 承久の乱以前に、鎌倉幕府で政所別当であった父と交替で鎌倉に下向した。
• Before the Jokyu War, he went down to Kamakura, switching places with his father, who was Mandokoro betto (Director of the Administrative Board) of the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun).

• 文久3年(1863年)9月以前に、父・馬詰新太郎と共に新選組に入隊。
• He joined Shinsengumi together with his father, Shintaro MAZUME on or before October 1863.

• しかし、以前と比べると少数ではあるが、現在も存在するのは事実である。
• Although the number of poorly-fed children is fewer than before, it is true that they still remain today.

• これは、以前に山岡に提示された条件に対する全くの骨抜き回答であった。
• Katsu had given Saigo these responses to effectively water down the original conditions Saigo previously presented to Yamaoka.

• これに従えば、九三六年以前に、引き違いふすま障子が有ったことになる。
• According to this, apparently a sliding Fusuma shoji existed before 936.

• つまり、法華経以前に説かれた経典はすべて仮の教え、つまり権教である。
• In other words, it means that the sutras which were preached before Hokekyo are all temporary teachings, or Gonkyo.

• 以前は長期間にわたり行っていたが、後になり日数を定めるようになった。
• Previously, the training was conducted over a long duration but it has been revised later that the number of days are determined.

• さかのぼって江戸時代以前は、「一盃」はれっきとした容積単位であった。
• Going back to the Edo period or before, 'ippai' was a unit for volume.

• 大化以前は、天皇や豪族らは各自で私的に土地・人民を所有・支配していた。
• Before the Taika era, the emperors and Gozoku (local ruling family) privately owned and ruled lands and people respectively.

• 一説には大宝律令以前には宮内省とともに六省の上にあったとする説もある。
• There is a theory that Nakatsukasa-sho along with Kunai-sho (Ministry of the Sovereign's Household) was ranked higher than other six ministries before the establishment of Taiho Ritsuryo (Taiho Code).

• 日本史以外の東洋史においては近代以前の頭立った武人に対して使用される。
• In Oriental history other than Japanese, it is used for an outstanding warrior before modern ages.

• 新選組への入隊は池田屋事件以前で、池田屋事件の際は近藤隊に属している。
• He joined Shinsengumi before the Ikedaya Incident, and belonged to the Kondo unit at the time of the Ikedaya Incident.

• 福本の白兎神社には大正時代の合祀以前には江戸期に築造された社殿がある。
• At Hakuto-jinja Shrine in Fukumoto, before the merger with another shrine during the Taisho period, there was a shrine building that was constructed during the Edo period.

• 娘の幸田文は、露伴が没する以前から露伴に関する随筆を書き注目を集めた。
• His daughter, Aya KODA, was noted for her essays on Rohan while he was alive.

• 頼朝は政子と結ばれる以前に祐親の娘の八重姫と恋仲になり男子までなした。
• Before marrying Masako, Yoritomo had been in love with Sukechika's daughter, Yaehime, with whom he had a son.

• いずれにしても、時政以前の系譜は謎に包まれているというのが実態である。
• Regardless, the lineage of HOJO prior to Tokimasa is veiled in mystery.

• じょうちょうとは42歳での出家以後の訓で、それ以前はつねともと訓じた。
• The reading of his first name, Jocho, was applied after he entered into priesthood at the age of 42, and before that, his first name was read 'Tsunetomo.'

• 新選組慰霊碑の建立された明治9年（1876年）以前に没したと思われる。
• It is considered that he had already died before the erection of the memorial monument of the Shinsengumi in 1876.

• 甲飛第12期以前の予科練生の訓練に充てるべく、昭和19年より開かれた。
• It was opened in 1944 in order to train the students enrolled before the 12th group of the preparatory pilot training course.

• この両者が、それぞれ尾張徳川家・蜂須賀家に入る以前の伝来は不明である。
• The whereabouts of these before they came into the possession of the Owari-Tokugawa family and Hachisuka family respectively are unknown.

• 『源氏物語』の注釈書の中でも特に明治時代以前までのものを古注釈と呼ぶ。
• Among the commentaries on 'The Tale of Genji,' the ones made before the Meiji period are particularly called ancient commentaries.

• 最近、以前よりのスープを元味とし、それに魚介出汁を加えた新味を始めた。
• Recently, the shop has started a new flavor created by adding seafood broth to the soup base as a original flavor.

• 馬越三郎……池田屋事変以前に、武田観柳斎の男色に困り、土方に訴え、脱退。
• Saburo MAGOSHI: Before the Ikedaya Incident, he claimed to Hijikata that Kanryusai TAKEDA had attempted to approach him sexually and left the group

• 中世以前の武士の主従関係において武門の棟梁に従属する武士を家人と称した。
• Until the medieval period, samurai within a master and vassal relationship who were subordinate to a Bumon no toryo (leader of samurai families) were called Kenin.

• 寿永2年（1183年）には、以前から計画していた法華経の書写を完成した。
• In 1183, Unkei completed the calligraphy of Hokekyo (Lotus Sutra) that he had been planning for a long time.

• 快慶は日本の中世以前の仏師の中では例外的に多くの作品に銘記を残している。
• Kaikei left his inscriptions on many of his works, which was unusual for Buddhist sculptors prior to the Japanese Middle Ages.

• これら『続日本紀』の記事では、これ以前には狛には姓がなかったことになる。
• According to these entries in 'Shoku Nihongi' (Chronicle of Japan Continued), he did not hold a kabane before 802.

• 源氏釈に引用されている本文は青表紙本や河内本が成立する以前の本文である。
• The text that the Genji Shaku quotes from is one from before the Aobyoshi-bon and Kawachi-bon manuscripts (two 13th-century attempts to edit and revise the various versions).

• 「雲隠」を含める数え方は中世以前に多く、含めない数え方は近世以後に多い。
• Until the medieval period people often included 'Kumogakure' among them, but since the early-modern period many people have been excluding it.

• 律令制以前の皇親・豪族が有していた家産制組織を国家体制に取り込んだもの。
• This was made by bringing the family property organization, which the Emperor's family and local ruling families owned before the ritsuryo system, in the state system.

• 拝殿が登場する以前、神社の祭祀は本殿の正面の露天の祭場で行なわれていた。
• Prior to the establishment of haiden, shrine ceremonies were held at outdoor ceremonial places in the front of a honden.

• 以前は肩衣であったが、大きく持ち運びに不便な為、簡略化され認められた物。
• In past days, they wore kataginu (short sleeveless garments made of hemp), but because they were heavy and hard to carry, kataginu was simplified into ryaku kataginu and approved.

• カラオケという言葉が普及する以前は「空演奏」と表現されることが多かった。
• Before the word 'karaoke' became common, it was usually expressed as 'kara enso (literally meaning empty performance).'

• 近世以前に分かれた一族の別系に、代々「大河内善兵衛」を称した旗本があった。
• Among the members of the family branch that split prior to the modern times, there was a family of hatamoto that passed the name 'Zenbei OKOCHI' down through the generations.

• このように、国衙方と目される平家には以前から在地の反感を買う土壌があった。
• Thus, there had been a preexisting feeling that the Taira clan (who were considered to be on the same side as the kokuga) antagonized the local people.

• 規模としては最後の西来庵事件以外は小規模、または蜂起以前に逮捕されている。
• These uprisings were relatively small in scale except for the last Xilaian Incident and conspirators were arrested before the planned uprisings could even take place.

• 11世紀中期を画期として以前を前期王朝国家、以後を後期王朝国家と区分する。
• The dynasty state before the mid-11th century is noted as the early dynasty state and the period after the mid-11th century as the later dynasty state.

• 大名の家臣団にとって、中世以前と大きく異なるのが、有能な家臣の登用である。
• Unlike their counterparts in the medieval period, Sengoku daimyo actively appointed capable vassals to important positions.

• 国は、天武10年(681年)以前に、律令制の国が成立していたと考えられる。
• It is thought that the ritsuryo system provinces were established prior to the year 681.

• 古体詩は唐以前に作られた漢詩の全てと唐以後に作られた古い形式の漢詩を言う。
• Kotai-shi refers to all kanshi produced before and in the period of the Tang dynasty and to kanshi which were produced after the period of the Tang dynasty but have an old form.

• 元々は大蔵氏の嫡流・原田氏の一族であり、伯耆入国以前は筑前国に住んでいた。
• Taneyori originally belonged to the Harada clan which was the direct descendant of Okura clan and he had lived in the Chikuzen Province before he came to Hoki Province.

• 十二月の行軍録にも旗役として名を連ねるが、慶応三年六月以前に離隊している。
• He was listed in the December (1864) Record of March as a flag man, but he left the group prior to July 1867.

• それ以前の陸奥国国府は現代の仙台市長町にある郡山遺跡であると見られている。
• Prior to this, the capital of Mutsu Province is considered to have been Koriyama Ruins in present-day Nagamachi, Sendai City.

• 俳諧の伝統的な一形式で、室町時代から江戸時代以前は俳諧の主流をなしていた。
• They were written according to the traditional structure of haikai, and became the dominant poetic style from the Muromachi period into the early Edo period.

• 拝殿が成立する以前の回廊形式だったころの幣殿が変化したものとも考えられる。
• The corridor style heiden, which had been common in olden times before haiden was established, is believed to have been developed into tate-haiden.

• 彼らの手により公伝以前から、すでに仏像や経典はもたらされていたようである。
• It seems that Buddha statues and Buddhist scriptures had been already brought by them before the official introduction of Buddhism.

• なお、江戸時代以前には現在の能楽に相当する言葉として猿楽が用いられていた。
• Before the Edo period, the term 'Sarugaku' (form of theatre popular in Japan during the 11th to 14th centuries) was used, which corresponds to the term 'Nohgaku' used today.

• 陽明学という呼び名は明治日本以降広まったもので、それ以前は王学といっていた。
• The name Yomei-gaku became popular in Meiji-period Japan (1868-1912), before which it was known as O-gaku ('Yomei' is Japanese for 'Yangming' and 'O' Japanese for 'Wang').

• 鎌倉時代以前の三田は金心寺と三輪神社の門前町を中心に多くの荘園ができていた。
• Before the Kamakura period, many shoens (manors in medieval Japan) were developed in Sanda centering around the monzen-machi (a temple town) of Konshin-ji Temple and Miwa-jinja Shrine.

• 昭和25年（1950年）以前に「脱亜論」に関するコメントは見つかっていない。
• There was no comment found about 'Datsu-A Ron' before 1950.

• 平安京への遷都以前、奈良時代までは政治・文化の中心地として栄えた地域である。
• Before the transfer of the capital to Heiankyo (ancient capital in current Kyoto) until the Nara period, this area flourished as the political and cultural center.

• もっとも、苗字としての「藤原」氏は江戸時代以前にも下級武士などに散見される。
• There were numerous low-ranking samurai families that used Fujiwara as the family name even before the Edo period.

• （江戸時代以前の国学者は、そう考え、後の耶馬台国までの記事は誤記と考えた。）
• (Scholars of Japanese classical literature before the Edo period thought so, and that later writings about the journey toward Yamatai were entered incorrectly.)

• 最上へ人衆遣、又動、其外ニ人悉草臥申候へ共、内府様無御下向以前、何とそ仕度候
• I would appreciate it if you could make arrangements to report that I sent the troops to Mogami to take action and everyone got exhausted before Ieyasu moved from Kyoto.

• また、冷泉家住宅は近世以前の公家住宅の現存唯一の遺構として貴重なものである。
• Furthermore, the Reizei family residence is the sole surviving example of pre-Edo period aristocratic dwellings, and as such is a treasure in its own right.

• 基本的に明治11年以前はこの戸籍を戸長が管理し、郡村制施行後は役場が管理した。
• The officer in charge of the family register basically managed this family register before 1878, and the public office managed it after the rural districts and villages system was enforced.

• 日朝貿易は以前と同じく対馬藩に委ねられたものの、幕府の厳しい管理下に置かれた。
• The Japan-Korea Trade was under the bakufu's severe control although it was put into the hands of the Tsushima Domain as before.

• 関東においては、「武家の棟梁」は、少なくとも頼朝の以前には居なかったと言える。
• It could be said that 'leader of samurai family' did not exist, at least before Yoritomo in Kanto region.

• 左馬頭は宮中の軍馬を管理する馬寮の長官であり、平治の乱以前は義朝が務めていた。
• Sama no kami was the head of the Meryo government office of harnesses and horses in Mimaki ranch that controlled the war horses of the Imperial court; however, Yoshitomo was in this position before the Heiji-no-ran War.

• 京都に都が置かれていた明治維新以前からの生産されていた歴史を有する野菜の品目。
• Crops of vegetables that have a history of having been produced even before the Meiji Restoration, when the government was located in Kyoto City.

• 以前は、「第一旭」も近藤製麺の麺を使っており、両者はかなり緊密な関係にあった。
• In the past, 'Daiichi-Asahi' also used Kondo's noodles, and these two had a very close relationship.

• ただし、知藩事任命以前または知藩事任命のないまま移転・改称したものは掲載しない。
• But those that were relocated or renamed before appointment of Chihanji or without appointment of Chihanji are not listed here.

• 文永の役以前の使者の行動はかなり自由で、道中では色々な情報を集めることができた。
• Before Bunei no Eki, envoys were rather free and could gather various information during their trips.

• 蛤御門は現在の京都御苑の西側に位置し、天明の大火以前は新在家御門と呼ばれていた。
• The Hamaguri Gate is located on the west side of the modern-day Imperial gardens in Kyoto; before the Great Tenmei fire, it was known as the Shinzaike Gate

• 江戸時代以前の町並みが残る町の多くは、小京都と呼ばれ、観光スポットとなっている。
• Many of the towns that still retain their character before the Edo period are called Sho-kyoto (little Kyoto) and are tourist spots.

• ただし、これ以前にもこうした虚構説あるいは架空説は存在しなかった訳ではなかった。
• There were persons, who insisted that Shotoku Taishi was a fictional character or an imaginary character, before Oyama.

• つまり、それ以前は苗字を名乗る地盤すら持たない階層だった可能性も指摘されている。
• In other words, such a possibility is pointed out as he was born from a hierarchy which people had no surname.

• 能が「幽玄」の方向に進む以前の、草創期の活力が感じられる作風であるとも言われる。
• The vitality of the pioneer days of sarugaku, before Noh moved in the direction of subtle and profound taste, can be seen through his works.

• 「内蔵」は令制以前の天皇家の倉庫であり、また後宮関係事務も天皇家と関わりが深い。
• Uchikura' was the Imperial family's storehouse in the era prior to the Ritsuryo system and the jobs of kokyu were also closely related to the Imperial family.

• 結果として大阪会議以前の大久保の独裁体制が、より強化された形で復活したといえる。
• As a result, Okubo's former despotic system was revived in a more powerful form.

• それ以前に出された「古事記伝」の記述からすると恣意的な注釈があるとの主張もある。
• Some people pointed out that arbitrary annotation was included in it, referring to `Kojikiden' (Commentaries on the Kojiki) that was published before the Iwanami paperback edition was published.

• 以前から、低価格の弁当は存在していたが、カテゴリとして確立したのはこの頃である。
• Low-priced bentos had been available before 2007, but it was these days that this type of bento was established as one of the categories.

• その結果、豊後節の伝統は江戸に根付き、それ以前の古浄瑠璃の人気を奪いさってゆく。
• As a result, the tradition of Bungo-bushi took root in Edo and deprived the old Joruri of its popularity.

• 特に高梨氏とは以前から縁戚関係を結んでおり、父長尾為景の実母は高梨家出身であった。
• In particular, with the real mother of Tamekage NAGAO, Kagetora's father, being from the Takanashi family, the Nagao family had a relation with the Takanashi family for a long time.

• これ以前に三菱の岩崎弥太郎が開拓使の船舶の払下げを願い出て却下された経緯があった。
• Before the event, Yataro IWASAKI, the founder of the Mitsubishi Co., applied for permission to sell the ship owned by the Hokkaido Development Agency but his request was rejected.

• 徳島藩洲本城代家老稲田家（1万4千石）は、徳島本藩との様々な確執が以前よりあった。
• Before this incident, chief retainer INADA of Sumoto-jo Castle in Tokushima Domain (14,000 koku) had had various conflicts with Tokushima Honpan (the original domain) for some time.

• 京都市制以前の明治12年（1879年）、京都府に「上京区」「下京区」が設置された。
• In 1879, 'Kamigyo Ward' and 'Shimogyo Ward' were created in Kyoto Prefecture, which was before the Municipal Government Act of Kyoto City came into effect.

• 正三位は大宝令以後の位なのに、贈位では大宝令以前の正広弐に戻っており、錯綜がある。
• There is some confusion because Shokoni, a rank used before Taiho Ritsuryo, was given while Shosanmi, a rank used after Taiho Ritsuryo, had been given.

• この冠位が廃止された天武天皇14年（685年）1月21日以前に死んだと推測できる。
• He was thought to have died before March 4, 685, which was the date that this cap rank was abolished.

• この背景には以前から交流のあったアーネスト・フェノロサの意見があったと考えられる。
• Ernest Fenollosa, whom Kuki had known for some time, seems to have suggested this to Kuki.

• つまり、秦漢以前の文を模範とし、唐宋以下の文を骨力がなく軟弱であるとして軽んじた。
• That is to say, he modeled the writings after those of the periods of Qin-Han or before, and he did not appreciated the styles of Tang-Sung or later periods, saying that they were weak.

• 近代以前の律令官制については日本の官制を、内閣制度については内閣 (日本)を参照。
• For the government organization before modern times, refer to 'Government Organization in Japan,' and for the current cabinet system, refer to 'Cabine of Japan,' respectively.

• 10世紀以前に中国、朝鮮半島、南アジアから伝わった儀式用の音楽がもとになっている。
• It is based on the ceremonial music introduced from China, the Korean Peninsula and South Asia prior to the tenth century.

• 1873年の太陽暦採用以前は旧暦の11月 (旧暦)の2回目の卯の日に行われていた。
• Prior to the adoption of the solar calendar in 1873, it was customarily held on the second U no hi (day of the rabbit) in November (lunar calendar).

• 胴の胸当てを突く技 胸突き（以前は相手が上段の構えを取っている時のみ一本になった。
• The technique of thrusting the Mune-ate (chest protector) of Do (abdomen) Mune-tsuki (thrust to the chest) (formerly, one Ippon (a full point) was earned only when the other contender was taking the upper-level position).

• 以前は、各地の標本木の蕾をとりそのつど重さを量る方法で各気象台独自で行われていた。
• Forecast used to be made by the respective observatories whereby they weighed buds collected from the sample trees at various locations for every forecast preparation.

• よって、「柔術」というと江戸時代以前から伝わる伝統的な柔術を指す場合が多くなった。
• Therefore, 'jujutsu' has come to mean, in many cases, 'koryu jujutsu' (the old-style jujutsu) handed down from before the Edo period.

• 第一項の規定による第二年以後の各年分の登録料は、前年以前に納付しなければならない。
• The registration fee for each year after the second year prescribed in paragraph (1) of this Article shall be paid by the end of the previous year.

• そして天保年間以前の債務については一切これを継承せずに無効とする（事実上の徳政令）。
• As for the debts created before the Tenpo era, the government did not inherit these, and declared them void (de facto tokuseirei (a debt cancellation order)).

• これ以前、家康は10月22日に命じた方広寺の炉で作成させた鉄盾を各将に配布している。
• Prior to that, Ieyasu had distributed iron shields manufactured in the furnaces in Hoko-ji Temple that he had ordered on October 22 (the old calendar).

• ちなみに、最初に認められた6人は、頼朝と源義経の仲が険悪化する以前に推挙されていた。
• In fact, the first six people had been recommended before Yoritomo got onto bad terms with MINAMOTO no Yoshitsune.

• 16世紀の日本とスペインの間には、国家間関係が本格化する以前から人の往来が見られた。
• People came and went between Japan and Spain in the 16th century before the state-to-state relations went into full swing.

• 日本語の表記体系については、漢字が伝わる以前の独自の文字は現在まで見つかっていない。
• As for the orthographic system of Japanese, the original characters used before the arrival of kanji (Chinese characters) have not yet been discovered.

• 『日本書紀』などの中では、臣姓の多くは継体天皇以前の天皇から別れ出た氏族としている。
• According to the 'Nihonshoki' (Chronicles of Japan), many clans with the kabane of Omi were descended from the emperors before the period of the Emperor Keitai.

• ただし、宗氏による通交権の集中は三浦の乱以前から行われていた可能性も指摘されている。
• However, it is also pointed out that the concentration of the trading rights in the So clan had possibly existed even before the Sanpo War.

• 文禄・慶長の役（朝鮮出兵。韓国では壬辰倭乱・丁酉再乱と呼称）以前は複数箇所存在した。
• Prior to the Bunroku-Keicho War (Japan's Invasion of Korea, it is called Jinshin waran and Teiyu sairan in Korea) there were several Wakan.

• そのため、元就が当主となる以前から既に中央との政治的な繋がりを持っていたようである。
• They appeared therefore to have a political connection with the central government even before Motonari became lord of the family.

• 丸亀藩嫡子として生まれるが、家督相続以前の弘化2年（1845年）に28歳で早世した。
• Although Takayoshi was born as the heir to Marugame Domain, he died early at the age of 28 (1845), before he inherited the family estate.

• それ以前の事や、以後の消息も不明なため、天一坊改行のような虚構の人物の可能性が高い。
• Because his previous and subsequent information are unknown, he might be a fictitious character such as Kaigyo TENICHIBO.

• 『日本書紀』、『古事記』には遣隋使以前に中国へ使節を送った記録も、迎えた記録も無い。
• However, the 'Nihonshoki' (Chronicles of Japan) or the'Kojiki' (The Records of Ancient Matters) didn't contain any records of envoys to or from China before ken-suishi (Japanese official diplomatic delegations sent to China during the Sui dynasty).

• 平将門追討の将軍であった藤原忠文は、東国到着以前に乱が決着したためそのまま帰京した。
• FUJIWARA no Tadafumi, the general of the army assigned to hunt TAIRA no Masakado, returned to Kyoto without fighting a battle in the eastern part of Japan, because the battle had already been settled before his arrival at the battle scene.

• 刀剣史では、慶長以降の作刀を「新刀」として、それ以前の「古刀」とは区別がされている。
• In the history of swords, creation of swords after the Keicho period are called 'Shinto (New Swords),' and were distinguished from 'Koto (Old Swords),' made before that.

• 『竹取物語』は、作者不詳で成立年代も未詳だが、900年頃より以前の成立とされている。
• Neither the writer nor the date of establishment of 'Taketori Monogatari' are exactly known, but it is considered to be written before 900.

• しかし笛と篳篥は昔から長さが決まっているのでそれ以前の昔に作られた名器が参考になる。
• However, the fue (Japanese flute) and the Hichiriki flute have a fixed length, so it is based upon the famous instruments made before the change in measurements occurred.

• 現在、平安時代以前の衣服と比べれば、平安時代の衣服のほうが、より詳しくわかっている。
• Today we know more about the costume during the Heian period than that prior to the Heian period.

• 貫（かん）は、尺貫法における質量の単位、また江戸時代以前の秤量銀貨の通貨の単位である。
• Kan is a weight unit in the traditional Japanese system of weights and measures, and it was also a Japanese currency unit for the silver coin used as the currency by weight before the Edo period.

• また以前には、『日本書紀』の683年（天武天皇12年）の記事に次のことが書かれていた。
• Moreover, the following article was written in 683 (12th year of the Emperor Tenmu) in the 'Nihonshoki' (Chronicles of Japan).

• 具体的な始期は不明であるが、その以前から博士職田の支給が行われていた事が判明している。
• Although details are not clear, this shows that Hakase-shikiden had been provided before that time.

• しかしながら、それ以前と比べるならば、選挙による地方議会が発足したことには意義がある。
• However, when compared with the past, it is significant that a local assembly was launched by election.

• ただし、文治元年（1185年）4月27日 (旧暦)に従二位に昇進する以前は奉書と呼ぶ。
• Documents issued by Yoritomo prior to his promotion to Junii (Junior Second Rank) on June 4, 1185, however, were called hosho.

• 古くは弘仁格式の編纂に合わせて弘仁10年（819年）以前に編纂されたと考えられていた。
• It was formerly believed that the Konin Gishiki was compiled before 819 in parallel with the compilation of Konin Kyakushiki (Laws and Regulations of the Konin Era).

• 偽使の派遣は三浦の乱以前にも行われていたが、三浦の乱をきっかけに本格化することになる。
• They had sent gishi even before the Sanpo War, but the Sanpo War made them send gishi more frequently.

• なお、近代以前には財閥という言葉は、多数の豪商を生み出した地域に付けられる事もあった。
• Incidentally, before the modern times the word zaibatsu was also used for areas in which many wealthy merchants had been born.

• それ以前に北宋の段階で交子が発行されて国内経済は銅銭と紙幣の二本立て構造になっていた。
• In the Northern Sung Dynasty era before that, bills called koshi were issued, causing both copper coins and paper money to be used in the domestic economy of the dynasty.

• 入国の前に、家臣を派遣して、以前の領主・浅野氏に対する領民の不満などを調査させている。
• Prior to entering Ki Province, he sent his followers to investigate complaints from residents about the Asano clan, the former feudal lord.

• この悲劇が、のちの勉学に励む姿とあわせて太平洋戦争以前の修身の教科書に掲載されていた。
• These descriptions of suffering were used in an ethics textbook before the Pacific War, together with the descriptions of his dedication to study in later years.

• 遅くとも、大化の改新以前（644年という説有り）に中大兄皇子（後の天智天皇）に嫁した。
• Before Taika no Kaishin (Great Reformation of the Taika Era of 645) at the latest, she married Naka no Oe no Oji (Prince Naka no Oe, later Emperor Tenji), and some says it was in 644.

• 第一回交渉では和宮の処遇問題と、以前山岡に提示された慶喜の降伏条件の確認のみとなった。
• During the first negotiation meeting, the content for discussion focused on two main points; the issue regarding the treatment of Princess Kazunomiya, and the conditions for the surrender of Yoshinobu; these concerns of Saigo were presented to Yamaoka prior to the meeting.

• 中国では唐銭以前にも穴あき銭はあったが、その空白期には布や米などを貨幣代わりに用いた。
• In China, holed coins had circulated in the market before Tosen coins (Chinese currency of the Tang dynasty) appeared, but, during the blank period without such currencies, it was cloth and rice that played the role as a bartering currency.

• また名称を別とすれば個々の寺院や不動像自体は江戸時代（以前）からの歴史を持つとされる。
• It is said that, except for the term Goshiki Fudo, the history of those individual temples and the statues of Fudo-son mentioned earlier goes back to the pre-Edo Period.

• さらに、このリニューアルに併せて、味の方も若干変更され、以前より幾分マイルドになった。
• Together with the renewal, the taste was slightly changed to be somewhat milder than before.

• 日本全国において食べられているが、以前は近畿地方・四国地方ではあまり消費されなかった。
• Natto is eaten throughout Japan, but it was not consumed as much in the Kinki and Shikoku regions before.

• 前条第一項の規定による第四年以後の各年分の登録料は、前年以前に納付しなければならない。
• The registration fees for each year from the fourth year and subsequent years under Article 31(1) shall be paid by the end of the previous year.

• 江戸時代以前には、灰吹銀および極印銀が、鋳造者である富商や両替商の極印によって流通した。
• Before the Edo period, refined silver coins and hallmarked silver coins were circulated with the hallmarks of wealthy coiners and money-exchange businessmen.

• 漢字流入以前に神代文字と呼ばれる文字があったとする説もあるが、学術的な根拠は存在しない。
• The theory has it that there were ancient Japanese characters before the influx of kanji (Chinese characters), though there is no evidence for this.

• 戸籍、計帳、班田収授は大宝律令で初めて見られる用語であり、それ以前の文書には出てこない。
• Koseki, keicho (the yearly tax registers), and Handen Shuju are terms first seen in Taiho Ritsuryo and do not appear in written materials before that.

• 近代化以前の「村」は自然村（しぜんそん）ともいわれ、生活の場となる共同体の単位であった。
• A premodern 'village', also called a spontaneous village, was a unit of community where a group of people share a living space.

• 律令国家が建設される以前の古墳時代・飛鳥時代においても、軍事を主務とする豪族が存在した。
• There were gozoku (local ruling families) that were specialized in military affairs in the Kofun (tumulus) and Asuka periods, which were before the establishment of the Japanese nation under the ritsuryo codes.

• その後、第二次世界大戦以前の日本の国定教科書にもこの逸話が載せられ、多くの人に広まった。
• The anectdote was subsequently included in pre-WWII government approved textbooks, and became known widely.

• 享保期以前に下総国銚子市経由で薩摩芋の栽培法が、関東にもたらされていたという文献がある。
• There is a document saying that before Kyoho period, the cultivation method of sweet potatoes was also brought to Kanto by way of Shimousa Province Choshi City.

• 人足寄場の設置以前には、無宿の隔離及び更生政策として佐渡金山への水替人足の制度があった。
• Before the set-up of the Ninsokuyoseba, there used to be a system called Mizukaeninsoku (Laborers for Water Drainage) of Sado Gold Mine, which was designed to isolate and rehabilitate the homeless.

• 評定所（ひょうじょうしょ）は、近代以前に訴訟を扱った機関およびそれが存在した場所のこと。
• The Hyojosho is an institution that handled lawsuits before modern times, or the place where such institution was located.

• 延喜式にはすでに土工司の職掌を木工寮が担っているためおそらくそれ以前のことと推測される。
• In the Engishiki (an ancient book for codes and procedures on national rites and prayers), Mokuryo already had an official duty of dokoshi and thus the time is estimated to have been before that.

• 昭和30年代以前は「もやい船」が主流であり、個人で船を1艘つくるのは、富裕層に限られた。
• Up until 1955, most shorobune were 'moyai-bune' and only rich people made family shorobune boats.

• 中国式の太陰太陽暦が導入される以前、望の日を月初としていたことの名残りと考えられている。
• It is considered that the term is a relic of the time when the mochi no hi was regarded as the first day of a month, before the Chinese-style lunar calendar was introduced.

• 永仁6年（1298年）以前の13世紀後半に二条富小路殿と押小路烏丸殿の相博が行われている。
• During the late 13th century before 1298, soboku (the exchange of territory) between Nijo Tomikojidono residence and Oshikoji Karasumadono was carried out.

• 以前は一般車も通行が可能だったが、現在は一般車両通行禁止（徒歩では通行可能）となっている。
• Regular vehicles could also enter the mountain before, however they are restricted now (pedestrians are allowed to enter).

• 1040年代を画期として、それ以前を前期王朝国家、以降を後期王朝国家と区分する考えがある。
• There is a concept of separating the dynastic nation system after 1040s from that before 1040, with the earlier one called the early dynastic nation system and the later one the late dynastic nation system.

• だが、室町期以前のような家来達が所領に在住する地方領主制では、召集するのに時間が掛かった。
• However, in the system in the Muromachi period or before where the retainers lived in their territory, it took a long time for daimyo to call out their retainers.

• 神田の起源は明らかとされていないが、大化（646年ごろ）以前から存在したと考えられている。
• The origins of Shinden are not clearly known, but Shinden are believed to have already existed before 646.

• この場合には、平安中期（10世紀以降）から平氏政権期まで、もしくは下限を院政期以前とする。
• In this case, the term refers to the period between the mid-Heian period (during and after the 10th century) and the Taira clan's administrative period, or before the Insei period (period of cloistered imperial rule).

• 「戯作」の言葉自体は中国に古くからあり、その影響から日本でも江戸時代以前から使われていた。
• The term 'Gesaku' itself had been used from ancient China, therefore under its influence; it was also used in Japan before the Edo period.

• 『正子内親王絵合』、『和歌現在書目録』、『袋草子』など鎌倉時代以前の文献にその名が見える。
• The title can be found in documents prior to the Kamakura Period, such as 'Masako Naishinno Eawase' (Poetry matching held by Imperial Princess Masako), 'Waka genzaisho mokuroku' (A list of extant books of waka poetry), and 'Fukurozoshi' (Notes in a Folder, the collection of poetic lore).

• 猶子（ゆうし）とは、明治以前において存在した他人の子供を自分の子として親子関係を結ぶこと。
• Yushi is a system that existed prior to the Meiji period to establish a parent-child relationship with a child who was not kin.

• 成立時期や作者は未詳であるが、成立時期については以後～応永以前の間に成立したとの説がある。
• It is still unknown when it was completed and who wrote it, but there is an opinion that it was written between 1271 and before the Oei area.

• 寛仁四年（1020年）より以前に相模守大江公資に娶られ、相模の女房名で呼ばれるようになる。
• Before 1020, she married OE no Kinyori, Governor of Sagami Province, and came to be called Sagami's wife.

• 近世以前に印刷されたものはほとんど仏典に限られ、そうでないものは写本によって流通していた。
• Most of the books printed before modern times were confined to Buddhist literature, and others were circulated in the form of manuscripts.

• 自分の解脱よりも他者の救済を優先する利他行とは大乗以前の仏教界で行われていたものではない。
• Ritagyo, which gives preference to salvation of others over one's own Gedatsu (being liberated from earthly desires and the woes of man), had not been practiced in Buddhist regions before Mahayana.

• 仏教が伝来する以前、倭には土着の宗教（信仰）として原始神道（古神道）が存在したと思われる。
• It seems that before Buddhism was introduced to Wa, there existed primitive Shinto (the Ancient Shinto) as a local religion (faith).

• 元来は飲用であり、江戸時代に日本酒が一般的になる以前は甘みのある高級酒として飲まれていた。
• Mirin was originally an alcoholic beverage and was drunk as a sweet luxury drink before sake became common during the Edo period.

• これに対して、古文経と呼ばれる孔子旧宅の壁中や民間から秦以前のテキストが、発見されていた。
• On the other hand, texts called Kobun-kei from Qin and earlier days were found behind the walls of Koshi's former residence and among ordinary citizens.

• 近代以前の日本においても民事裁判は存在したが、体系的な民法典はついに作成される事はなかった。
• Even in pre-modern Japan civil trials did exist, however, a systematic Minpoten was never prepared.

• 武内宿禰以前は後世の架上と言われており、蘇我石川宿禰も子孫の石川氏による創作と見る説がある。
• TAKENOUCHI no Sukune was previously alleged to be a fiction created by subsequent generations, and there are also those who view Soganoishikawa no Sukune to be a creation of descendents of the Ishikawa clan.

• 大化の改新以前に、蘇我蝦夷と蘇我入鹿の親子が権勢を示すために丘の麓に邸宅を構えていたという。
• SOGA no Emishi and SOGA no Iruka, a father and a son, are said to have had a residence at the foot of the hill to show off their power before the Taika Reforms took place.

• 戦前（1940年代以前）は平安時代を王朝政治の形骸化・地方政治の荒廃が進んだ時期と解釈した。
• Before the war (before the 1940's) the Heian period was interpreted as a period when dynasty government was becoming a mere shell or dead letter and local government was devastating.

• ただし、明智光秀の生年（1528年）は有力な説であって、それより以前に生まれた可能性もある。
• Notwithstanding the above, although the view that Mitsuhide AKECHI was born in 1528 is the prevailing, not the definitive view, and there is the possibility that he might have been born earlier.

• 近世以前によく起請文として使われていた熊野の牛玉宝印（ごおうほういん）には烏が描かれている。
• Kumano Goohoin amulet, which had been often used as Kishomon (sworn oath) before the early-modern times, had a picture of a crow on it.

• 文武天皇ころから以前の歌をあつめ、作者、歌作の事情を記し、同類歌を分類統一したものかという。
• It seemed to be a collection of poetry prior to the days of Emperor Monmu with descriptions of the poets and backgrounds of poems, and integrated poems with similar themes into categories.

• 坂本姓の由来は、本能寺の変以前、明智氏所領であった坂本（現滋賀県大津市坂本）に由来している。
• The origin of the family name SAKAMOTO came from a place called SAKAMOTO (Sakamoto, Otsu city, Shiga prefecture at present) that was a domain of the AKECHI family before the Honnoji no hen incident.

• 「賽の河原」の名前は、以前にもここで凍死した村の人が多くいたために付けられていたといわれる。
• The name of Sai-no-kawara (the Children's limbo) was named because many village people had also frozen to death there before.

• 同様に、4世紀後半以前の皇室の祖先については、事実を正確に記録していたかどうかは不明である。
• In the same way, it is not certain that it recorded the facts accurately about the ancestors of the Imperial Family before the latter part of the fourth century.

• 古伝本系別本とは青表紙本や河内本が成立する以前の本文を伝えていると考えられている写本をいう。
• Old tradition line Beppon are manuscripts which seem to contain the text before Aobyoshi-bon and Kawachi-bon were completed.

• しかし、古代日本には和同開珎より以前に無文銀銭や富本銭（683年）などの貨幣が存在している。
• In ancient Japan, currency such as Mumon-ginsen coin (Japan's oldest private silver coin) or Fuhonsen (683) coin existed before the appearance of Wado-kaichin.

• 鎖国政策が実施される以前には、日本人の海外進出は著しく、東南アジアに多くの日本町が形成された。
• Before the seclusion policy was implemented, the Japanese had expanded remarkably overseas, with many Japanese towns found in Southeast Asia.

• これは1957年～1960年分として支払われ、これ以前の分については時効だという解釈がされた。
• The money was for the national project from 1957 to 1960, and the parties concerned in the project and the company decided that the company did not have to pay for the project before 1957.

• ただし、一部の条里遺構には条里呼称法確立以前にまでその起源をさかのぼると考えられるものもある。
• However, origin of some jori remains are thought to date back before establishment of jori naming system.

• 『清凉記』の成立は天慶9年（946年）であるので、本書の成立は天慶9年以前でなくてはならない。
• Because 'Seiryoki' was complete in 946, this document must have been complete in 946 or before.

• 政宗の関ヶ原直前の所領58万石は度量衡改定以前の一反三百六十歩で計算されたものという説がある。
• There is a theory stating that the territorial value of his own land right before the Battle of Sekigahara, presented as 580,000 koku, had been calculated with the outdated measurement unit used before the scale and measurement revision, which was based on the unit of 1 tan (991.74m²) equal to 360 bu (1 bu was 3.3m²).

• そのため、667年の2月27日以前には、大来皇女と大津皇子の母の大田皇女は死去したと思われる。
• Therefore, Ota no Himemiko, the mother of Oku no Himemiko and Imperial Prince Otsu, seem to have passed away before March 30, 667.

• しかし、江戸時代以前の沿革についての確証はなく、自らの正統性を主張する為のものとみられている。
• However, there was no historical evidence that supports the family's history before the Edo period, and this story was probably created by themselves to appeal the legitimacy as a venerable family.

• こうした地域差が、姶良Tn火山灰降灰以前に形成されていた証拠が各地で知られるようになってきた。
• There have been evidences in various places that show these regional differences were formed before Aira-Tn ash fall.

• 日本国内では以前、外国為替および外貨両替を扱うことができるのは外国為替公認銀行に限られていた。
• In former times only the authorized foreign exchange banks were allowed to handle foreign exchange and foreign money exchange in Japan.

• つまり清朝の宣戦布告以前より、列強は中国に軍隊を派遣し義和団掃討作戦を実施していたことになる。
• In other words, the allied western powers dispatched an army to China and implemented a clean up operation of the Boxers even before proclamation of war by the Qing dynasty.

• また近代小説に対比させて、近代以前の文学作品やその様式のことを物語と呼んで区別することもある。
• Moreover, literary works and styles before the modern times are sometimes called monogatari to differentiate from modern novels.

• 少なくとも延慶本の本奥書、延慶 (日本)2年（1309年）以前には成立していたものと思われる。
• It seems to have been completed at least before 1309, when the original okugaki (postscript) of the Engyo-bon manuscript was made.

• 「浦島太郎」という名前は中世から登場し、それ以前は水江浦嶼子を略して「浦島子」と呼ばれている。
• The name 'Urashima Taro' appeared in Medieval times, but before that the character was called 'Ura Shimako,' which was a shortened version of Mizunoe no ura no Shimako.

• だが、戸籍・計帳・班田収授は大宝律令で初めて見られる用語であり、それ以前の文書には出てこない。
• However, those terms, koseki (the household registers), keicho (the yearly tax registers), and Handen Shuju (periodic reallocations of rice land) were terms used for the first time in the Taiho Ritsuryo (Taiho Code), and they never appeared in documents before that.

• 近世以前、戦場では敵将を倒し組み伏せて、日本刀でその首をとる事がなされたが、これを組討という。
• Before modern times, in a battle field, an enemy general was beheaded with a Japanese sword after being pushed down, which was called Kumiuchi.

• 以前は西港の舞鶴港湾合同庁舎付近がフェリー埠頭であり、東港の前島埠頭付近に海保が常駐していた。
• The wharf of the ferry was once located near the Maizuru port joint government building of the West Port, and maritime safety officials were regularly stationed near the Maejima Wharf of the East Port.

• これは、鎌倉時代以前に日本に入ってきたと見られており、以後、権力者たちがこれを切り取っている。
• This is thought to have come into Japan before the Kamakura period, and thereafter men of power tried to obtain pieces of it.
• It is considered that this bulky Jinko was brought to Japan prior to the Kamakura period, and thereafter, powerful leaders of the time cut pieces from the bulk.

• 日本へは奈良時代に遣唐使によって伝えられたともされるが、それ以前に伝わっていた可能性も大きい。
• Another theory is that tofu was introduced into Japan by a Japanese envoy to the Tang Dynasty of China in the Nara period, but it's very possible that tofu was introduced prior to that time.

• しかし清正とは以前より不仲であり、作戦をめぐって対立するなど、後に武断派と対立する一因を成した。
• However, he had been on bad terms with Kiyomasa and confronted with him over operations, which caused him to confront with a military government group.

• ただし、近江の豪族・毛野と筑紫の豪族・磐井との間に、それ以前に交流があったかどうかは不明である。
• But it remains unclear whether up until this point the Kena, the powerful family that ruled Omi, had actually had any interactions with the Iwai, the powerful family that controlled Tsukushi.

• 令制以前にはこのような機関は無く、唐の律令制における宗正寺（そうせいじ）を模倣したと考えられる。
• Before the Ritsuryo system, there was no such institution and it is considered to have imitated the Court of the Imperial Clan (Zongzheng Si) in the Ritsuryo system during the Tang Dynasty.

• 章立てが現在行われている青表紙本・河内本という区分が成立する以前と以後とで大きく分けられている。
• The book was roughly divided into the two parts: before and after the distinction between the Aobyoshi-bon and the Kawachi-bon was drawn.

• つまり7世紀以前に無文銀銭や富本銭などの貨幣が発行されこれらの貨幣が流通していたのは九州である。
• That is to say, it is Kyushu where currency such as Mumon-ginsen coin (Japan's oldest private silver coin) or Fuhonsen was issued and was used before the seventh century.

• これらの反論が『後漢書』や三国志『魏書』など古墳時代以前の古い記述には当てはまるかどうかは不明。
• It is unknown whether these theories are consistent with the old statements before the Kofun period such as 'Gokanjo'(historical records of the Later Han Dynasty) or Sangokushi (Annals of the Three Kingdoms), Gisho.

• 精霊船や供物は、以前は実際に海へと流されていたが、長崎市では1871年（明治4年）に禁止された。
• They used to release shorobune and offerings on water towards the sea, but the practice was banned in Nagasaki City in 1871.

• 童心とは経書など外的権威・道徳を学ぶ以前の純真な心を指し、読書学問によってかえって失われるとした。
• The child's mind is the pure mind before learning about morals and external authorities such as the Classics, and he said this is lost through reading and learning.

• 前項の記述の通り、近世以前の田圃は全て棚田だったため、歴史的には「棚田」と「田んぼ」の違いはない。
• As stated in the preceding paragraph, all the rice fields before the modern times were Tanada, so historically there was no distinction between 'Tanada' and 'rice paddies.'

• 藤原は姓であり、家名でも苗字でもないため、明治以前においては「藤原家」なる家は公家には存在しない。
• Since FUJIWARA is a kabane (hereditary title), and not a family name nor a last name, there was no 'Fujiwara-ke' (Fujiwara family) among court nobles before the Meiji period.

• 明和2年以降は銭座は金座および銀座の監督下に置かれ鋳銭定座となり、以前と異なり常設のものとなった。
• After 1765, zeniza was brought under control of kin-za and gin-za and became a fixed guild of mintage, a permanent organization different from before.

• つまり、近代以前の法観念においては礼銭と賄賂の境界線は微妙で曖昧であったことに留意する必要がある。
• In short, it is necessary to bear in mind that the line between the reisen and bribery was subtle and ambiguous in the legal concepts before the modern era.

• 近代以前からの伝統的な仏教研究の上に、西洋近代の実証的・客観的な学問体系と方法論を初めて導入した。
• He introduced modern Western empirical and objective learning system and methodology to premodern traditional Buddhist studies for the first time.

• 文永年間以前まで見られた北条一門は寄合衆のメンバーから消え、得宗家被官である御内人が台頭してくる。
• The Hojo clan who used to be among yoriaishu (members of a top decision-making organization) up until the Bunei era (1264 - 1274) were replaced by miuchibito, private vassals of the Tokuso family.

• 魏志倭人伝には、卑弥呼が邪馬台国を治める以前は、諸国が対立し互いに攻め合っていたという記述がある。
• Gishiwajinden (literally, an 'Account of the Wa' in 'The History of the Wei Dynasty') describes that there were conflicts between various districts before Himiko ruled the Yamatai-Koku kingdom.

• にもかかわらず、これに続く巻では昇進以前の官名のままで呼ばれているといった官名の記述に矛盾がある。
• Nevertheless, in the following chapters, there are inconsistent descriptions of official titles, for example, some characters are called by their old titles.

• 現在の茶室でよく見られる躙り口も利休の考案であり、彼以前には縁側から障子を開けて茶席に入っていた。
• As it is popular as a current tea room, the idea of a square door called nijiriguchi (crawling entrance) was developed by Rikyu, and before that, people entered a tea room by shoji (a paper sliding door) situated between the tea room and engawa (a veranda or terrace surrounding the house in Japanese architecture).

• 律令制度のもとでしばしば行われた方法であり、近代以前の日本の政治意思決定方法の原則的手法であった。
• This was the way that had been often used under the legal code system and basically adopted for decision-making in Japanese politics before recent times.

• 奈良時代以前の日本では、「厨子」と言う言葉がまだ使われておらず、仏堂形式の厨子を「宮殿」と呼んだ。
• The word 'Zushi' was not used in Japan before the Nara period, and the Buddhist alter cases in the form of a temple were called 'Kuden'.

• 各牛丼チェーンにて牛丼が復活したが、いずれも300円台とBSE騒動以前の価格より値上げされている。
• Gyudon chains revived gyudon but raised the prices to the 300 yen range from the price level set before the BSE problem occurred.

• 昭和期に入り竹内巨麿が世に広めた竹内文書もまた，『古事記』以前の歴史書というふれ込みで話題となった。
• During the Showa period, the ' Takeuchi document' which was spread by Kiyomaro TAKEUCHI, also came up in conversation with the announcement that it was a historical book written in the age before 'Records of Ancient Matters.'

• ここまでに鋳造された寛永通寳は古寛永と呼ばれ、以前に広く流通した輸入銭と比較して良質のものであった。
• Kanei Tsuho which had been minted by this time was called Kokanei, and had a better quality than imported coins which had been widely circulated.

• 朝廷では徳川時代以前の古例を持ち出し、朱子学を正当とする定信と対抗し、朝幕間の学問的論争に発展する。
• The Imperial Court brought up an old case from before the Tokugawa Period to counter Sadanobu, who justified his opposition with Shushigaku (Neo-Confucianism based on the teachings of Zhu Xi and his followers), and so this developed into a scholarly dispute between the Imperial Court and the Bakufu.

• 「神別」の姓氏とは、神武天皇以前の神代に別れ、あるいは生じた氏族のことで、404氏が挙げられている。
• The 404 clans of 'Shinbetsu' were clans that had branched out from the age of the gods or appeared before the time of Emperor Jimmu.

• 江戸時代以前の大手メジャーは、政商として商圏を国際的に拡大し、多方面にわたる貿易に乗り出していった。
• The major sakaya having existed in the Edo period or before started expanding their business internationally as seisho, advancing into various trade fields.

• 以前にもまして付加価値をつけ、競争に立ち向かって行く酒屋以外の生き残りは厳しいことになりそうである。
• It is likely that, for retail sake shops to survive in these situations, there would be no other means than confronting the competition through further providing additional values to their products to be sold.

• 昆陽の試作以前に、関東郡代伊奈忠逵（1712年 - 1750年）のもとで、甘藷栽培が試みられていた。
• Before Konyo made the trial pieces, under Tadamichi INA (1712 to 1750) of Kanto gundai (a magistrate of Kanto region), the cultivation of sweet potatoes was tried.

• 清正以前の肥後は有力大名が現われず国人が割拠する時代が続き、佐々成政でさえも収拾できず荒廃していた。
• In Higo Province before Kiyomasa, no influential Daimyo had appeared and the age of rival Kokujin (local lords) continued, and even Narimasa SASSA was unable to get the situation under control, leaving the province devastated.

• 平安以前でも国民は天皇の御座のあるところを都ととらえ、陪都への行幸もその滞在が長ければ遷都と呼んだ。
• Before Heian period, the people considered that the capital was the place where emperor resided, and when emperor extended the stay in secondary capital during the visit, they regarded it as a transfer of the capital.

• 次いで明治となる以前から洋学者として頭角を現し、江戸幕府の開成所などに召し抱えられていたことである。
• Second, they stood out as scholars of Western studies before the Meiji Restoration and worked for Kaiseijo (School for Western Studies) of the Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) and so on.

• その運動は、社会主義協会 (1900年)（社会民主党結成以前から存在）と平民社に受け継がれていった。
• Their movement was passed on to the Shakaishugi kyokai (the Socialist Association), which was formed in 1900 prior to the Shakai minshuto's establishment, and the Heiminsha (the newspaper company that published the Heimin Shinbun, the Commoner's News).

• 私擬憲法（しぎけんぽう）とは、明治時代の大日本帝国憲法発布以前に、民間で検討された憲法の私案のこと。
• Shigi Kenpo are draft constitutions created by nongovernmental bodies before the issuance of the Constitution of the Empire of Japan in the Meiji period.

• なお近世以前は「こんじゃくものがたり」とは読まず、「いまはむかしのものがたり」と読まれていたらしい。
• Apparently, people before the early modern period did not pronounce the title as 'konjaku monogatari' but as 'ima wa mukashi no monogatari.'

• 以前は「五座三座」と呼ばれ方便（方便品）・自我偈（如来寿量品）を朝は5度、晩は3度唱える形式だった。
• In the past, the believers had chanted hoben (Hoben-bon) and jigage (Nyoraijuryo-bon) five times every morning and three times every night; this practice had been called 'goza, sanza.'

• その意味で葬儀は、宗教が文明に発生する以前の旧石器時代から行われてきていた宗教的行為であるといえる。
• In that sense, funeral ceremonies are religious acts which had been observed since Paleolithic Period before religions were created in civilization.

• 奄美諸島では江戸時代から第二次世界大戦以前まで、泡盛や黒糖酒（黒砂糖原料の蒸留酒）が製造されていた。
• In the Amami island chain, Awamori and Kokutoshu (distilled liquor made from brown sugar) were produced since the Edo period until before World War II.

• この新しい様式は上方の人士から熱狂的な支持を受け、義太夫節はそれ以前の古浄瑠璃を圧倒することになる。
• This new pattern won the enthusiastic support of the people in the Kamigata region, and Gidayu-bushi overwhelmed the old Joruri.

• 中国では、早くより目録学の考え方が発達しており、日本にも奈良時代以前の段階に伝来したと考えられている。
• Bibliography developed in ancient China, and it is thought that it was brought to Japan prior to the Nara Period.

• 「国宝」という語の指す意味は文化財保護法施行（1950年（昭和25年））以前と以後とでは異なっている。
• The definition of the term 'national treasure' (kokuho) changed in 1950 when the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties came into force, and as such the pre- and post-1950 meanings of the term differ.

• 地租改正は全ての土地に課税されるものとし、以前に認められていた恩賞や寺社領などに対する免税を否認した。
• Land-tax reform levied all the lands and denied Onsho (reward grants) or tax exemption for territories of temples and shrines, which had been approved before.

• 春日大社は藤原氏の氏社として知られ、明治維新以前は隣接する同氏の氏寺である興福寺と一体の存在であった。
• Kasuga-taisha Shrine is known as the Fujiwara clan's 'Uji-sha Shrine'(shrine built for praying clan's glory), and before the Meiji Restoration, it was closely linked with the neighboring Kofuku-ji Temple, which was the Fujiwara clan's 'Uji-dera Temple' (temple built for praying clan's glory).

• 鳥羽伏見の戦い以前に、新選組隊内において粛清された隊士は初代局長芹沢鴨や新見錦らを含めて41名である。
• The total number of Shinsen-gumi members purged up to the Battle of Toba Fushimi, including Kamo SERIZAWA (initial Commander) and Nishiki NIIMI, is 41.

• 岡崎村は、市制町村制施行以前の明治21年（1888年）、当時の上京区に編入され、上京区岡崎町となった。
• Okazaki village was incorporated into the then Kamigyo Ward to become Okazaki-cho, Kamigyo Ward in 1888 before the Municipal Government Act came into effect.

• 吉田村は、市制町村制施行以前の明治21年（1888年）、当時の上京区に編入され、上京区吉田町となった。
• Yoshida village was incorporated into the then Kamigyo Ward to become Yoshida-cho, Kamigyo Ward in 1888 before the Municipal Government Act came into effect.

• 上述のように、鯰絵は以前に存在したさまざまな出版物を下敷きとし、また当時の世俗を反映したものであった。
• As described above, namazu-e based on various existing published materials reflected popular customs at that time.

• 家康は吉政に、関ヶ原の戦い以前から、佐和山城周辺や、逃走経路を調査させ、三成の捕縛も直接指示していた。
• Ieyasu ordered Yoshimasa to investigate around Sawayama-jo Castle and look for possible escape routes before the battle of Sekigahara and directed the capture of Mitsunari immediately.

• 同時に'International Law'の現在の訳語「国際法」以前に使用されていた旧訳語でもある。
• At the same time, it was a term used as a translation of 'international law' before the current translation 'kokusaiho.'

• 幕府はあわてて文化10年（1827年）にふたたび文化8年以前どおりに無株者の酒造りを許す旨を示達した。
• In 1827, the bakufu hurriedly issued an order to again allow mukabumono to brew sake as it had before 1825.

• 以前は黄色く染色したものが普通で、稀に青や赤に染めることもあったが、現在では生成りの白が好まれている。
• Yellow-colored ito was common previously with few exceptions of blue or red ones, but plain white ones are popular at present.

• 九条ネギが巨大なプラスティックケースで（以前は金ザルだった）、テーブルにおかれ、自由に入れ放題である。
• Leek from Kujo is placed in a huge plastic case (used to be a metallic colander) on a table, which is available on an all-you-can eat basis.

• これを皮肉を込めて「山階道理」（山階寺は平安遷都よりも遥か以前に山科区にあった興福寺の前身）と呼ばれた。
• These unreasonable demands were sarcastically called 'Yamashina dori' (Yamashina arguments), and this Yamashina came from Yamashina-dera Temple (the predecessor of Kofuku-ji Temple), which was located in today's Yamashina Ward of Kyoto long before the national capital was transferred to Heian-kyo (today's Kyoto).

• 特に町村レベルには上からの法定以前に自治があったので、ここでの承認は自治拡大を意味するものではなかった。
• In particular, because the self-government at the level of towns and villages had already existed before being fixed by the central government, approval in this case did not mean greater autonomy for municipalities.

• 大化以前の屯田（みた)・御宅（みやけ）に由来し、『大宝律令』では屯田といい、『延喜式』では三宅田という。
• It originated from Mita or Miyake before Taika, and was called Mita and Miyaketa in 'Taiho Ritsuryo Code' and 'the Engishiki' (an ancient book for codes and procedures on national rites and prayers), respectively.

• 公文式施行以前に公布された太政官布告・太政官達は、以後に成立した法令に反しない限り、その効力を保有する。
• Any Dajokan Fukoku or Tasshi issued prior to the establishment of Kobun-shiki system remains valid unless it contradicts a law promulgated afterwards.

• 以前の地方の銭座の中には引き続き鋳銭事業が継続された所もあるが、これらについても金座の監督下に置かれた。
• Some of the old local zeniza continued mintage, but they were also brought under control of kin-za.

• 1999年（平成11年）に国旗及び国歌に関する法律で公認される以前の明治時代から国歌として扱われてきた。
• It has been treated as Japan's National Anthem since the Meiji Period even before it was officially recognized by the Law Regarding the National Flag and Anthem in 1999.

• 白川が形成した扇状地には縄文時代の住居跡が遺されるなど、有史以前から人間が居住していたと考えられている。
• The alluvial fan formed by the Shira-kawa River is thought to have been inhabited by humans from the prehistoric age as evidenced by dwelling sites from the Jomon period remaining in the area.

• 鹿谷村は、市制町村制施行以前の明治21年（1888年）、当時の上京区に編入され、上京区鹿ケ谷町となった。
• Shishigatani village was incorporated into the then Kamigyo Ward to become Shishigatani-cho, Kamigyo Ward in 1888 before the Municipal Government Act came into effect.

• 即ち、中世以前の武家の主従関係は利害を共有することにより成立し、けして絶対的なものではなかったのである。
• As shown above, the relationship of master and vassal among samurai until the medieval period was based only on the common interests of both parties and was not absolute.

• 光盛は承安 (日本)2年（1172年）の生まれなので、両者の婚姻は承安元年（1171年）以前と見られる。
• As Mitsumori was born in 1172, it is inferred that they were married in 1171 or earlier.

• 1240年に父の吉川朝経が死去、当時の経光の年齢は49歳であり、それ以前に家督を相続していたと思われる。
• When his father Tomotsune KIKKAWA died in 1240, Tsunemitsu was already 49 years old thus it is likely that he had already inherited the family headship.

• 没した日について、『一色軍記』においては本能寺の変以前の2月に義俊（義定）が殺害されたことになっている。
• According to 'Isshiki Gunki,' Yoshitoshi (Yoshisada) was killed in February, which was before the Honnoji Incident.

• 俳諧には発句（のち俳句に）とこの連句の形式があるが、江戸時代以前には「俳諧」とは連句形式のことであった。
• Haikai consists of hokku (later called haiku) and renku, but before the Edo period 'haikai' meant the form of renku.

• それ以前の応仁元年（1467年）以降の部分は応仁の乱によって焼失したことが現存部分の冒頭に記されている。
• It is recorded at the beginning of what remains of the diary that earlier parts of the diary dating back to before 1467 were destroyed in a fire during the Onin War.

• 近世以前、軍事における戦略、戦術、戦闘、（格闘も含む場合がある）、について体系化したものを兵法といった。
• Before the modern times, systematized war strategies, tactics, battles (may include wrestling) in military affairs were referred to as Heiho (art of warfare).

• 平安時代以前の怨霊とみられるものとしては、大和政権が征服を進める際に敵方の霊を弔ったという隼人塚がある。
• Examples of appearance of onryo prior to the Heian Period include the Hayato burial mound at which it is said the Yamato Government mourned the spirits of the enemy during its conquest of the region.

• その選定基準は明治以前から京都府内で生産されていた品種としており、その後も数品種が追加選定をされている。
• The criterion for selection is whether or not a prospective variety has been produced since the Meiji period or earlier in Kyoto Prefecture, and several varieties were additionally designated.

• 以前は必ず砂糖とミルクの入った状態でコーヒーが提供されていたが、近年はこれらを分けるか事前に質問される。
• In the past, sugar and milk were served already mixed in the coffee, but in recent years, customers are asked if they want them separately.

• 今川市長が古都税を入れた動機には、かつて京都市が古都税以前にも同類の観光税を実施していた例があるとされる。
• It is also said that an earlier example of introducing a similar taxation by Kyoto city motivated mayor IMAGAWA to establish the Old Capital Tax.

• 聖護院村は、市制町村制施行以前の明治21年（1888年）、当時の上京区に編入され、上京区聖護院町となった。
• Shogoin village was incorporated into the then Kamigyo Ward to become Shogoin-cho, Kamigyo Ward in 1888 before the Municipal Government Act came into effect.

• 粟田口村は、市制町村制施行以前の明治21年（1888年）、当時の上京区に編入され、上京区粟田口町となった。
• Awataguchi village was incorporated into the then Kamigyo Ward to become Awataguchi-cho, Kamigyo Ward in 1888 before the Municipal Government Act came into effect.

• 南禅寺村は、市制町村制施行以前の明治21年（1888年）、当時の上京区に編入され、上京区南禅寺町となった。
• Nanzenji village was incorporated into the then Kamigyo Ward to become Nanzenji-cho, Kamigyo Ward in 1888 before the Municipal Government Act came into effect.

• 浄土寺村は、市制町村制施行以前の明治21年（1888年）、当時の上京区に編入され、上京区浄土寺町となった。
• Jodoji village was incorporated into the then Kamigyo Ward to become Jodoji-cho, Kamigyo Ward in 1888 before the Municipal Government Act came into effect.

• 戦国時代以前においては律令制に基づく軍団 (古代日本)制を除き、備のような系統だった部隊編成は見られない。
• Before the Sengoku Period, except for the troops based on the Ritsuryo system (ancient Japan), no troop organization existed that resembled sonae.

• 『図書寮本類聚名義抄』（康和4年（1103年）までに成立）に載っているので、それ以前に成立したとみられる。
• In view of the fact that this book was compiled in 'Zushoryo Text Ruiju Myogisho' (compiled in 1103 at the latest), it is considered that the book was written earlier than the above.

• 以前、忠興が信長の小刀の柄に九曜が描かれているのを大変気に入っていたことを信長が覚えていたためと言われる。
• It is said that Nobunaga did this because he remembered how taken Tadaoki had been by the Kuyo (nine-planet crest) motif etched on the hilt of his (Nobunaga's) short sword.

• しかし、元治元年六月（1864年7月8日）の池田屋事変の際に名がないことからそれ以前に脱走したと思われる。
• However, judging from the fact that Shimenoshin's name was not included in a record of the Ikedaya Incident taking place on July 8, 1864, he supposedly escaped before then.

• そこで、細石器段階以前を初期尖頭器、以降を発達期の尖頭器と呼ぶこともあるが、両者の差異はかなり顕著である。
• Therefore, the point before the appearance of microlith is called 'early point' and the one after microlith is called 'point in developing period,' and the difference between these styles is considerably remarkable.

• 但し以前よく使われていた一条兼良がまとめた旧年立では16歳となり、この他にも15歳説や19歳説も存在した。
• However, according to the old chronologies which was constructed by Kanera ICHIJO and frequently referred to before, he was 16, and moreover there were theories that he was 15 or 19 other than this.

• なお、明治以前には、江戸では「銭湯」「湯屋（ゆうや）」と呼び、上方では「風呂屋」と呼ぶのが一般的であった。
• Before the Meiji period, public bathhouses were generally called 'sento' or 'yuya' in Edo and were called 'furoya' in Kamigata (the area of Kyoto and Osaka).

• 江戸時代以前より浅草寺と品川湊あるいは利根川・荒川 (関東)と多摩川に挟まれた港町・宿場町として栄えていた。
• Bordered by the Tonegawa and Arakawa (Kanto) rivers and by the Tamagawa River, the area, where Sensoji Temple and Shinagawa Minato Port were located, thrived as a port town and a post station since sometime before the Edo period

• 天武10年に皇子表記が使用されていることは、それ以前に天皇表記が用いられていることの証左だと考えられている。
• The fact that the notation of oji is used in 681 is thought of as proof that the notation of tenno was used from before this time.

• 鎌倉文化の特徴としては、武士や庶民の新しい文化が以前の貴族文化と拮抗し、文化の二元性がでてきたところにある。
• One of the most striking features of Kamakura period culture is the rise of a new warrior and commoner culture in opposition to the existing aristocratic culture; the period saw the emergence of dual cultures.

• 執筆年代は明らかではないが、貞陸が大永元年（1521年）に59歳で没していることから、それ以前の著作となる。
• It is not clear when Sadamichi wrote the book; however, he wrote it in 1521 or earlier as he died at the age of 59 in that year.

• 現存する平安時代以前の神社建築には、上述した山岳宗教の遺構「三仏寺投入堂」と宇治上神社本殿があるのみである。
• The 'Nageire-do Hall of the Sanbutsu-ji Temple,' a remnant of mountain religion described earlier, and Ujigami-jinja Shrine Honden (main shrine building) are the only existing examples of shrine architecture before the Heian period.

• 系譜としては奈良時代以前の「家人（けにん）」の流れを引くものであり、主家へ累代一身専属するのが普通であった。
• Shoju were descended from 'Kenin' (houseman) that existed before the Nara period, and usually belonged to the master's house by themselves from generation to generation.

• 平安時代以前には、朝廷には造酒司（もしくは造酒寮）が、神社には酒殿が置かれて、民間では自家製造が主であった。
• In the Heian period or before it, miki no tsukasa or sake no tsukasa (written either 造酒司 or 造酒寮) (either indicating the office in charge of the imperial use of sake, sweet sake, or vinegar etc.) was placed in the Imperial Court, saka-dono (literally, a sake hall) was placed in shrines, and for private purposes, people manufactured sake by themselves.

• それらは現在の形になる以前に模写された模本により、描かれた当時、あるいはその中間の形を推定することができる。
• By the copies and fragmentary leaves that are left today, the originals drawn at the time or intermediate works can be presumed.

• ただし、法華経に見られる羅刹女の名称については法華経陀羅尼品以前の出所が不明であり、研究の対象になっている。
• It should be noted, however, that the source of the names of rasetsunyo in Hokekyo prior to Hokekyo Daranihon is unknown and it is the subject of study.

• 涅槃経の経文を要約すると、「涅槃経は如来が蔵している秘密であり、涅槃経以前の教説には説いていないものである。
• Sutras of Nehan-gyo can be summarized as 'Nehan-gyo is a secret that Nyorai (Tathagata) possesses and is not preached in teachings before Nehan-gyo.

• それ以前は、空手の盛んだった地域名から、単に首里手、泊手、那覇手の三つに、大まかに分類されていたにすぎない。
• Previously, karate was merely divided into three loose groups by areas in which karate was popular: Shuri-te, Tomari-te and Naha-te.

• 既に締結されていた英仏協商と併せて、欧州情勢は日露戦争以前の英・露仏・独墺伊の三勢力が鼎立していた状況だった。
• Before the Russo-Japanese War, Europe was alligned into three major blocs of England, Russia/France, and Germany/Austria/Italy, underlined by an Entente Cordiale concluded between England and France.

• 以前、町に放火するなどして民衆の反感を買ったことを反省した天狗党は、略奪・殺戮を堅く禁じるなどの軍規を定めた。
• Tenguto, which regretted about setting fire to the town and causing opposition by the people, set internal rules and banned looting and killing.

• そもそも旅行自体が庶民にとっては一生に何回できるかどうか（高度成長期以前の海外旅行のような位置づけであろう）。
• Traveling, in the first place, was a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity for the common people (like traveling abroad before the high-growth period).

• これらは、山地の隆起以前、平地を蛇行していた頃の流路をそのまま保った川による侵食によって形成されたものである。
• These were formed by erosion by the rivers that kept its meandering stream which had been already fixed on the level lands before the upheaval of the mountains began.

• ただし開発が進んでいるのは京阪神に近い県南部であり、以前からあった県北部との経済格差が広がる事態となっている。
• However, only the southern part, which is close to 'Keihanshin' (Osaka, Kyoto and Kobe) has developed and the economic gap between the southern and northern parts, which had been problematic, has widened.

• 駄賃馬稼（だちんうまかせぎ）とは、近代以前の日本においてウマの背中に貨物や人を乗せて輸送に従事する職業のこと。
• Dachin-uma kasegi refers to an occupation in Japan before modern times that engaged in the transportation of freight and people by carrying them on horseback.

• 但し、室町時代以前の守護大名や守護代、国人領主と戦国大名の大きな違いは強固な家臣団を形成し得たかどうかにある。
• The big difference between the Sengoku daimyo and the Shugo daimyo (military governors), Shugodai and Kokujin ryoshu from the Muromachi period, however, was in whether or not they could organize strong Kashindan.

• 「正継」は三成出世後の名乗りであり、それ以前は政成・為成・晴成など名乗っていたらしいが、何れもはっきりしない。
• Apparently originally called Masanari, Tamenari, or Harunari (though this is uncertain), 'Masatsugu' was the name he used after his son, Mitsunari, became successful.

• 彼の在職以前から大坂において江戸の商人が投機目的で幕府の認可を得た買占め行為を行い米価を不当につり上げていた。
• Before he was in office, merchants in Edo had bought up rice in Osaka for speculation purposes with the consent of the bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) and unreasonably raised rice price.

• 現代の研究では、『古事記』や『日本書紀』の継体天皇以前の記述、特に編年は正確さを保証できないと考えられている。
• In today's researches, the descriptions on the events before the Emperor Keitai in 'Kojiki' and 'Nihonshoki,' especially the year of edition, are thought to be inaccurate.

• 特に、この『奥州後三年記』に登場する為次以前に混乱が見られるが、為次の子、義次（義継）の代から三浦庄司とある。
• Especially, there is a confusion about the family tree before Tametsugu who appeared in this 'Oshu Gosannen Ki,' and there is a description of Shoji (administrator of a manor) of the Miura manor from the generation of Yoshitsugu, a son of Tametsugu.

• 治承・寿永の乱以前から北陸各地では、延暦寺の末寺である白山神社の衆徒・神人たちと国衙勢力との間に対立が見られた。
• In various locations in the Hokuriku region, the monk-soldiers and the jinin (associates of Shinto shrines) of Hakuzan-jinja Shrine, a branch shrine of Enryaku-ji Temple, had clashed with kokuga seiryoku (the force of the provincial headquarters) even before the Jisho-Juei War.

• 坂本賞三らはこの時期を王朝国家体制の変質期であるとして、同時期以前を前期王朝国家、以降を後期王朝国家と区分する。
• Shozo SAKAMOTO etc. defined this period as the changing period of the Dynastic polity and based on it, they separate the Dynastic polity period into the early Dynastic polity period and the late Dynastic polity period.

• 出兵を命じたものの、栗隈王が以前大海人皇子に従っていたことから、彼もまた背くかもしれないと弘文天皇は疑っていた。
• While Emperor Kobun commanded dispatch of troops, the emperor suspected that Saeki would also betray because Prince Kurikuma used to obey Prince Oama before.

• だが、『萬葉集』には8世紀以前の防人の歌は無いので、防人が置かれたのは九州王朝が滅亡した7世紀末頃と考えられる。
• Since the waka poems of Sakimori were not contained in 'Manyoshu' (Japan's oldest anthology of poems) before the eighth century, Sakimori is considered to be placed when the Kyusyu dynasty was destroyed at the end of the seventh century.

• 日本の竈も社会の高度化に伴って多様化し、七輪のような移動の簡便な焜炉が発展する以前より、長く広く利用されていた。
• Japanese-style kamado increased in variation with the advancement of society, and they had been used widely for a long time before the portable cooking charcoal stove developed.

• 浄土側曰く　釈尊が四十余年の修行をもって以前の経を捨つるなら、汝は方座第四の「妙」の一字を捨てるか、捨てざるか。
• The Jodoshu sect says: If Shakyamuni trained forty-odd years and abandoned the sutra he learned before, do you abandon a letter 'Myo' of the fourth Hoza?

• 1998年（平成9年）以前は、すべての酒造好適米において心白は「粒の平面の1/2以上の大きさ」と規定されていた。
• Up through the year 1998, it was stipulated that shinpaku must have 'the size of one half the fair surface of the grain or larger' for all varieties of shuzo kotekimai.

• 江戸時代、唐箕が普及する以前は脱穀後、選別する籾を箕などに入れて掲げ、人の手による風で籾殻を飛ばし選別していた。
• Before winnower came into wide use, put on a basket like winnow after grain threshing, paddy was separated from rice husks by wind made by hand in the Edo period.

• 近世以前の事例を見ると、一部の例外を除いて、切腹は敵に捕縛され、斬首されることを避けるための自決に限られている。
• With certain exceptions, the examination of early modern period examples shows that seppuku was limited to serving as a means of committing suicide in order to avoid being beheaded after being captured by one's enemy.

• 特定名称の使用が定められる以前は、特級、一級、二級という日本酒級別制度が存在した（詳しくは日本酒の歴史を参照）。
• Before the use of specific names is provided for, there existed the sake grading system of tokkyu (special class), ikkyu (first class) and nikyu (second class). (For more information, refer to the 'History of Sake.')

• 上田は東信濃の小県郡にあり、この付近は上田城築城以前から武田氏・上杉氏・後北条氏の国境として不安定な地域であった。
• Ueda is located in Chiisagata-gun in eastern Shinano, and this area had been unstable before Ueda-jo Castle was built because it was the border of the Takeda clan, Uesugi clan, and the Gohojo clan.

• 条約締結以前、大量の米が対馬に流出したことがあったため、朝鮮側は穀類の輸出入禁止を提案したが、日本側が押し切った。
• As there had been a large outflow of rice to Tsushima before the conclusion of the treaty, Korea proposed the prohibition of the export and import of rice and grain, but Japan overcame the opposition from Korea successfully.

• 内蔵寮の起源は律令制以前の三蔵、大蔵（おおくら）・内蔵（うちくら）・斎蔵（いみくら）の一つである内蔵にさかのぼる。
• The origins of the Kuraryo can be traced to Uchikura, which is one of the Mitsunokura (Okura, Uchikura, and Imikura) that existed before the Ritsuryo system,

• 平安京造営以前には、古烏丸谷（現在の烏丸通付近）や古堀川谷（堀川通付近）に自然の河川が流れていたと推測されている。
• It is supposed that, before construction of Heian-kyo was completed, natural water flows existed in the former Karasuma valley (古烏丸谷) (around present Karasuma-dori Street) and in the former Horikawa valley (古堀川谷) (around present Horikawa-dori Street).

• このことは税金を投入して対策を行う以上、無駄なことはできるだけ避けなければいけないため、以前より指摘されてはいた。
• The fact that such countermeasures are funded by taxpayer's money means that wastage must be avoided, and these initiatives therefore receive more attention than they once did.

• 郡の制度は701年（大宝元）施行の大宝令に始まるが、それ以前の地方行政組織は「評」と書かれ、「コオリ」と称された。
• The district system began with the enacting of the Taiho Code in 701 but regional administration organization before this time also consisted of 'kori' which was written using a different character (評).

• 一方で、蘭学への長崎通詞の寄与を軽視しており、青木・野呂ら、杉田玄白以前の蘭学について正確ではないとの批判がある。
• Some are critical to this book, however, arguing that it neglects contributions of Dutch interpreters in Nagasaki to Dutch studies, and that it did not accurately describe scholars of Dutch studies such as Aoki and Noro who were predecessors of Genpaku.

• 手児奈（てこな）とは、下総国勝鹿（葛飾）の真間（現在の千葉県市川市）に奈良時代以前に住んでいたとされる女性の名前。
• Tekona is the name of a woman who is believed to have lived in Mama, Katsushika, Shimosa Province (present-day Ichikawa City, Chiba Prefecture) before the Nara Period.

• 以前は体制（幕府）側という立ち位置から悪役に用いられる作品が多かったが、現在は必ずしもそうではなくなってきている。
• In the past, many works portrayed Hanzo HATTORI as a villain for his anti-government stance, but it is not necessarily the case now.

• 一般的には日本の文献が残されている時代、すなわち飛鳥時代 - 奈良時代を指すが、単に奈良時代以前を指す場合もある。
• Generally it refers to the period during which literature remains, namely, from the Asuka period to the Nara period, sometimes to the pre-Nara period.

• 次のことから記紀の編纂時にヤマト王権以前の都合の悪い記録を意図的に消しさった（徹底した焚書があった）と考えられる。
• As described below, it is assumed that some records that were not convenient for the Yamato kingship were intentionally erased (some books were burnt) when kiki (the Kojiki and Nihonshoki) was compiled.

• 足利尊氏が京都に武家政権を成立させると、以前から武士に人気のあった禅宗の五山が定められ、臨済宗は幕府に保護される。
• After Takauji ASHIKAGA established a military government in Kyoto, the five temples of the Zen sect, which had long been popular among samurai, were established and the Rinzai sect came under the protection of the shogunate.

• つまり、江戸時代以前の都市デザインが四神相応となるように設計されていても、その四神が山川道澤であるとは考えにくい。
• In fact, even though a city prior to the Edo period would have been designed to match the Shijin-so-o topography, it is very unlikely that the Four Gods were Mountain, River, Road and Lake.

• 揚げたてが格段に美味しく、1960年代以前は子供が揚げたてのコロッケを買ってその場でおやつに食べる風景も見られた。
• Korokke right out of the hot oil is particularly delicious, and before the 1960's children often ate freshly-fried korokke at shops for a snack.

• 4世紀後葉より以前ヤマトの王の墓はヤマト（奈良盆地）に営まれていたが、それ以降は河内平野に築かれることが多くなった。
• Until the latter half of the fourth century, the Yamato Kingdom's royal tombs were situated in Yamato (the Nara Basin), but after that, the majority were built in the Kawachi Plain.

• 織田政権・豊臣政権・江戸幕府はいずれも経済的特権に関しては、基本的には大津代官従属のもとで以前のものを承認し続けた。
• Concerning economic privilege, Oda, Toyotomi and Tokugawa (Edo) Governments basically inherited the former system by placing it under Otsu Daikan (regional officer of Otsu).

• 棟木の墨書銘から永暦2年（1161年）の建造であることが判明した（ただし、それ以前の前身堂の部材も再用されている）。
• It was identified as architecture of 1161 through the ink inscriptions of ridgepoles (materials of the hall that had stood there prior to that time were also used).

• 実父が寛永16年に藤岡から江戸に移っているので、生年がそれ以前ならば生地は藤岡、それ以後なら生地は江戸と推測される。
• Since his biological father moved from Fujioka to Edo in 1639, scholars assume that he must have been born in Fujioka if he was born prior to his father's move, or in Edo if he was born after his father moved.

• 家康はこれらの書物を関ヶ原以前より木版印刷（伏見版）で、大御所になってからは銅活字版（駿府版）で印刷・刊行していた。
• Ieyasu printed and published these books in wood block printing from before the Battle of Sekigahara (called Fushimi versions), and in copper character versions (called Sunpu versions).

• 父義元が家督を継ぐことなく永正13年（1516年）以前に没したため、同年10月4日、祖父吉良義信から家督を譲られる。
• He succeeded his grandfather Yoshinobu KIRA on November 8, 1516, because his father Yoshimoto had passed away prior to that year without taking over as the head of the family.

• しかし、同年七月（1863年8月～9月）の「在隊者リスト」には名前がないことからそれ以前に離隊したものと考えられる。
• However, judging from the fact that Shogen's name was not included in a 'List of Active-Duty Troops' which was created in August or September, 1863, he supposedly retired somewhere before then.
• However, judging from the fact that Takumi's name was not included in a 'List of Active-Duty Troops' which was created in August or September, 1863, he supposedly retired somewhere before then.
• However, judging from the fact that Yoji's name was not included in a 'List of Active-Duty Troops' which was created in August or September, 1863, he supposedly retired somewhere before then.
• However, judging from the fact that Kiminosuke's name was not included in a 'List of Active-Duty Troops' which was created in August or September, 1863, he supposedly retired somewhere before then.
• However, judging from the fact that Keisai's name was not included in a 'List of Active-Duty Troops' which was created in August or September, 1863, he supposedly retired somewhere before then.

• しかし、同年7月（1863年8月～9月）の「在隊者リスト」には名前がないことからそれ以前に離隊したものと考えられる。
• However, judging from the fact that Kentaro's name was not included in a 'List of Active-Duty Troops' which was created in August or September, 1863, he supposedly retired somewhere before then.

• 1409年、父・泰範の死により家督を相続する（泰範には没年に異説が多く、それ以前に家督を継いだとも考えられている）。
• In 1409, he took over as the family head due to his father Yasunori's death (there are various theories regarding the year of Yasunori's death and it is also said that he might have taken over earlier than 1409).

• 因みに、当時の華族は旧藩主と公家に限定されており、華族令制定以前にこの3例を除いて士族から華族に昇ることはなかった。
• The conferment of the peerage of that time was only limited to the former feudal domain heads and court nobles, and except for these three examples, nobody from shizoku (family or person with samurai ancestors) achieved to ascend to the peerage before the Peerage Law was enacted.

• 豊臣秀長の養子であった丹羽長秀男藤堂高吉は藤堂高虎の実子誕生以前にその養子になったが、実子藤堂高次が誕生すると廃嫡。
• Takayoshi TODO, who was born as the third son of Nagahide NIWA and later adopted by Hidenaga TOYOTOMI, was adopted by Takatora TODO, but he was disinherited after Takatsugu TODO, the biological child of Takatora TODO, was born.

• 「以前から、一品舍人親王、天皇の命を受けて日本紀の編纂に当たっていたが、この度完成し、紀三十巻と系図一巻を撰上した」
• Nihongi has been edited at the behest of Ippon (First Order of an Imperial Prince) Imperial Prince Toneri, now it is completed and thirty volumes of the history and one volume of genealogy are compiled and offered to the Emperor.'

• それ以前の、歴史としておもてに表れた部分（顕教）の背後に視座を置くことからこの仏教を顕教から区別して「密教」という。
• This Buddhism is called 'Esoteric Buddhism', and it is differentiated from exoteric Buddhism because it places its viewpoint behind the part that appears on the surface of history (exoteric Buddhism).

• これ以前にも、王仁（わに）が『論語』を持って渡来するなどしており、概ね5世紀頃には伝来していたものと考えられている。
• Prior to this, Wa Ni (Wang In) came and brought 'The Analects of Confucius,' and it is believed that it was introduced around the 5th century.

• 日本政府が白羽の矢を立てたのは、意外にも鎖国以前にスペイン領フィリピン総督を介して日本と外交実績のあるメキシコだった。
• Unexpectedly, Japan chose Mexico with which Japan had had a diplomatic relation before its national isolation with the aid of a governor-general of the Spanish-owned Philippines.

• その後、太閤検地により、土地には直接の耕作者の権利しか認められなくなり、以前までの重層的支配構造は名実共に解消された。
• After that, based on the Taiko kenchi, only new cultivator's rights became effective, resulting in the disappearance of the old multilayered land governance structure in both reality and in name.

• 翌年永禄4年（1561年）6月20日付けの資料に「長政」の名が見えることから、これ以前に、名を長政と改めたと思われる。
• Since the name Nagamasa appears on documents dated June 20, 1561 (old lunar calendar), the following year, it seems he reassumed the name Nagamasa before this date.

• しかし安麻呂は以前より大海人皇子と親しくしており、「有意ひて言へ（こころえてお話なさいませ）」と大海人皇子に忠告した。
• Yasumaro, who had a close and approved relation with Prince Oama, recommended him to 'think twice before you speak words to the Emperor'.

• 大宝律令以前は膳職という官司であったが、大宝律令制定時に、天皇の食事を掌る内膳司と饗膳の食事を掌る大膳職に分割された。
• Before the Taiho Ritsuryo (Taiho Code), it was a government office called Zenshiki, but when Taiho Ritsuryo was formulated it was divided into Naizenshi (Imperial Table Office) which served Emperor's food and Daizenshiki which served hospitable foods.

• なぜなら、以前より軍事的衝突を回避しようとしていた松平春嶽ら列侯会議派が常に政府の主導権の巻き返しを図ろうとしていた。
• There were other factors behind this feeling of deflation within the new governments side; one factor, Shungaku MATSUDAIRA and some other members in the council of the feudal lords' party, made previous efforts for avoiding militaristic conflicts between the two opponents; however, they always attempted to recover from any setbacks, proceeding to regain their initiative.

• この小袖から現在の和服のように袖幅を大きく仕立てるようになる（慶長以前は肩幅が大きく、袖幅は肩幅の半分しかなかった）。
• From this type of kosode, the sodehaba (sleeve size) began to be tailored wider like today's kimono (before the Keicho era, shoulder width of the kosode was tailored larger and sodehaba was only a half of a shoulder width).

• 以前は、古墳時代と合わせて大和時代とされていた時期があったが、今日では古墳時代と飛鳥時代に分けて捉えるのが一般的である。
• Formerly the Asuka and Kofun Periods were together called the Yamato Period, but today it is common to separate the two.

• 江戸時代後期ごろ、日本の古典を研究する学問国学のなかから、“外来宗教伝来以前の日本人固有の考え方”という発想が起こった。
• During the latter half of the Edo period, the idea of 'original way of thinking by Japanese people prior to the introduction of foreign religions' arose in the studies of Japanese literature and culture, which emphasized Japanese classical literature.

• 最終的には太閤検地により、土地には直接の耕作者の権利しか認められなくなり、以前までの重層的支配構造は名実共に解消された。
• Eventually, by taiko kenchi (the cadastral surveys conducted by Hideyoshi), only the right of direct cultivator was admitted to the land, and the previous stratified ruling structure disappeared both in name and reality.

• 中世以前の陶工は無名の職人にすぎなかったが、仁清は自分の作品に「仁清」の印を捺し、これが自分の作品であることを宣言した。
• Before the Middle Ages, potters were nothing but nameless artisans, however, he placed a seal of his name 'Ninsei' to his works to announce that they were his own works.

• 地震以前に知られていた浮世絵や民画をパロディ化したもの、当時流行していた世俗の文化を取り入れたとみられるものが多数ある。
• There are many that transformed known ukiyo-e and folk paintings before the earthquake into a parody or took in the folk culture that was fashionable at that time.

• 洋風画（ようふうが）は、明治時代以前、油彩画の道具が日本にまだ輸入されていなかった頃に、西洋画を見よう見真似で描いた絵。
• Western-influenced paintings were made prior to the Meiji Period before oil painting tools were imported into Japan, and artists could only mimic examples of Western paintings.

• 機嫌を損ねた義満は以後、逆に自分の生きている間には年号を変えさせなかったため応永年号は明治以前では最も長い年号となった。
• Yoshimitsu felt offended, and after that, he was never allowed to change the name of the era during his reign, and that is why the Oei was the longest era before Meiji.

• なお、坂本龍馬の坂本家の家紋は組み合わせ角に桔梗だが、坂本姓以前の大浜姓の頃の紋は丸に田の字なので明智氏との関係はない。
• The crest of Ryoma SAKAMOTO's family has bellflowers at the intersections, but since the crest when the family name was Ohama, before it became SAKAMOTO, had a 田 character with a circle, there is no relation to the Akechi clan.

• 秦一族が渡来する6世紀以前にすでに唐に東方キリスト教の「景教」が伝わっており、その寺院は大秦寺と呼ばれていたためである。
• His theory was based on the fact that Luminous Religion of Oriental Orthodoxy had been already introduced to Tang before the sixth century when the Hata family came to Japan and its temple was called the Daishin-ji Temple.

• また短歌では140種あまりの枕詞を使ったが、そのうち半数は人麻呂以前には見られないものである点が彼の独創性を表している。
• It indicates Hitomaro's originality that half among the more than 140 kinds of makura kotoba used in his tanka were not seen before his time.

• 例えば、1054年のかに星雲の超新星爆発は、定家誕生以前の出来事であるが伝え聞いた内容として以下のように記載されている。
• For example, Teika has an entry on the 1054 supernova explosion in the Crab Nebula, despite the fact that this happened before he was born, meaning the entry was made as pure hearsay.

• 名塩に弥右衛門が現れる安永年間以前に、越前五郷（岡本五箇ともいう）の岩本村に弥右衛門家、と大滝村にも弥右衛門家があった。
• Before 1772, when Yaemon appeared in Najio, there were two Yaemon families, one living in Iwamoto-mura village and the other in Otaki-mura village in the Echizen go-go (the five areas in Echizen Province) (also called Okamoto go-ko (the five places in Okamoto)).

• 飯に汁をかけるという供食方法としては平安時代以前に遡ることは確実で、例えば『枕草子』や『源氏物語』にも湯漬けが登場する。
• Eating rice with liquid poured over it undoubtedly dates back to the Heian period; for instance yuzuke (hot water on cold rice) appears in 'Makura no soshi' (the Pillow Book) and 'Tale of Genji.'

• このため、以前は「魔除けの矢」などとNHKニュースで表現していた日本放送協会も最近は「破魔矢」という語を使うこともある。
• Therefore, Japan Broadcasting Corporation, in refraining from the use of the trademark, had used to express the lucky charm in other words such as 'Mayoke no Ya' (arrow of amulet) in the NHK news program before, but today it often uses the word 'Hamaya.'

• 鯨尺は大宝律令以前から使われていた高麗尺（こまじゃく）に由来するとする説があるが、室町時代に作られたものだという説もある。
• Some say that the kujira-jaku could have been derived from koma-jaku (Goryeo shaku) used before the Taiho Ritsuryo code, and other say that the kujira-jaku was invented in the Muromachi period.

• 宋代の学者に従って儒学の歴史を振り返ると、隋唐以前は経書の音訓（音読）や訓詁（単語の意味）を重視した訓詁学が中心であった。
• Looking back at the history of Confucianism, as scholars during the Song Dynasty did, the mainstream before the Sui and Tang Dynasties was Kunkogaku ('xunguxue' in Chinese), which emphasized the readings of characters and exegetics (interpretation of words) of Confucian classic writings.

• 9月10日、松方に大命が降下したものの、以前の第1次松方内閣のときの帝国議会対策での失敗もあり組閣も順調とはいかなかった。
• Although the imperial command was given to MATSUKATA on September 10, organization of the Cabinet did not progress smoothly due to failure in measures against Imperial Diet in the previous First MATSUKATA Cabinet.

• しかし、具体的な活動が記述されるのは6世紀中頃の蘇我稲目（そが・の・いなめ）からで、それ以前に関してはよく分かっていない。
• However, the specific accounts were not recorded until SOGA no Iname appeared in the mid-6th century, and events before that remain largely unknown.

• それまでの日本に存在しなかった個人主義に基づく小説という文学が登場するなど、江戸時代以前とは大きく異なった文化が展開した。
• Culture largely different from that during the Edo period or before developed: For example, the literature called novels based on individualism, had not existed until then in Japan, were introduced.

• また、多くの物語絵（冊子または絵巻物）が制作されたことが推測されているが、11世紀末以前に制作された作品は現存していない。
• It is estimated that many narrative paintings were created (either in books or scrolls), but no such paintings from before the end of the 11th century remain.

• 以前は寛平6年（894年）の遣唐使停止により中国の直接的影響を抜け出し、日本独自の文化が発展したと一般的に解釈されてきた。
• In general, people used to think that the stop of Japanese missions to Tang China in 894 allowed Japan to get out of direct influence of the China and to develop its own cultures.

• 『占事略决』は、撰者である安倍晴明の没年が『尊卑分脈』によれば1005年とされているので、それ以前に成立したと考えられる。
• 'Senji ryakketsu' is believed to have been compiled before 1005 because, according to 'Sonpi Bunmyaku' (a text compiled in the fourteenth century that records the lineages of the aristocracy), the author ABE no Seimei' s year of death was 1005.

• また無礼な行為とそれに対する切捨御免は連続している必要があり、以前行われた無礼を蒸し返しての切捨御免は処罰の対象となった。
• Kirisutegomen should be done immediately to an offensive act and Kirisutegomen to an offensive act that had been done before was punished.

• そのため、続々と酒類を取り扱うコンビニやスーパーが、以前の新規酒類販売規制地域にも、続々と参入することが大いに予想される。
• Therefore, it is considered highly likely that many convenience stores and supermarkets selling liquor will advance into the places where it was regulated for liquor sellers to open new shops.

• これは、頼朝挙兵以前の青年時代の義経が、当時「渡島」と呼ばれていた北海道に渡ってさまざまな怪異を体験するという物語である。
• In this story, young Yoshitsune, before joining Yoritomo's rising army, crossed over to Hokkaido, called at that time 'Watari Island,' and there he had various strange adventures

• 歳三は鳥羽・伏見の戦いで敗北する以前の慶応元年頃から、これからは刀で戦ができない時代であると悟り、洋式の軍備を進め始める。
• From around the 1st year of Keio, prior to being defeated in Battle of Toba Fushimi, Toshizo realized that from now on war could not be fought with swords and he started to prepare western-style armaments.

• 以前には、こうした例は、戦闘の際に矢を何本も射込まれて、やっと倒れた人物と解釈されることが多く、「英雄」などとも呼ばれた。
• Previously, these examples were interpreted as a person who fell in a battle after being shot with many arrows and the person was called a 'Hero.'

• 以前は『符宣抄　別巻』と題されていたこともあったが、新訂増補国史大系本刊行の際、編者黒板勝美によって、この題目が附された。
• It used to be titled 'Fusensho, separate volume', but this title was added by Katsumi Kuroita, the editor of Shintei Zouho Kokushi Taikeibon (a newly revised and enlarged edition of the Anthology of Japanese History).

• すなわち京都から帰還後に朝廷の人事を全て配流以前のものに復させ、それに続いて乱によって生じた所領の移動を全て元に復させた。
• Therefore, after returning from Kyoto, the Emperor restored all personnel of the Imperial Court to positions where they were before he was banished, and then undid all transfer of territories resulted from the war.

• いずれにしても、第二次世界大戦以前には「国宝」であったものが戦後「重要文化財」に「格下げ」されたと解釈するのは誤りである。
• It is in any case a misconception that some national treasures designated prior to World War II were demoted to the postwar status of important cultural properties.

• ただし、これらの「絵巻」「絵巻物」の語は、近世になって使われだしたもので、中世以前の記録では単に「○○絵」と呼ばれている。
• However, the words of 'emaki' and 'emakimono' came to be used only after the modern age, and according to records written before the medieval period, they were simply expressed with the ending of 'XX-e' (literally, XX's picture).

• 以前、因島出身の東ちづるが、料理番組でコンニャクを加えて「広島では入れるんです」と言ったことがあるが、この地域だけである。
• Before on the cookery program, Chizuru AZUMA from Innoshima City, adding konjac (alimentary yam paste) in okonomiyaki, said 'in Hiroshima it is added,' but only in this area.

• 美術史では、遣唐使が廃止された894年あたりを境にして、以前を平安時代前期、以後を平安時代後期（藤原時代）と呼ぶことが多い。
• Commonly, from the perspective of art history, the term until around A.D. 894 (the year that the dispatch of the Japanese envoy to Tang-dynasty China was ended) is called the Heian period's former half, and the term after the year is called the Heian period's latter half (or the Fujiwara period).

• 3月23日以降25日以前に、上方勢は畠山氏の支城鳥屋城（現有田川町）を攻め落とし、さらに本拠の岩室城（現有田市）も陥落した。
• In the period from April 22 to 24, the Kamigata army captured Toya-jo Castle (present Aridagawa-cho), a branch castle of the Hatakeyama clan, and furthermore, the headquarter, Iwamuro-jo Castle (present Arida City).

• 幕末に御所警備の際、日の丸に「菱十（菱の中に十字）」の旗を頂き、それ以前の「丸十（丸に十字）」から、以後菱十紋を旗印とした。
• At the end of the Edo period when the people in the village served as the Imperial guard, they received a national flag with the emblem in which the character ju was placed inside a lozenge; after receiving this flag, Totsukawa-mura changed their emblem of their flag to the character ju placed inside a lozenge from the previous one, which was the character ju placed inside a circle.

• 近代以前の国家においては、権利は人民には有せず国家など権力を保有する者に対する功労の恩典として授けられる性質のものであった。
• In a state before the modern era, rights did not belong to the people, but they were types of favors given to those in power such as a state for their distinguished services.

• それら整備と復元には、近世以前の古道の復元・復旧だけでなく、公衆トイレの設置といった利用者のための施設の設置も含まれている。
• By the projects, not only old road before the early-modern period was restored and reconstructed, but also facilities for users, such as public restrooms, were built.

• 以前は1467年に始まった応仁の乱を戦国時代の始期とする見解が有力とされていたが、その後も幕府は中央政権として機能していた。
• In the past the view that the Sengoku Period started at the time of Onin War, which commenced in 1467, was prevailing, but the bakufu functioned as the central government even after that.

• その後、824年にこの規定が復活したが、『延喜式』にはこの規定について触れられておらずそれ以前に廃止されたと考えられている。
• Later, this imperial decree was resurrected in 824, but there is no description about this decree in 'Engishiki' (an ancient book for codes and procedures on national rites and prayers), so it is considered that the decree was abolished before then.

• 最終的に、93回目の引っ越しで以前暮らしていた借家に入居した際、部屋が引き払ったときとなんら変わらず散らかったままであった。
• Finally, upon his ninety-third relocation, when he moved to a rented house where he had lived before, the house remained in wild disorder, just as it was in the past.

• これより以前に、道長は左大臣・源雅信の娘・源倫子と結婚し、永延2年（988年）には長女・彰子が雅信の土御門殿で誕生している。
• Prior to this, Michinaga married MINAMOTO no Rinshi, a daughter of Sadaijin, MINAMOTO no Masanobu, and his eldest daughter, Shoshi/Akiko, was born in Masanobu's Tsuchimikado Mansion in 988.

• 『日本書紀』は7月2日の記事に「是より先」としてこの戦いを追記しているので、7月1日以前の数日間のうちにおきたと考えられる。
• An article of July 2 (old lunar calendar; July 25, 662) in 'Nihonshoki' (Chronicles of Japan) describes that this battle occurred 'prior to this day,' so it most likely took place over few days before July 24.

• ただし、後鳥羽上皇の後裔であるとする系図は明治時代に作られたものであり、それ以前からこのような伝承があったという証拠はない。
• However, the theory of him being a descendant of the Retired Emperor Gotoba was created in the Meiji period, and there was no proof that such a legend existed before that.

• 以前、本願寺門徒による和泉や山城の法華宗徒への圧迫の一件を聞きつけた三好元長によって、本願寺側は弾圧を加えられた事があった。
• In the past, Motonaga MIYOSHI, who had heard the Hongan-ji Temple followers persecute the Hokke sect followers in Izumi and Yamashiro, oppressed the Hongan-ji Temples side.

• また異端とされる提婆達多派の仏教集団は釈迦を仏と認めず、それ以前に出現した賢劫の三仏を信仰の対象としていたことでも知られる。
• A group of Buddhists of the Devadatta school regarded as heretical had known that they had not recognized Shakyamuni as Buddha and, instead, worshipped Kengo no San-butsu (the last three Buddhas of one thousand Buddhas who appeared during the period before Shakya-muni's generation.)

• 砂糖を用いるようになる以前における、もっとも甘い嗜好品は柿であったことから、和菓子が持つ味覚の繊細さを窺い知ることができる。
• Since persimmon was the sweetest extravagance prior to the use of white sugar, it is understandable the subtle flavors of wagashi.

• この時代は世情が一応安定し、2世紀以上にわたって大きな戦乱もなく、庶民の生活レベルも、それ以前の時代に比較すれば向上していた。
• In this period, the Japanese society was more or less stable because there was no big disturbance of war for more than two centuries, and the ordinary people's living standard was improved from that of the former periods.

• また、統一以前の時期にはまだ政権による地方支配が完成されておらず、実際の検地内容を反映しているか問題が残されている場合がある。
• Before the standardized form was established, the central regime had yet to bring all local provinces under control, so in some cases, it was doubtful whether the register was based on the survey result.

• これによって、天智天皇もしくは天武天皇の時代（7世紀）に創始されたと考えられる「天皇」号は、それ以前にさかのぼって追号された。
• With this, the title of 'emperor' which was believed to have been established in the era of the Emperor Tenchi or the Emperor Tenmu (seventh century) were retroactively given to emperors before them.

• なお、これ以前の初期段階の社格として神祇官直支配社（大奉幣社・中奉幣社・小奉幣社）や勅祭社（大祭社・中祭社・小祭社）があった。
• As the preceding early-stage shrine rankings, there were Jingikan choku shihai-sha (shrines under direct control of Jingikan [Department of Divinities]) (神祇官直支配社) Taihoheisha [great-scale shrines dedicated heihaku, paper or silk cuttings or red and white cloth are presented to the gods), Chuhoheisha [medium-scale shrines dedicated heihaku] and Shohoheisha [small-scale shrines dedicated heihaku]), and Chokusai-sha (shrines whose rituals are attended by an imperial envoy) (Taisaisha [great-scale chokusai-sha shrines], Chusaisha [medium-scale chokusai-sha shrines] and Shosaisha [small-scale chokusai-sha shrines]).

• しかし、それ以前に身請されて結婚、あるいは囲われる者も多く、また一部はやり手、縫い子となり、一生を廓の中で過ごす者も存在した。
• Though, there were many yujo who were redeemed and got married or kept by a man; there were also some yujo who became yarite (female managers) or nuiko (literally, a girl who sews), spending their whole life in the red-light district.

• 以前は学校教科書において「へいじょうきょう」と振り仮名がふられていたが、現在は多くの教科書で「へいぜいきょう」とふられている。
• It was previously spelled as 'Heijo-kyo' in the school textbooks, however, it is now mostly spelled as 'Heizei-kyo.'

• 新選組となる以前の壬生浪士たちは身なりの貧しさから、「みぼろ」（壬生浪＝みぶろ・みぶろう）と一部の京の人たちに揶揄されていた。
• Before they formed the Shinsengumi, these roshi were made fun of as 'Miboro (meaning raggedy clothes)' because of the poor state of their appearance.

• 以前は、幸福・知恵・財福をもたらす七福神の弁財天が祭られていたが現在は、対岸の城山（耳鼻地区）の愛宕神社の下に移築されている。
• In the past, Benzaiten, one of the Shichifukujin (seven deities of good luck) said to bring happiness, knowledge and financial benefits, was also located there, but was moved to a place below Atago-jinja Shrine in Shiroyama (the Mimihana area) on the main land area facing this island.

• 刈田行為は、検断沙汰に含まれる以前は当時の社会で広く受容されていた自力救済慣行の一つとして認識されていたものと考えられている。
• Before the karita act became subject to kendan-sata, it looks to have been recognized as one of self-defense remedial practices which were widely accepted in society at that time.

• 荘園公領制成立以前の武士は封建領主としての確固たる領地を持たず、一般の田堵負名と同様に名田の経営権を国衙との契約で付与された。
• Samurai didn't have their settled territories where they could rule as a feudal load before the shoen-koryo system was established, and kokuga gave management rights of myoden to them as well as ordinary tato and fumyo (local tax managers) by contract.

• また、経緯は不明だが、保元の乱以前に関東で義朝の嫡男源義平と戦い討ち死にした源義賢の子の源仲家（源義仲の兄）を養子にしている。
• He also adopted MINAMOTO no Nakaie (elder brother of MINAMOTO no Yoshinaka), son of MINAMOTO no Yoshikata who was killed in action in a battle against MINAMOTO no Yoshihira, son and heir of Yoshitomo, in the Kanto region before Hogen Disturbance; the reason for his adoption was unknown.

• 以前師事したことのある京都の青蓮院宮について書道を学び、兼ねて持病の療養をしたいということを口実として、旅券の下付を申請した。
• Instead Satondo studied calligraphy under Shorenin-no-miya in Kyoto, in which he had studied under before, and using the excuse that he also wanted medical treatment for his chronic disease, he applied to be issued a passport.

• 即ち、頼朝が東国に勢力を形勢する以前から諸国では、騒乱も多く、その度に東国武士を派遣して鎮定することは諸国の疲弊にもつながる。
• In a word, there were many turbulences in various districts before Yoritomo formed influence in Togoku (the eastern part of Japan, particularly Kanto region), and it led to attrition of the districts to suppress by dispatching Togoku Samurai (a group of samurai in the eastern part of Japan).

• 『拾遣集』に「寛和二年（986年）清涼殿のみしょうじに網代書けるところ・・・」とあり、九八六年以前から、存在していた事になる。
• In 'Shuishu' (collection of poetry) there is the description; 'In 986, ajiro was written in the shoji in Seiryoden...,' so that it could have existed before 986.

• お歯黒（おはぐろ）は明治時代以前の日本や中国南東部・東南アジアの主として既婚女性、まれに男性などの歯を黒く染める化粧法である。
• Ohaguro (tooth blackening) is the cosmetic treatment of dyeing teeth black used chiefly by married women (or occasionally men) in Japan, southeast China or Southeast Asia, before the Meiji period.

• また三曲に属する箏曲の中でも、筑紫箏、及び八橋流箏曲は三曲合奏以前の音楽を伝えているので、まったく他楽器との合奏を行なわない。
• Of all the pieces of Sokyoku (koto music), both of Tsukushi-goto (the refined and elegant Sokyoku composed during the Azuchi-Momoyama period, which became the origin of Sokyoku in the early modern age) and the Yatsuhashi school of Sokyoku perform the music before sankyoku gasso, so they aren't to be played with other instruments.

• 以前は東海道新幹線（一部山陽新幹線）車内でも、鰻丼に似た「うなぎ弁当」（通称「うな弁」）を販売していたが、現在では見かけない。
• Previously, 'unagi-bento' (a box lunch containing broiled eel, commonly known as 'una-ben') used to be sold on the Tokaido Shinkansen (and partly on the Sanyo Shinkansen), but that is no longer the case.

• 明治時代に入ると、以前よりミカン栽培に力を注いできた紀州有田は元より、静岡県や愛媛県等でもウンシュウミカンの栽培が本格化する。
• With the beginning of the Meiji era, not to speak of Arida, Kishu where mikan cultivation was active, the cultivation of unshu mikan gained momentum in Shizuoka and Ehime Prefectures and so on.

• これらを国宝等の指定対象外とするということは文化財保護法に明文規定があるわけではなく、第二次世界大戦以前からの慣例となっている。
• This exclusion from consideration regarding being designated national treasures, etc. is not due to an actual clause in the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties, but rather to precedent, which has been in place since before World War II.

• 朱子以前より『大学』は文章・字句が並べ間違えられている、あるいは抜けていると言われていたが、それを改めたのが『大学章句』である。
• It was said that, before Zhu Xi, 'the Great Learning' had some sentences and words in the wrong order or that were missing and these errors were corrected in his 'Commentary on the Great Learning'('Daxue zhangju' in Chinese, 'Daigaku shoku' in Japanese).

• この場合、平城遷都の710年を境として、それ以前を奈良時代前期（または白鳳時代）、以後を奈良時代後期（または天平時代）と称する。
• Provided we follow this theory, the time before A.D. 710 (the year of the national capital transfer to Heijo-kyo) is called the Nara period's earlier half (or the Hakuho period), and the time after then is called the Nara period's latter half (or the Tenpyo period).

• 小辺路を通行しての熊野ないし高野山への参詣記録は近世以降のものが大半を占め、近世以前の記録もいくつか確認されているが少数である。
• Most records of pilgrimage to Kumano or Mt. Koya through Kohechi were compiled after the early-modern period and there are few records before the early-modern period.

• これが「日本三景」という言葉の文献的な初出とされ、貝原が訪れる以前から「日本三景」が一般に知られた括りであったと推定されている。
• This is deemed as the first appearance of the words 'Nihon Sankei' in literature and it is inferred that 'Nihon Sankei' was well-known grouping even before Kaibara's visit.

• もっとも、義秀の生年（『吾妻鏡』に1213年の和田合戦の時点で38歳とある）が義仲の滅亡以前であることから、この話は創作である。
• However the story was a fiction as Yoshihide's birth year ('Azuma Kagami' (The Mirror of the East) tells he was 38 years old at the time of Battle of WADA in 1213) was before the fall of Yoshinaka.

• 「郡」と言う用語が用いられるのは、大宝律令制定以降であり、それ以前は「評（こおり）」を使っていた文書（木簡類）が見つかっている。
• The term, `kori' (郡) was used after the establishment of Taiho Ritsuryo (Taiho Code), and documents (mokukan [narrow, long, and thin pieces of wood strung together that were used to write on in ancient times]) which contained `kori' (評) discovered before that..

• 一年後の十月、禅師は富田へ戻って、以前泊まった家の主人に様子を聞くと、あのあと鬼が山を下ったことは一度もないといい、喜んでいる。
• In October of the following year, the Zen master returns to Tomita and asks the owner of the house in which he had stayed about the ogre; the owner is very pleased because the ogre has not climbed down the mountain since then.

• また、灌漑をする場合はある程度の傾斜が必要であり、傾斜が少ない河川下流域の沖積平野は、江戸時代以前は稲作をするのに不適当であった。
• In addition, lands have to be sloping to some extent in order to be irrigable, so alluvial plains in the lower reach of rivers, where the slope is gentle, were not appropriate for rice cropping before the Edo period.

• ただし実際にはそれ以前にも、特に有能な者は加増をしてでも高位に取り立てる事は行われており、それが幕府財政窮乏の一因ともなっていた。
• However, in fact, it had been implemented before that time to have an especially capable person take a high position by adding a yield, which was one of causes depressing financial affairs of the bakufu.

• このとき、古河側が農民に若干の示談金を与えるかわりに、それ以前、以後の鉱毒被害の請求権を放棄するという内容の永久示談に切り替えた。
• In this negotiation, the Furukawa side changed their policy to offer a final composition that they would give some money and in return demand the abandonment of the right in the future to claim against them for damages by the mining pollution.

• 府県会規則の制定以前には、一部の府知事、県令が顧問的な会議（地方民会）を招集した例はあっても、法制度上の地方議会は存在しなかった。
• Before the establishment of the Fuken-kai rules, though there were examples in which some prefectural governors callied for advisory meetings (local assemblies), the local assembly did not exist as a legal system.

• それ以前の藤原良房の時から藤原北家が摂政・関白に就いて執政してきたが、発展段階の摂関政治だったとして初期摂関政治と区別されている。
• Although the Northern House of the Fujiwara clan had conducted policy as a regent or chief adviser to the Emperor since the time of FUJIWARA no Yoshifusa, their regency is considered to have still been in the developmental stage and was distinguished from the early regency.

• 実際の使用が確かめられる資料のうち最古のものは、大阪市中央区の難波宮（なにわのみや）跡において発掘された652年以前の木簡である。
• The oldest material among the ones actually used is the wooden strip, which was made before 652 and excavated in Naniwanomiya, Chuo Ward, Osaka City.

• この説は一定の支持を得たが、直木孝次郎は6月26日の使者発遣から7月の合戦までの期間から疑問視し、乱以前からの私的従者としている。
• Although many historians were in favor of Seki's opinion, Kojiro NAOKI suggested another opinion; according to it, Kai no Yusha had served as a personal follower of Fukei since before the war, because it was too short time since the dispatch of the messengers on July 29, 672 until the battles in August.

• 証拠不十分で不起訴となったものの、以前から乱行が噂されて世間から見放されていたことも加わり、一気に信者が離れ、不遇な晩年を送った。
• Though he was dropped the case because of insufficient evidence, he lost his believers at a stretch partly because he had been abandoned from the world due to the old rumor of his immorality and spent his later years unhappily.

• ただし、すべてが以前に戻されたのではなく、新しい演曲や舞台上の演出に関する詞章の改訂、節付記号などは後代に受け継がれて現在に至る。
• Yet, this does not mean all of the revisions were reverted to their originals, and some revisions were employed for example new songs, the verses revised on dramatic interpretations and melody symbols, and they have been handed down to following generations to this day.

• これは、地方豪族出身者としては破格の出世であり、学者から立身して大臣にまでなったのも、近世以前では、吉備真備と菅原道真のみである。
• This was an extraordinary promotion that no one from one local ruling family could easily achieve, and Makibi also became the first scholar-turned minister in pre-modern history except SUGAWARA no Michizane.

• また、叔父の師岡重経が義経の検非違使任官の式に随行するなど、郷の上洛以前から河越一族が外戚として義経の身辺に仕えた形跡が見られる。
• In addition, their uncle, Shigetsune MOROOKA, accompanied Yoshitune, when he was appointed as Kebiishi (an official with judicial and police powers), and from these facts, it seems that the Kawagoe family served Yoshitsune as a kind of maternal relative even before the time of Sato's going to Kyoto.

• この事から、義経を監視する目的との見方もあるが、吾妻鏡に「兼日約諾せしむ」とあるように、婚姻自体は以前から決まっていたものである。
• Therefore, there is a theory that this marriage was planned in order to control the movements of Yoshitsune, however, according to the Azumakagami, 'the engagement has been already accepted in advance,' and this fact shows that the marriage itself had been fixed previously.

• すなわち「鎖国」などと同様に、明治以降になって普及した後に、それ以前の'蘭癖'的人物もこの語で形容されるようになったものであろう。
• That is, similar to 'sakoku' (national isolation) and other expressions, after it came into wide use in the Meiji period, it came to describe the people who were 'ranpeki-'like before then.

• 酒のついでにカラオケを楽しむのではなく、純粋にカラオケで歌うために赴く場所であり、それ以前の概念を根底から覆す画期的な業態だった。
• It was a place to go not to enjoy karaoke while drinking but to purely sing to karaoke, and was a revolutionary structure that knocked the bottom out of the old concept.

• 三方とは京都方（宮廷）、南都方（興福寺）、天王寺方（四天王寺）のそれぞれの楽所を指し、これらの総称として江戸以前についても用いる。
• Sanpo refers to three offices for musicians which were Kyoto-ho (the Imperial court), Nanto-ho (Kofuku-ji Temple), and Tennoji-ho (Shitenno-ji Temple) and the term 'sanpo' is also used as a collective name for these offices for those that existed before the Edo period.

• 一方城の北東には以前から治水及び防御施設として堤（以下これを横堤と呼ぶ）が築かれており、籠城が始まると城方によってさらに補強された。
• On the other hand, another bank (hereinafter this is called the side bank) had been built for flood control and defense before that, and it was reinforced by the castle side after it began to hold the castle.

• 「郡」（こおり）と言う用語が用いられるのは、大宝律令制定以降、それ以前は「評」（こおり）を使っていた文書（木簡類）が見つかっている。
• The Chinese character to express 'kori' is one used after the establishment of Taiho Ritsuryo (Taiho Code, in 701) and, before that, a different character had been used as can be seen in written materials (mokkan; a long and narrow wood plate for writing with a brush) which was discovered.

• 津田が切りつけた理由は、本人の供述によれば、以前からロシアの北方諸島などに関しての強硬な姿勢を快く思っていなかったことであるという。
• The reason why TSUDA attacked Nicholas, according to his statements, was that he had been opposed to hard-line attitudes of Russia such as their policy of the northern territories.

• なぜなら、それらは同時代史料でも良質の編纂史料でもないし、そもそも継体天皇以前の記紀の記述に、あまり正確さが期待できないためである。
• As they were not good in quality as compiled historical materials of those days, nor exactness can hardly be expected in the descriptions of Kiki, if the described matters were basically before Emperor Keitai.

• 「白川・坪井川大改修」以前は白川 (熊本県)と坪井川 (熊本県)は現在の熊本市役所付近で合流していたが、石塘を造り現在の流路に変更。
• Before the 'Major improvement work for Shirakawa and Tsuboigawa,' Shira-kawa River (Kumamoto Prefecture) and Tsuboi-gawa River (Kumamoto Prefecture) used to merge at the area around the current City Hall of Kumamoto City; however, Kiyomasa changed the course of the rivers to the current one by building stone embankments.

• 明六社誕生以前、まずこの問題について意見表明したのは前島密で、彼は漢字を廃止し、平仮名を英語のように分かち書きにすることを提唱した。
• Before the establishment of Meirokusha, Hisoka MAEJIMA showed his opinion about this for the first time, and he proposed to abolish kanji (Chinese characters) and write hiragara (Japanese syllabary characters) with putting space between characters like English.

• 秤量銀貨の通貨単位は、安土桃山時代以前は銀拾両すなわち四十三匁を銀一枚とする単位を用いていたが、これは主として賞賜目的のものである。
• The unit of currency of silver by weight standard was ginten (ten is 10) ryo where 43 monme was a piece of silver before Azuchi- Momoyama Period, but it was used mainly for giving prize.

• また、当時武家の間で勃興しつつあった武家故実に関する記述にも富んでおり、武家故実書編纂以前における記録の集積としても注目されている。
• Also, Genisyu describes in detail the emerging customs of samurai families at the time and is valued as the accumulation of records before the books on the ancient practices of customs of samurai families were compiled.

• 最近では神葬祭が仏葬よりも経済的な場合が多い点や、仏教渡来以前からの日本古来の祖霊信仰に立ち返ろうとする思想などから増加傾向にある。
• Shinto Funerals are recently increasing in number due to the fact it is, in many cases, more economical than Buddhist funerals and due to the thought of returning to the time-honored Japanese Sorei shinko which has been handed down from the time before the Introduction of Buddhism.

• この羅漢図壁画については、明治時代以前に5面がすでに塗りつぶされており、残りも1949年の金堂の火災の際に粉砕され、現存していない。
• Regarding this Rakan zu, five murals were already painted over before Meiji period; the remaining murals were ruined by fire of the Kondo in 1949 and do not exist today.

• 1901年、総督府は『台湾公共規則』を公布、以前からの水利施設を回収すると共に、新たに近代的な水利施設を建設することをその方針とした。
• The Sotoku-fu issued the 'Taiwan Public Rules' in 1901, by which the old water facilities were replaced with the modern water facilities.

• 保元以前、武力で政争が解決した事例は平安初期の平城上皇の変にまで遡り、三百数十年ぶりの異変だったため、当時の人々に大きな衝撃を与えた。
• These wars astounded people of the time because they had not had a political fight which involved a military force for 300 years and several decades since the War of retired Emperor Heizei, in the early Heian period.

• 以前は老ノ坂峠を経由して京都と亀岡をつないでいたが、現在はその真下に新老ノ坂トンネル（国道9号および京都縦貫自動車道）が掘られている。
• In the past, Kyoto and Kameoka were connected via Oino-saka-toge Pass, but now, the Shin (new)-Oino-saka tunnel (for National Route 9 and for the Kyoto Longitudinal Expressway) was constructed directly under the pass.

• 永正17年（1520年）、三好氏の総帥であった之長は細川高国に敗れた際に処刑されており、その世子であった長秀はそれ以前に戦死していた。
• In 1520, Yukinaga, who was the leader of the Miyoshi clan, was executed when his army was defeated in the battle against Takakuni HOSOKAWA, and before that his heir, Nagahide, had already died in battle.

• すなわち「魏志」がすべて宋時代の刊行本を元としているのに対し、それ以前の写本の中には、南を東と正しく記載したものがあった可能性もある。
• That is, while 'Wei chih' was based on written records from the Sung era, it is possible that some manuscripts before then described the south and east correctly.

• とりかへばや物語の原型は1180年以前に成立したと考えられているが、その後後世の手により改作が加えられ、現在の形のものが伝わっている。
• It is considered that the original story of Torikaebaya Monogatari was created before 1180 but that it was ultimately rewritten through posterity, having been passed down to the present day.

• 任命者にとっては収入のうちの重要な要素を占めていた（近代以前の日本においてこうした金品のやりとりは賄賂の範疇には含まれていなかった）。
• The rewards that the appointer received made up an essential part of his income (such reward was not regarded as a bribe in Japan until modern times).

• 天台宗は法華経を最高と定めて所依とし、教相判釈を大成したが、これによって法華経以前の教えはすべて歴劫修行によるものでしかないと定めた。
• The Tendai sect made Hoke-kyo Sutra its basis defining it as the best, and perfected Kyoso Hanjaku (evaluation of sutras) in which they defined the teachings before Hoke-kyo Sutra as no more than the ones coming from ryakko shugyo.

• 日本における「道」の成立については大化の改新以前より存在したとする見方もあるが、五畿七道の原型は天武天皇の時代に成立したと言われている。
• Do' apparently came into existence in Japan before the Taika Reform while the archetype of gokishichido was organized in the time of Emperor Tenmu.

• しかし少なくとも、南北朝時代 (日本)末期の永徳3年（1383年）頃に本所が正親町三条家から同族の三条西家に譲渡される以前と考えられる。
• But at least, it must have been established before the position of 'honjo' (proprietor or guarantor of manor) was transferred around 1383 from the Ogimachisanjo family to the Sanjonishi family (relatives of the Ogimachisanjo family).

• こうした背景を受けて以前の学界では、平氏政権が貴族社会の中で形成されたことに着目して、武家政権というよりも貴族政権として認識されていた。
• In the past, the academic field focused on the fact that the Taira clan administration was developed under the aristocracy and it was recognized as an aristocratic government rather than a bushi one.

• 天武天皇以来の皇統は、以前より盛んだった天武系皇族間での相次ぐ政争によって継承順で繰り上がった天智天皇系の白壁王（光仁天皇）が継承した。
• Although the imperial line had succeeded from Emperor Tenmu, there had been a string of power struggles and Shirakabe no okimi (Prince Shirakabe), a descendent of Emperor Tenchi became Emperor Konin following the order of succession.

• 741年（天平13年）以降、国ごとに国分寺と国分尼寺が建てられることになったが、それ以前から国府機能と密着した付属寺院を持つ国もあった。
• A provincial monastery and provincial nunnery had officially been built by each province since 741, however some provinces had already built their own temple having a collusive relationship with 'Kokufu.'

• これ以前にも、織田信長によって大規模な検地(指出検地とも呼ばれる)が行われた（一部の者はこれを「信長検地（しんちょうけんち）」と呼ぶ）。
• Even before Taiko-kenchi, comprehensive land surveys (also called Sashidashi Kenchi) were conducted by Nobunaga ODA (some people call it 'Shincho Kenchi').

• 万事、もう今から死んだと同じの身になったと心を決めたはずなのに、やはりともすれば以前の気持ちになってしまいそうなのが、とても口惜しい。」
• Although I'd resolved to consider myself dead to the world from this point, I dread the moments when I allow myself to think of what might have been, and am on the verge of slipping into those feelings from the past.'

• 吉宗は以前の改鋳が庶民を苦しめたこともあり、改鋳に否定的であったが、改鋳は差益を得る目的ではなく、純粋に通貨供給量を増やすものであった。
• Yoshimune was opposed to recoinage because previous cases of recoinage punished the public, however, the object of the coinage was not to gain marginal profits but to increase money supply for its own sake.

• また、ほかにも東京本芝浦鉱泉株式会社を経営、同社の温泉付旅館「芝浜館」と料亭「芝浦館」は、芝浦埋め立て以前のリゾート施設として成功した。
• Along with those businesses, he also managed the Tokyo Shibaura Kosen Company Ltd.; this company's 'Shibahama-kan Hotel' attached with its own hot spring, and 'Shibaura-kan,' a first-class Japanese restaurant, became successful as resort facilities in Shibaura, before Shibaura seashore area was reclaimed for land space.

• 天文3年（1534年）、以前から仲の悪かった同じく浦上氏の家臣であり、尾根向かいの長沼荘高取城主島村盛実の奇襲を受け砥石城にて自害した。
• In 1534 he committed suicide at Toishi-jo Castle following a surprise attack from Morizane SHIMAMURA, ta retainer of the Uragami Clan and the lord of Takatori-jo Castle of Naganuma-sho Manor, a ridge across, who had previously been on bad terms with him.

• 一部には、イネの品種間の実証的な比較収量試験を行ったり、メンデルの法則の導入以前から交配によるカイコの品種改良を試みるものもいたという。
• Among them were those who conducted demonstrative tests of crop comparison among varieties of rice and improvement of species of silkworms by crossbreeding even before the introduction of Mendel's law.

• 考古学的な見地からは、平群氏の奥津城とされる平群谷古墳群（平群町に所在）の変遷を考えると、同氏の台頭は6世紀中期以前には遡れないという。
• According to archeologists, when they see the changes of Heguridani-kofun Tumulus Cluster (located in present Heguri Town) which is said to be the okutsuki (Shinto tomb) of the Heguri clan, the emergence of the Heguri clan cannot be traced before the middle of the sixth century.

• これにより、刀工が行う一通りの作業が終わり、これからは研師により最終的な研ぎを行うが、室町時代以前は刀工自ら研磨も行っていたといわれる。
• This is the end of the work for the sword craftsman, then a Togi-shi (polisher) polishes the sword finally, but before the Muromachi period, the sword craftsman himself also polished the sword.

• 前期屯倉は、顕宗（けんぞう）・仁賢（にんけん）朝以前にできたという伝承をもつ屯倉であり、その設置地域は畿内またはその周辺部に限られている。
• Before Kenzo and Ninken dynasty, earlier Miyakes are believed to have emerged only in and around Kinai region, provinces adjacent to Kyoto and Nara.

• この時代までの往来物は公家や僧侶などの知識人によって書かれる事が多く、こうした江戸時代以前の作品をまとめて「古往来（こおうらい）」と呼ぶ。
• Oraimono by this period of history were mainly written by the educated classes, such as nobles and Buddhist priests, and therefore the oraimono before the Edo period are collectively called 'Koorai' (literally, old oraimono).

• 承和 (日本)3年(836年)に勅旨田になった690町が起源で、長和4年(1015年)以前に立荘、皇室領として歴代天皇・上皇に相伝された。
• Kanzaki Manor originated from a 690-cho (approximately 75,272 square meters) area that became a chokushiden (imperial territory) in the year 836 before becoming a manor in 1015 and going on to be inherited by successive emperors and retired emperors.

• 『続日本後紀』承和2年12月3日條によれば、刑部卿の小野岑守が以前大宰大弐であった頃に開設し、墾田百四十町をもってその運営に当てたという。
• According to the 'Shoku Nihon Koki' in a section on December 29, 835, this facility was established when the Gyobukyo (Minister of Justice) ONO no Minemori, who was formerly a Dazai no daini (Senior Assistant Governor-General of the Dazai-fu offices), invested earnings from approximately 140 hectares of his cultivated land into the operation.

• しかし信玄は長陣の疲れや真冬の寒さ、義景に対してのストレスなどの影響によって以前から深刻な状態であった持病を致命的に悪化させてしまい病死。
• However, because of the fatigue caused by the long-term campaign, the midwinter coldness, and the stress from Yoshikage's decision, the chronic disease which Shingen had became significantly worse, and he died.

• (ちなみに、近世以前の平均寿命の短さは乳幼児死亡率の高さが主な原因であり、成人男子の平均余命だけを考えれば現代人より著しく短い訳ではない。
• (As a reference, the average life expectancy in that period was lower than today, not because the people then died at an earlier age but because of the high infant mortality rate; the average life of an adult male was not significantly shorter than that of today.

• また、神武東征以前の大和も出雲勢力の行政地であったため葦原中国とよばれているため、非出雲勢力が出雲勢力の行政地を指した言葉との解釈がある。
• The third theory is that because Yamato was an area controlled by the Izumo forces and was called Ashihara no nakatsukuni before Jimmu tosei (Eastern expedition of the Emperor Jinmu), the anti-Izumo forces called all the areas controlled by the Izumo forces Ashihara no nakatsukuni.

• とくに前者の『愚管抄』の記述については、このことを根拠のひとつとして永積安明は『愚管抄』成立（1220年）以前に『保元物語』の誕生をみる。
• Based on the account in the former 'Gukansho,' Yasuaki NAGAZUMI assumed that 'Hogen Monogatari' came into existence before 'Gukansho' was completed in 1220.

• 日本の美術は、縄文時代を例外として、常に外国（近世以前はおもに中国、近代以降はおもに西洋）の影響を強く受けつつ、独自の様式を発達させてきた。
• Japanese art has developed its peculiar style always - except for the Jomon period - under the great influence of other countries - mainly that of China before the early modern ages, and that of Western countries after the modern age.

• 御暦奏（ごりゃくそう）とは、近代以前において毎年11月1日 (旧暦)に陰陽寮から中務省を経由して天皇に対して翌年の暦が奏進される儀式のこと。
• Goryakuso is a ceremony conducted during pre-modern periods, in which a Year calendar is presented on every November first (old lunar calendar) by Onmyoryo to the Emperor via Nakatsukasasho.

• 生年は不明だが、永正12年（1520年）、祖父とされる之長と父とされる長光が戦死しており、長光の子だとすれば出生はそれ以前ということになる。
• His date of birth is unknown, but Yukinaga, who was believed to be his grandfather, and Nagamitsu, who was believed to his father, were killed in war in 1520, so his date of birth would have been earlier than the date of his father's death if he was Nagamitsu's son.

• 北方貿易（ほっぽうぼうえき）とは、奥州藤原氏、あるいはそれ以前に奥羽を支配した安倍氏 (奥州)や出羽清原氏が中国（北宋）との間で行った貿易。
• Northern Trade was the trade between China (Northern Song Dynasty) and the Oshu-Fujiwara clan or the Abe clan (Oshu) and the Dewa Kiyohara clan who dominated Ou before then.

• 構成は2項17条で、第1項で鎌倉幕府の得宗家専制以前の北条義時・北条泰時の施政を理想とし、足利幕府（室町幕府）が正統な後継者である事を示す。
• It is composed of 2 sections and 17 articles, the first section of which held as ideal the administration of Yoshitoki HOJO and Yasutoki HOJO before the tokuso autocracy period of the Kamakura bakufu, and showed how the Ashikaga Shogunate(the Muromachi bakufu) was their legitimate successor.

• 単に仏教伝来と呼ぶこともあるが、後述のごとく公伝以前に、すでに私的な信仰としては伝来していたと考えられるため、「公伝」と称されることが多い。
• Although it is sometimes called simply 'introduction of Buddhism,' the expression 'official introduction' is often used because it had been already introduced as a private belief before the official introduction as mentioned below.

• ただし、新年度以前の春休みの3月に桜が開花する九州・中国地方・四国地方などの一部の地域や5月に開花する東北地方や北海道ではこの限りではない。
• However in certain parts of Kyushu, the Chugoku and Shikoku Regions cherry blossoms start blooming in March when school children are on holiday ahead of the start of a new term for school, and in the Tohoku Region and Hokkaido cherry blossoms start blooming in May.

• もっとも、律令制以前及び初期の世習では継承者の能力についても問われたが、世襲が固定化されると能力と継承資格との関係は次第に希薄となっていった。
• And yet, before the Ritsuryo system and in early Seshu the competence of successors also mattered, but as hereditary was established, the competence became less related to qualification of the successors.

• これらの荘園整理令はある基準年以降の新立荘園を停止する一方、それ以前に発生していた国免荘を臨時課税の対象として正式に公認化するものでもあった。
• These Manor Regulation Acts prohibited establishment of new shoen after the designated base year, while legalizing these extraordinary taxes that were to be imposed on kokumen no sho created prior to the base year.

• また、百姓､町人などは表向きは苗字を持たないことになっていたが、実際には江戸時代以前から伝えられた名字を私称していたケースも多々見受けられる。
• Although persons like merchants or farmers were not allowed officially to possess their family names, there were many examples where family names handed down from the era before the Edo period were used privately.

• そして、慶応2〜3年頃、芦谷と共に新選組を脱走する（但し、それ以前に土方が松代藩への帰藩を促したことがあるが、三浦自身はこれを拒否している）。
• Then, he ran away with Ashiya around 1866 - 1867 (Hijikata recommended him to return to Matsushiro domain, but Miura himself refused it).

• 以前から恨みをもっていた、念仏信者の東条景信が日蓮を襲い、弟子の鏡忍房日暁と信者の工藤吉隆が殺され、日蓮も額を斬られ、左手を骨折、重傷を負う。
• Kagenobu TOJO who was a believer of nenbutsu (Buddhist invocation) and had held grudge against Nichiren assaulted him, his disciple Nichigyo KYONINBO and a believer Yoshitaka KUDO were killed and Nichiren was also badly injured, slashed in the forehead, left hand broken.

• 他に同時期に書かれた歌論書の『無名抄』、説話の『発心集』（1216年以前）、歌集として『鴨長明集』（養和元年 1181年）といった作品がある。
• Around the same time, he also wrote an essay on poetry, 'Mumyosho (The Nameless Treatise),' 'Hosshinshu (Tales of Awakening)' (written before 1216) and a collection of poems, 'Kamo no Chomei shu' (1181).

• 皇室の歴代や系図の成立過程については、継体の系図を記録した『上宮記』や、現在は伝わらない聖徳太子による国史の成立以前にも各種の系図は存在した。
• There were various family trees of the past Imperial family such as 'Joguki' which recorded the family tree of the Emperor Keitai and others before the establishment of national history by Prince Shotoku which does not exist now.

• 神武天皇は、東征以前の日向国ですでに吾平津姫を娶り子供も二人いたが、大和征服後、在地の豪族の娘を正妃とすることで、在地豪族を懐柔しようとした。
• Emperor Jinmu had already married Ahiratsuhime and had two children in Hyuga Province before his Tosei (eastern expedition); however, after conquering the Yamato region he sought to win over the local ruling families by marrying one of their daughters as his legitimate empress.

• 確かに青表紙本や河内本が成立する以前に存在した写本は、すでに失われたと考えられる紫式部の自筆本等を含め、全てこの古伝本系別本ということになる。
• It is certain that all the manuscripts that appeared before completion of Aobyoshi-bon and Kawachi-bon, including the manuscripts in Murasaki Shikibu's own handwriting which have been considered already lost, belong to this old traditional line of Beppon.

• また、アメリカ合衆国などでも以前から一定の人気があったが、今日では多くの食料品店で売られており、『tofu』 自体も英単語として定着している。
• In the United States of America, tofu--which has long enjoyed a certain popularity--is now sold at many grocery stores, and the word 'tofu' has become common in the English language.

• 文化財保護法施行以前の旧法では「国宝」と「重要文化財」の区別はなく、国指定の有形文化財（美術工芸品および建造物）はすべて「国宝」と称されていた。
• Under the old laws that existed prior to enforcement of the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties, there was no distinction made between 'national treasure' and 'important cultural property,' meaning that all the items (from buildings to works of art and crafts) designated by the state as tangible cultural assets were called national treasures.

• これは文章博士が紀伝道成立以前からある官である事と「紀伝」を学ぶために設置された官職であった事実との間でバランスを取った結果とも考えられている。
• This can be understood as them trying to keep balance between the fact that monjo hakase existed before the establishment of kidendo and that they were the positions set for studying 'kiden.'

• 奴婢制度そのものは、律令制によって正式に国家の制度に取り込まれるが、それ以前からも良民と賤民は区別されており、賤民はさまざまな制限を受けていた。
• The slavery system itself was officially incorporated in the national system under the ritsuryo system, but there had been a discrimination between Ryomin and Senmin before that time, and various kinds of limitations were put on Senmin.

• やや後の1710年以前に完成した『大成算経』（建部賢明、建部賢弘と共著）で、第一列についての余因子展開を一般のサイズについて、正しく与えている。
• In 'Taisei sankei' (written jointly by Kataakira TAKEBE and Katahiro TAKEBE), which was completed a few years later but before 1710, the general size of cofactor development regarding row 1 is written correctly.

• 事実は以前から明治政府が警戒していた私学校徒及び西郷隆盛ら私学校幹部の偵察、ならびに旧郷士族の私学校からの離間工作活動のために潜入したとされる。
• Instead it is believed that they came to spy on the students and executives of Shigakko (a kind of military academy) including Takamori SAIGO, whom the Meiji government had long been watching, and to maneuver to alienate ex-country samurai from Shigakko.

• この事でそれ以前に離隊したとも考えられるが、永倉新八の「同士連名記」にて尾関弥兵衛としており、事によっては、尾関弥四郎と同一人物とも考えられる。
• This may be because Yahei retired somewhere before then, but Shinpachi NAGAKURA's 'Doshi Renmei Ki' (literally, the 'Record of the Fellow Troops' Names') included an alleged name of him, Yahei OZEKI, who may possibly be identical with Yashiro OZEKI.

• こうした中で天皇も次第に伊藤の政策や方針を受け入れるようになり、以前は拒否反応を示していた宮中への欧米様式の儀礼導入にも反対しないようになった。
• Under such circumstance, the Emperor gradually accommodated Ito's policies and principles, for example, he no longer rejected the introduction of western protocols to the Imperial court which he would have shown negative response.

• 女王を戴いてたことから邪馬台国を女系国家と論じる者もいるが、卑弥呼以前は男王が立ち、卑弥呼の死後もまず男王が立っていることから、これは疑わしい。
• Some people say that Yamatai was a matriarchal state because it had queens as sovereigns, but this theory is problematic since a king ruled before Himiko and another king ruled right after Himiko's death.

• なお、この設立時以前にも「秋田銀行 (1896年-1941年)」という名称の銀行が第四十八銀行（第四十八国立銀行の後身行）とは別に存在していた。
• Further, the bank named 'Akita Bank' (1896-1941) existed separately from the Daishijuhachi Bank (the successor to the 48th National Bank) before this establishment.

• 沖縄県では、以前は年越し蕎麦を食べる習慣はなかったが、近年は食べる人も多くなっている（ただし、日本そばではなく沖縄そばを食べる人の割合が多い）。
• There was formerly no custom of eating soba noodles on New Year's Eve in Okinawa Prefecture; however, many people have recently begun to eat soba noodles in this way, although many of them eat Okinawan soba noodles instead of 'Nihon-soba'noodles (literally, Japanese buckwheat noodles).

• その点、このブーム以前の洋楽における邦楽器の使われ方として多かった「別に箏でなくてもピアノやハープでも代用できる洋楽流の書法」とは一線を画する。
• In this sense, it is completely different from 'using Soh in substitute for piano and/or harp,' which was a common way of using traditional Japanese instruments in western music before the boom started.

• 盛平が「合気道」の名称を用い出したのは昭和23年（1948年）、合気会発足からである（それ以前は「合気武道」「大日本旭流柔術」等と称していた）。
• Morihei began using the name 'aikido' in 1948, since the establishment of Aikikai (prior to which he had used the names 'Aikibudo,' 'Dai Nippon Kyokuryu Jujutsu,' etc.).

• 明治政府の地方行政としては、徳川家を駿府藩に移封し、京都府・長崎県・函館市を政府直轄の「府」とした以外は、原則として以前の藩体制が維持されていた。
• At the local administration level the Meiji government basically maintained the domain system, except they changed the Tokugawa family's domain from Edo to Sunpu, and they put Kyoto, Nagasaki, and Hakodate under direct control of the government by making them 'Fu' (Prefecture).

• 罪人に対して科されるため、漢代以前には、外性器を切り落とした後も十分な治療もされず、熱した土に首から下を埋めるなどの荒っぽい方法がとられたという。
• Since this was the penalty conducted against criminals, they were not treated well after the excision of the genitals, and a rough treatment method was taken by burying them under heated soil to their neck, which was seen among those castration penalty cases conducted before the Han Dynasty period.

• 武士が政治的権力を持つ12世紀以前にはこうした区別は存在せず、荘務権を持つ本所に属する荘園・所領を該当する領主（公家・寺社）の「本所領」と称した。
• Before the twelfth century when bushi (warriors) came into power, there was no distinction among the estates, and shoen and shoryo belonged to honjo (owner of shoen), who has shomuken (administrative power and jurisdiction in shoen), were called 'honjo ryo' (patronage properties) of the corresponding ryoshu (estate proprietors; the court nobles, temples and shrines).

• 時期は不明だが、泰時の後妻である安保実員の娘が泰時の次男北条時実を建暦2年（1212年）に産んでいる事から、それ以前には離縁したものと考えられる。
• It is not known when they were divorced, however it is presumed to be before 1212 since his second wife, who was the daughter of Sanekazu ABO had her second son, Tokizane HOJO in the same year.

• その他、「五節の君」のような「帚木」以降の巻において初めての登場であるにもかかわらず以前に登場したことがあるかのような記述のある人物が何人かいる。
• In addition, there are some people such as 'Lady Gosechi' who are described as if they had already appeared before, even though their first appearances were in 'Hahakigi' or other chapters afterwards.

• 以前あったものの中には、文字ではなく、竹竿の先に鈴をつけたような図柄のもの（「竹の先に鈴」または「竿に鈴」といわれる）ものがあった（場所は不明）。
• Among the bonfires that used to exist, there was a one with a design delineating a bamboo pole with bells at its end (which was referred to as 'bells at the tip of bamboo' or 'a pole with bells') and not a letter (at an unknown location).

• 江戸時代以前、猿楽の役者たちはいずれかの座に所属して活動していた為、現在のようにシテ方が自由に三役を好きな流派から選んで演能をすることは無かった。
• Before the Edo period, performers of Sarugaku had to be affiliated to one of the theatres and because of this, unlike the protagonists (shite) today, they could not choose freely among the three key roles from their favorite sect.

• 近代以降は「大和絵」の表記が一般的となっているが、近世以前には「倭絵」「和絵」などとも表記され、「日本画」と書いて「やまとえ」と読むこともあった。
• The term Yamato-e has been generally written as '大和絵' in kanji (Chinese characters) since recent times, but it had been also written as '倭絵' or '和絵' before recent times, and in some cases the word '日本画' was also read as 'Yamato-e.'

• この頃には、一般の貴族の邸宅にも、引き違いの襖障子があった事になり、清涼殿の、みしょうじすなわち「荒海障子」はこれ以前に存在していたと考えられる。
• It means that there was a sliding Fusuma Shoji in general aristocratic residences around this time, and apparently Shoji in Seiryoden, that is, 'Araumi no shoji' existed before this.

• 中京区においては、区のほぼ東半分の地域の町名は単独町名であり、西部は市町村合併以前の地名を継承する「聚楽廻」「西ノ京」「壬生」を冠称する町名となる。
• In Nakagyo Ward, town names in most of the eastern half of Nakagyo Ward are independent town names, while those in the western part of Nakagyo Ward are prefixed by the place names from before the municipal merger such as 'Jurakumawari,' 'Nishinokyo' and 'Mibu.'

• 明治16年（1883年）に第一高等学校 (旧制)に入るが、それ以前から緑山と号して詩作にふけり、入学後は文友会、凸々会に参加し文学への関心を深めた。
• In 1883 Koyo entered Daiichi High School; by that time, however, he was absorbed in writing poems under the penname of Enzan and after entering high school he participated in literary groups such as Bunyukai and Totsutostukai to deepen his interest in literature.

• その中で祭りを盛大にするため、東京奠都以前の京都の風俗を、時代を遡って行列を行うことが提案されたので、この祭りが「時代祭り」と呼ばれるようになった。
• An idea to augment the mood of the festival was to have a procession in Kyoto style representing each historical period, from the newest to the oldest, prior to the transfer of capital to Tokyo; and the festival started to be called 'Jidai matsuri.'

• 近代以前は、麹と水を合わせる過程において空気中に自然に存在する酵母を取り込んだり、酒蔵に棲みついた「家つき酵母」もしくは「蔵つき酵母」に頼っていた。
• Prior to the modern era, in the process of mixing koji and water, yeasts naturally existing in the air were taken into or 'yeast of the house' or 'yeast of a brewing house' were utilized.

• 日本で一世一元の制が採られるようになったのは、明治維新の際の1868年の慶応から明治への改元からであり、それ以前は天皇の在位中にも改元がなされていた。
• In Japan, the system of one era per Emperor was adopted when the era name 'Keio' was changed to 'Meiji' in 1868 during the Meiji Restoration although, before that, an era name had sometimes been changed during the reign of an Emperor.

• 一方奥熊野では、新宮の堀内氏善が4月13日以前には降伏したのを筆頭に、高河原貞盛・小山・色川盛直氏らはいずれも上方勢に帰順し、それぞれ本領安堵された。
• On the other hand, in Okukumano, after Ujiyoshi HORINOUCHI at Shingu surrendered before May 12, Sadamori TAKAGAWARA, Koyama, Morinao IROKAWA and others returned to allegiance with the Kamigata army and each of them received honryo-ando (acknowledgment for inherited estate).

• 大宝律令以前には吉備大宰（天武8年）、周防総令（天武14年）、伊予総領（持統3年）などあったが、大宝令の施行とともに廃止され、大宰の帥のみが残された。
• Before Taiho Ritsuryo (Taiho Code) was enforced, there were Kibi no Oho mikotomochi (in 679), Suo Sorei (in 685), and Iyo Soryo (in 689), and so on, but they were abolished as Taiho ryo was enforced, and only Dazai no sochi (Governor-General of the Dazai-fu office) was kept.

• 同峠の開通以前の舞鶴から宮津市方面へは向かう場合は大船峠が利用されていたが、明治時代に地域の要望で開通、現在ではバイパス道路としての機能も有している。
• When heading to Miyazu City from Maizuru, the Ofuna-toge Mountain Pass was used before this mountain pass was available; however, this mountain pass became available in the Meiji period in response to a request by local people, and works as a bypass road at present.

• なお、書名に『新撰』とつくのは、企画倒れで終わった『氏族志』のやりなおしという意味であって、『新撰姓氏録』以前に『姓氏録』が存在していたわけではない。
• Incidentally, the reason the title includes 'Shinsen' (newly compiled) is that it meant to indicate the re-compilation of 'Shizoku-shi' (a book containing information on the clans), which ended up just as a plan; consequently, it doesn't infer the existence of any previous edition of the clan-name register.

• それから3年後の1293年（正応6年）に北条貞時が平頼綱を討ち（平禅門の乱）、平頼綱の時代の人事を否定し、霜月騒動以前の北条時宗の時代への回帰を計る。
• In 1293, three years later, Sadatoki HOJO subjugated TAIRA no Yoritsuna (Heizenmon-no-ran [Heizen Gate Incident]), rejected the personnel affairs in the days of TAIRA no Yoritsuna and tried to restore the personnel affairs in the days of Tokimune HOJO before the Shimotsuki Incident.

• 『日本書紀』683年の記事に「今より以後、必ず銅銭を用いよ。銀銭を用いることなかれ。」とあり、富本銭以前に流通していた銀銭ではないかと考える説もある。
• There is a view that Mumon-ginsen coins were silver coins circulated before Fuhonsen coins, because in 'the Nihonshoki' (Chronicles of Japan) it says in 683, 'Do not use silver coins but use bronze coins hereafter.'

• 以前はどこの家庭にも糠床があり糠漬けを作っていたが、最近は糠床の手入れの面倒さや臭いの問題からスーパーマーケット等で買ってすませる人がほとんどである。
• In the past, each household had nuka-doko and made nuka-zuke, but recently most of the people buy it at the supermarket to avoid the pain and a smell of rice bran bed.

• 明治維新以前は、弓を引くことは一部の例外を除いて武士階級のみが許されていたが、維新後は一般庶民でも弓が引けるようになり、急速に遊戯化・娯楽化が進んだ。
• Until the Meiji Restoration, with some exceptions, only members of the samurai class were allowed to draw bows, but after the restoration the common people were allowed to draw bows, and it rapidly became a game or an amusement.

• その際、隋唐以前の訓詁的研究を行いつつも、より率直に聖人と解釈者との一体性を強調し、解釈者の心と聖人の心とが普遍であるという前提を構築することになった。
• To that end, while continuing to read the classics according to the study of kunko handed down from before the Sui and Tang periods, they more straightforwardly emphasized the oneness of the sages and the reader to build the assumption that the minds of the reader and the sage are uniform.

• が、それ以前については旗本時代以来の本拠が朽木にあったことから、その大名取立てから鹿沼領有までの11年間は江戸幕府における朽木藩が存在したとされている。
• However, as the family's base had been in Kutsuki from the time of hatamoto (direct retainers of the bakufu, which is a form of Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun), it is thought that the Kutsuki Domain of the Edo bakufu existed during the eleven-year period after Tanetsuna became daimyo and before he gained Kanuma.

• 永仁徳政令以前にも類似した政策は行われており、弘安7年（1284年）3月に幕府は越訴に関する訴訟を不受理とする法令を発令し、翌永仁6年には撤回している。
• A similar policy had been implemented by the bakufu before the Einin no Tokuseirei with an act issued in March 1284 which specified that any suit over appeal made directly to a senior official without going through formalities should not be accepted, but it was withdrawn in 1298.

• 合併以前から人口増加が著しく、平成17年実施国勢調査速報値によると、増加率は日本国内町村の中で6位（当時）であり、2006年3月10日に4万人を越えた。
• Even before the consolidation with two other towns, the population growth here was remarkable; a report from the national census in 2005 says the growth rate ranked sixth out of all towns and villages in Japan (at that time), and the population exceeded 40,000 on March 10, 2006.

• これにより基準年以前に発生していた荘園は臨時課税の対象として正式に公認化されることとなり、それまで散在していた荘園を一つの領域に統合する措置も行われた。
• Because of this, the shoen that had existed before the acts came to be officially recognized as the subject to the extraordinary taxation, and measures to integrate the shoen that had been scattered was taken.

• 三浦の乱以前には、九州・中国地方の諸勢力も朝鮮王朝から図書を受け通交していたが、三浦の乱を境に通交権は宗氏に集中し、日朝貿易の独占が行われるようになる。
• Before the Sanpo War, other local powers in the Kyushu and the Chugoku regions received tosho (a bronze seal which was required for trading with Korea) and also practiced amicable relations with the Korean Dynasty, but after the Sanpo War, the trading rights placed only in the hands of the So clan, which allowed the clan to monopolize the Japan-Korea trade.

• このため、鎌倉期以前の荘園では、住居がまばらに点在する散村が通常であったが、室町期に入ると、民衆が自己防衛のため村落単位で団結する傾向が強まっていった。
• For this reason, in the shoen before the Kamakura period, the dispersed rural settlements where the houses were sparsely scattered were normal, but in the Muromachi period the common people increasingly tended to consolidate as a village unit for self-defense.

• 更に当時は「財貨」であるより以前に、朝廷の諸行事の装飾の貴重にして重要な材料であり、ほとんど陸奥からしか手に入らなかった砂金の「不貢金」を起こしている。
• In addition, there was the issue of 'bu-kokin' (lack of gold supply), with gold dust,which was more an important material for decorations used in imperial court ceremonies rather than a 'commodity,' coming mostly only from Mutsu.

• この事件により中条氏は一時没落し、のち一族が結城合戦などで戦功を立て高橋荘を取り戻すが、支配力は以前のようには回復せず、中条氏の勢力は徐々に衰えていく。
• This incident caused the downfall of the Chujo clan, and although they were later able to regain Takahashi Manor through distinguished service during the Yuki and other wars, their power never recovered to what it had once been and the clan's influence gradually declined.

• 一方、実証主義的観点から、記紀や『上宮記』を全面的に信用することは出来ないとして、継体天皇以前の大王の名や系図等は信頼性に乏しいという慎重な意見もある。
• On the other hand, there is another cautious opinion that because the Kojiki and the Nihonshoki, and 'Joguki' (Record of the Crown Prince) can not be relied on completely from the viewpoint of positivism, the names and family trees of Okimi (king) before the Emperor Keitai are unreliable.

• いずれにせよ、『普通唱導集』以前には、この物語の確実な存在を想定させる史料はなく、成立を承久の乱前後とみるのが通説であるが、確かな証拠は得られていない。
• Anyway, there is no historical record before 'Futsu-shodo shu,' which leads one to assume the existence of this tale, so it is generally considered that the tale was completed before or after the Jokyo Disturbance; however, no evidence exists to prove it.

• 「天ぷら」とは当初、海外から九州・沖縄県方面に入ってきた油料理の総称であったとされ、後には薩摩揚げ等の、以前より日本にあった油料理も含めた名称となった。
• It is thought that the term 'tempura' was initially a general description of oil-cooked dishes introduced from overseas to Kyushu region and Okinawa Prefecture and became widely used to refer to any sort of food prepared using hot oil, including some already existing Japanese foods such as satsuma age (a fried fish cake which is made without batter.)

• 近代以前においては、最古の様式を伝える四天王寺の天王寺楽所（がくそ）（大阪市）、宮中の大内楽所（京都）、春日大社の南都楽所（奈良市）が三方楽所とされた。
• Before the modern age, the Tennoji gakuso Theater in Shitenno-ji Temple (Osaka City) with the oldest style, the Ouchi gakuso Theater in the Imperial Court (Kyoto) and the Nanto gakuso Theater in Kasugataisha Shrine (Nara City) were called Sanpo gakuso theaters.

• 日本では、明治5年12月2日（1872年12月31日）まで天保暦が用いられていたため、新暦導入以前の和暦とグレゴリオ暦の日付には差異があり元日が異なる。
• Tempo-reki was used in Japan until December 2, Meiji 5 (December 31, 1872), and the resultant difference in dates means that New Year's Day under the Gregorian calendar will differ from that under the traditional Japanese calendar.

• 元日を基準とするのでグレゴリオ暦の導入以前は、暦法により元日が新暦に対し異なるため、数え年の計算には注意が必要である（単純に西暦で計算してはいけない）。
• As the New Year's Day is the base date in the traditional Japanese age system, care is should be taken when calculating someone's age with this method because the New Year's Day under the Gregorian calendar is different from that under the traditional Japanese calendar that had been used until the Gregorian calendar was introduced.

• 組手は琉球王国時代から行われていたが、制式化されてなお現存するのは本部朝基が大正時代に発表した十二本の約束組手が最古で、それ以前のものは現存していない。
• The oldest authorized, preserved kumite is the 12-set prearranged kumite, which was presented by Choki MOTOBU during the Taisho period; no kumite prior to this one has preserved, although kumite have been practiced since the era of the Ryukyu Kingdom.

• ただし異説もあり、日本には大宝令以前に高麗から渡来した大尺より2尺長い高麗尺が普及していたので、これが大宝令の大尺とされ、唐の大尺が小尺にされたともいう。
• There is also another study that since koma-jaku, which was introduced from the Kingdom of Goryeo and 2 shaku larger than the da-chi, was spread before the Taiho Ritsuryo in Japan; the da-chi of Tang became sho-shaku.

• また、明和期以前は一分判より低額面のものは寛永通寳一文 (通貨単位)銭であったため、この中間を補佐する貨幣の需要が高かったことも流通が普及した要因である。
• Another reason for Nanryo Nishu Gin circulating well was that auxiliary currency in between was much in demand because Kanei Tsuho Ichimon Sen (a coin currency unit) had been the only lower face value than Ichibu Ban (Koban) before the Meiwa era.

• 一方で士族反乱に参加した士族の大半は金禄公債証書発行以前から政府を批判しており、また決起の趣旨に秩禄処分が挙げられているケースが少ない事も指摘されている。
• However, some people insists that most of the former warriors who joined the revolts had criticized the government since before the issuance of the public bond, and their reason for joining the revolts was not Chitsuroku-shobun.

• なお、京都タワーの所在地である東塩小路町は、市制町村制施行以前の明治12年（1879年）、当時の塩小路村の一部が下京区に編入された際に成立したものである。
• Higashi Shiokoji-cho, in which Kyoto Tower is located, was established before the Municipal Government Act was enforced, in 1879 when a part of Shiokoji village at that time was incorporated into Shimogyo Ward.

• 写本の所有者だったと思える高僧（相慶・法隆寺五師の一人、12世紀後半の人物）の名が末尾に記されている事から、成立年代が12世紀以前である事が確実ではある。
• It is certain that the book was completed before the 12th century because the last page of the manuscript has the name of high priest (Sokei, who lived during the latter half of the 12th century, one of the five priests in the Horyu-ji Temple), who seems to have owned it.

• またこの隠逸そのものの考え方も時代的変遷が著しいが、大まかに六朝以前を儒家的隠逸、以降を儒家的隠逸と道家的隠逸のせめぎ合いというように分けることができる。
• In addition, although the idea of recluses itself greatly changed depending on periods, it can be roughly classified into the period of Confucianist recluse before the Six Dynasties and the period of rivalry between the recluse of Confucianists and the one of Taoists after that.

• つまり、1950年（昭和25年）以前と以後とでは法律上の「国宝」という用語の意味が異なっており、旧法の「国宝」は文化財保護法上の「重要文化財」に相当する。
• In other words, the official meaning of 'national treasure' was different before 1950 than it was afterward; a national treasure under the former law is equivalent to an important cultural property under the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties.

• 首座は原則として一制中に一人であるが、江戸時代以前には規模の大きい僧堂では前堂首座（ぜんどうしゅそ）と後堂首座（ごどうしゅそ）の二人制を取る場合もあった。
• Generally, one shuso is appointed during one seichu, but until the Edo period some of large priest halls had two shusos, which were the zendo shuso and godo shuso.

• まず、大化以前の支配体制とされる私地私民制について、屯倉が王権を支える経営拠点であるように、田荘もまた豪族の政治的地位を支える農業経営拠点であると解される。
• First, in Shichi Shimin sei believed to have been the ruling system employed before the Taika era, tadokoro is understood to be the base for agricultural management that supported the political status of gozoku families as miyake was the management base that supported the sovereignty of the emperor.

• 養老律令は、大宝律令と大きな相違点はないため、養老律令施行後もそれ以前と変わらない政治運営が行われたと見られ、律令制史上の大きな意義は特にないとされている。
• The actual operation and the management of Yoro Ritsuryo Code after its establishment were conducted in the similar manner to the operation of Taiho Ritsuryo Code, because both Codes did not differ largely from each other, and thus it is considered that Yoro Ritsuryo Code did not give a significant impact on the history of the Ritsuryo codes.

• 武家政権の誕生以前の日本は、天皇親政、摂関政治、院政など、主に皇族や公家から構成される朝廷機構の中枢から、官人身分の国司を全国に派遣して統治が行われていた。
• In the pre-military government era in Japan, the Imperial Court mechanism, which included the Emperor's direct rule, the government of regents and advisers, and the cloister government and were formed mainly with Imperial families and Court nobles, supported the nucleus of the administration, and thus provincial governors who had authorities of government official were sent all over Japan to rule the nation.

• また、養子の上杉景勝に頻繁に手紙を送ったり呼び寄せたり（景勝は正式に養子になる以前は父・政景の居城である坂戸城にいたことが多かった）する子煩悩な一面もある。
• And, he had another aspect of loving his children dearly like frequently writing letters to his adopted child, Kagekatsu UESUGI, inviting and doting on him (before being adopted officially, Kagekatsu often stayed at Sakato-jo Castle which was the residential castle of his father, Masakage).

• 一般には「青表紙本系」と「河内本系」が混合し、崩れた本文であると考えられるが、中には藤原定家らによって整理される以前の形態を残すものもあると考えられている。
• It is generally considered to be the mixed text of the 'Aobyoshibon' and 'Kawachibon' lines, but some are thought to retain the form they had prior to classification by FUJIWARA no Sadaie.

• 『源氏物語』は鎌倉時代以前には、「雲隠」を含む37巻と「並び」18巻とに分けられていた（なお並びがあるものは他に『宇津保物語』、『浜松中納言物語』がある）。
• 'The Tale of Genji' had been divided between 37 chapters including 'Kumogakure' and 18 chapters of 'Narabi' before the Kamakura period ('Utsuho monogatari' and 'Hamamatsu Chunagon Monogatari (The Tale of Hamamatsu Chunagon (vice-councilor of state))' have Narabi, too).

• 現在、「醤油だんご」との名称で『みたらし団子』を指す場合もあるが、ここでは、『みたらし団子』出現以前の古い製法に則ったものを「醤油だんご」と言うことにする。
• Although 'soy sauce dumpling' may mean 'mitarashi dango' nowadays, here, 'soy sauce dumpling' are made in accordance with the old recipe before the appearance of 'mitarashi dango.'

• だが債務の大半、特に大名貸の大半は天保以前からの債務が繰り延べられて来たものであり有名な薩摩藩の調所広郷による「250年分割」などが尽く無効とされたのである。
• As most of debts, especially the majority of daimyo-gashi, were made before the Tenpo era, all of them became void including the famous debt of '250 years installment' made by Hirosato ZUSHO of Satsuma domain.

• 古墳は７世紀に入っても築造され、地方によっては8世紀まで造られているが、仏教公伝の年とされる538年頃を境に、それ以後を飛鳥時代、以前を古墳時代と呼んでいる。
• Mounded tombs were still constructed in the seventh century - in some local provinces, even until the eighth century - however, with the year 538 (around when Buddhism was introduced into Japan, they say) being the boundary, the period before this year is called the Kofun period, and the time after this is called the Asuka period.

• 明治時代以前の日本には、国の中に国と同じ名を持つ郡はあっても、同じ名を持つ町や村は存在しなかったので、そのほとんどは近代以降に作られた新地名ということになる。
• In Japan before the Meiji period there existed names of counties that were the same with the provincial names within the provinces; however there was no towns and villages that had the same names with the provincial names; therefore, it turns out that the names of towns and villages that are the same with the provincial names are almost all new place names made after the modern times.

• 前述の通り、江戸時代以前には、「三十六峰」は具体的には特定されていなかったと考えられるが、近代以降、「三十六峰」を具体的に特定しようという試みも行われている。
• As mentioned above, before the Edo period it was generally believed that the 'Sanju-Roppo' were not specifically identified, however, there have been several attempts to identify them after the end of Edo period.

• 武士は、一般に「武芸に通じ、戦闘を職業とする軍人、あるいは兵法家のこと」とされるが、これだけでは平安時代以前の律令制体制下の「武官」との違いがはっきりしない。
• Generally, bushi refers to 'a service member who is a master of military art and battle or a military strategist,' but by this definition, the difference between the 'military officer' under the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code) before the Heian period and the bushi is not clear.

• なお、明治以前には「東山殿御物」・「東山殿之御物」・「東山殿御所持」などの呼称が用いられており、「東山御物」の4文字表記が出現するのは明治に入ってからである。
• Before the Meiji period, names such as 'Higashiyama dono gyomotsu' (東山殿御物), 'Higashiyama dono no gyomotsu' (東山殿之御物), and 'Higashiyama dono goshoji' (東山殿御所持) were used, and the four-character name 'Higashiyama gyomotsu' (東山御物) came into being during the early Meiji period.

• 12世紀に入ると「父系家族」の色彩は強くなるが、「子は親に絶対服従」に近いものがあると同時に、それ以前と同様に婚姻による義父と婿もまた強い絆とみなされている。
• The 'paternal family' notion became stronger when entering the twelfth century, but there were something similar to 'the child having absolute servitude to the parent,' and a similar strong relationship between the father-in-law and the groom by marriage.

• しかし、入港地は薺浦のみに制限され、歳遣船は半減、特送船の廃止、日本人の駐留の禁止、受職人・受図書人も再審査を受けるなど、通交は以前より制限されたものになる。
• However, the Dynasty imposed more restricted conditions such as the restriction on the entrance ports which designated Seiho as the only port where ships were allowed to enter, a 50% reduction in the number of saikensen, the abolishment of the tokusosen system, the prohibition of the settlement of Japanese nationals, and the recertification request for Jushokunin and Jutoshonin.

• 和信は「一豊公前々（天正6年以前）より御存知に遊され」とあり、山内一豊が天正6年（1578年）播磨国三木城主別所長治攻めの際に初めて正式に召抱えられたとある。
• It was recorded that Kazunobu (和信) 'had long been known by Lord Katsutoyo (since before 1578),' and was formally employed in 1578 when Katsutoyo YAMAUCHI launched an attack against Nagaharu BESSHO, a lord of Miki-jo Castle in Harima Province.

• そして、留守政府の施策中において、使節団出発以前に構想されていなかった唯一の政策が使節団メンバーとの対立を引き起こした「西郷隆盛の遣韓問題」であったのである。
• And among policies made by Rusu-seifu, the only one that had not been worked over before the delegation's departure was 'Kenkan (sending an ambassador to Korea) issue of Takamori SAIGO,' which resulted in confrontation between the delegation members and Resu-seifu.

• さらに、約3万年以前の尖頭器、最終氷期最寒冷期以後の槍先形尖頭器、縄文時代の石槍など、製作ないし使用された年代の相違を考慮し、それぞれを呼び分ける場合も多い。
• In addition, these stone tools are often called by different names considering the difference of the time when these stone tools were made or used, such as those made more than 30 thousand yeas ago called simply 'point,' those appeared soon after the coldest period of the Last Glacial Maximum called 'lanceolate-shaped point,' those of the Jomon period called 'stone spear.'

• 東北地方の「鷹使い」の起源は明らかでなく、幕末以前に遡る見方もあるが、用具とその名称に共通・類似するものがあることから、武士の鷹狩が土着化したものと見られる。
• The origin of 'hawker' in the Tohoku Region is not clear, although some people guess that it started before the Meiji Period, and it seems that Taka-gari practiced by warriors was indigenized because both have common or similar equipment and names.

• 政治史の分野においては、幕末の把握に関して、単なる過渡期とするか、あるいはそれ以前以後とは異なった独自の国家状態もしくは国家体制とするかの2つの見方に分かれる。
• In the field of political history, there are two different views on the bakumatsu period, one of which sees it as a normal transitional period, and another which views the period as a unique state of governance, separate from the previous system.

• その理由は、『記紀』の成立過程に関する史料批判が進み、ヤマト王権内部における文字使用状況から推測すると、継体天皇以前の伝承に信用を置くことはできないためである。
• The reason for this is that, upon examining historical materials on the process of creating the Kiki, it was found that the methods for keeping records (particularly the use of letters under Yamato sovereignty) used before Emperor Keitai are not reliable.

• この屏風には「法橋光琳」の落款があるが、「法橋」の2字は別人による書き入れとする説が有力で、この説にしたがえば、『燕子花図』は光琳の法橋位受領以前の作品となる。
• This folding screen is also signed and sealed with Hokyo Korin, but the predominant theory is that Hokyo was added later by someone else, suggesting that Kakitsubata-zu was created before Korin became Hokyo.

• そのため、辛亥革命以前に中国人（漢族）によって漢文で書かれた作品についても、現代中国語で書かれた（現代）中国文学と区別する意味で「漢文学」と呼称する場合がある。
• Therefore, the works written in classical Chinese by Chinese people (the Han people) before the Xinhai Revolution are sometimes called 'Chinese classical literature' to distinguish them from the (contemporary) Chinese literature written in modern Chinese.

• なお、「政子」の名は建保6年（1218年）に朝廷から従三位に叙された際に、父・時政の名から一字取って命名されたものであり、それ以前は何という名であったかは不明。
• She was given the name 'Masako', which includes one character from her father Tokimasa's name, when she was given the rank of Jusanmi (Junior Third Rank) at the Imperial Court in 1218, although her name before that is unknown.

• なお、『吾妻鏡』によればその際に以前に兄である秀胤によって不当に所領を奪われて不仲であった弟の千葉時常も駆けつけて自害しており、「勇士の美談」と称されたという。
• According to 'Azuma Kagami' (The Mirror of the East), his younger brother Tokitsune CHIBA also rushed to the battle and died together with Hidetane, even though they had been alienated each other after Hidetane unreasonably deprived the territory of Tokitsune; it has been known as a 'moving tale of the brave.'

• 実際には仲麻呂は死んでおらず、船は以前平群広成らが流されたのとほぼ同じ漂流ルートをたどり、幸いにも唐の領内である安南の驩州（現・ベトナム中部ヴィン）に漂着した。
• However, Nakamaro was not dead; the ship fortunately drifted to Kanshu of Annam (present-day, ヴィン, central Vietnam), part of Tang, by following almost the same route as HEGIRI no Hironari took previously.

• むしろ、陸上・海上交通によって自国・外国間の貨幣の流入・流出が盛んであったヨーロッパ・イスラム世界・中国などでは日本よりも以前から両替商の活動が記録されている。
• Rather, in Europe, Islamic world and China where currencies frequently came to and went from the countries through land and sea traffic, the records of money changers' activities predated those of the Japanese counterpart's.

• 近代以前は、東は日本、西はアイルランド、モロッコ、北はモンゴル、スカンディナヴィア、南はインドに至るユーラシア/北アフリカ全域で各地方独特の鷹狩文化が開花した。
• Before modern times, original Taka-gari cultures flowered all over Eurasia and North Africa from Japan in the east to Ireland and Morocco in the west, and Mongolia and Scandinavia in the north and India in the south.

• 楽曲のカテゴリーとしても、唐楽、高麗楽、林邑楽（チャンパの音楽）等、国際色豊かな名前が伝わっており、大陸の音楽伝来以前からの日本古来の音楽の要素も含まれている。
• As for the categories of numbers, international names including Togaku, Komagaku and Rinyugaku (music of Champa) have been brought over, and the elements of Japanese ancient music before the introduction of the music from the continent were included.

• この佐久川が沖縄本島に持ち帰った中国武術に、以前からあった沖縄固有の武術「手（ティー）」が融合してできたものが、今日の空手の源流である唐手であったと考えられる。
• It is considered that toudee, the root of today's karate, was the amalgamation of Chinese martial arts, which Sakukawa brought back to Okinawa's main island, into the traditional Okinawan martial art 'tee.'

• 平安遷都以前からの道とする説や鳥羽天皇が鳥羽殿が造営した際に築かれたとする説もあるが、平安京建設時に淀川から物資を運搬するために作られた道であると考えられている。
• It had been suggested that the road had existed prior to the transfer of national capital to the city of Heian-kyo, or that it had been constructed by Emperor Toba when Toba-dono Palace was built, but it was regarded as the road which had been constructed in order to transport supplies from the Yodo-gawa River when the Heian-kyo capital was being built.

• 近世以前の小辺路は紀伊山地山中の住人の生活道路であり、20世紀になって山中に自動車の通行できる道路が開通してからも、おおよそ昭和30年代までは使用され続けていた。
• Since before the early-modern period, Kohechi had been a community road for the residents in the Kii Mountains, and even after a new roadway was constructed through the mountain in the 20th century, it had been still used as a local road until about the 30's of the Showa era.

• 近世以前に行われた合戦において、主君が武士が戦功を挙げた家人や武士に対して表彰し、所領もしくは官途状、感状、物品の授与、格式の免許、官職への任官の推薦を行うこと。
• In the battles fought before the early modern times, the master honored his kenin (retainers) or samurai warriors who rendered outstanding military service and granted them territories, written appointments, testimonials, goods, rank and office confirmations, or commendation to governmental posts.

• ただし、この図が後々まで日本地図の原型として用いられ、江戸時代中期に長久保赤水や伊能忠敬が現われる以前の日本地図は基本的にはこの行基図を元にしていたとされている。
• Nevertheless, this map has been used as a prototype of the map of Japan for many generations, and maps of Japan made before the appearance of Sekisui NAGAKUBO and Tadataka INO are said to have basically come from this Gyoki-zu.

• 『上記』（うえつふみ）は、いわゆる古史古伝と呼ばれる文書の一つで、大和朝廷以前のウガヤフキアエズ王朝を含む古代日本の歴史などが神代文字で書かれている偽書とされる。
• 'Uetsufumi' is one of the writings called Koshi Koden (ancient history and legends) which contains ancient Japanese history including Ugayafukiaezu dynasty, which was before Yamato Dynasty, written in ancient Japanese characters, but it is said to be gisho (apocryphal book).

• しかし、それ以前に、田口卯吉編の続国史大系の第6～8に収録刊行され、あるいは内閣文庫及び東京大学史料編纂所に写本が残されているため、その全容は明らかとなっている。
• However, the entire content of the work is known because it had already been printed and published in volumes 6 to 8 of 'Zoku Kokushi Taikei' (Supplementary Compendium of Japanese History) compiled by Ukichi TAGUCHI, and manuscripts are kept by the Cabinet Library and Historiographical Institute at the University of Tokyo.

• もし既存の権力を倒して史書に記すような政治の大改革を行ったのであれば、倒された権力は、それ以前長期に亘り権力を掌握し、政治体制を維持してきた者でなければならない。
• If the previous government had been overthrown and a major reform which can be recorded in history books had been accomplished, the overthrown government must have had political power and must have maintained a political system over a long period of time before that.

• ソメイヨシノは、街中では他種より目にする機会が圧倒的に多いことから、以前からその起源についてと共に、可否好悪についても、愛桜家の間で論争の絶えなかった品種である。
• Because Someiyoshino is much more likely to be seen along the streets than other types, disputes between enthusiasts have occurred continuously from the past in regard to its origin as to whether it's right or wrong, as well as in regard to people's likes and dislikes.

• 現在に伝わる伝統的な弓がここで出来上がる（詳細は構造欄参照）＊記述上の初出は江戸初期だが、これまでの経緯から弓胎弓が出来上がったのは江戸に入る以前の可能性がある。
• The traditional bow that is passed on till today was created at this time (please refer to the structure column for details) *The first time it appeared in a writing was from the early Edo period, but higoyumi was probably created prior to the Edo period.

• 政庁地区については、発掘調査以前には「現在見える礎石が創建時のもの」、「941年（天慶4）の藤原純友の乱で焼亡した後は再建されなかった」、という考えが主流であった。
• Theories that 'the foundation stones that are currently visible are those when it was built', and 'it was never rebuilt after it was burned down in FUJIWARA no Sumitomo's War in 941' concerning the government district were mainstream before excavation and research.

• 特に下克上が一般化する以前においてこの認識が強く、戦国時代 (日本)の豊臣秀吉のように、百姓その他武士身分以外出身の人物は当然、武士として認められるはずがなかった。
• Especially before gekokujo (an inverted social order when the lowly reigned over the elite) became common, such a point of view dominated and thus, like Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI in the Sengoku period (period of warring states) (Japan), a person originating from farmers or from a status not of samurai status could not admitted as bushi by definition.

• 1980年代以前の小説や一般向け書籍では、早雲を「非常に長命な大器晩成」「徒手空拳の素浪人」として書かれているものが多く、海音寺潮五郎の早雲の史伝などは典型である。
• Most novels and books for the general public published during and after the 1980s describe Soun as 'a man who bloomed late and lived a long life' and as 'a masterless samurai who had built himself up from nothing,' with Chogoro KAIONJI's historical legend being typical.

• 内容は、ウガヤフキアエズ王朝に始まる神武天皇以前の歴史や、天文学、暦学、医学、農業・漁業・冶金等の産業技術、民話、民俗学等についての記事を含む博物誌的なものである。
• The contents include history starting from Ugayafukiaezu dynasty before Emperor Jinmu, astronomy, study of the calendar, medical science, industrial technology for agriculture, fishery and metallurgy, folktale, folklore, etc.

• 日本各地の寺社の縁起や地方の地誌・歴史書等にヤマト王権以前に九州王朝が定めたとも考えられる「九州年号表」（517年～700年（695年）下記参照）が多数散見される。
• `The list of the Kyushu era' (517 - 700 [695] see below), which is considered to be established by the Kyushu dynasty before the Yamato kingship are frequently appeared in local reports on engi (writing about the history) of temples and shrines or on localities in many parts of Japan.

• なお、1950年（昭和25年）の文化財保護法施行以前の旧制度下では、現在の「重要文化財」に相当するものがすべて「国宝」と称されていたので混同しないよう注意を要する。
• However, under the system that existed prior to the enforcement of the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties, which occurred in 1950, all of what are now designated as important cultural properties were called national treasures, so this point should be noted in order to avoid confusion.

• これに陸奥宗光農商務大臣が抗議して辞任（陸奥は解散以前は現職衆議院議員。今回は自身は出なかったが、弟分である岡崎邦輔（従弟）・星亨の推薦人であった）、品川も辞任した。
• The Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, Munemitsu MUTSU protested against this by own resignation (MUTSU was an incumbent House of Representatives member before dissolution. He did not stand in this time, but commended his younger brother by courtesy, Kunisuke OKAZAKI (cousin) and Toru HOSHI), and SHINAGAWA also resigned.

• 日本海が海上交易の中心だった明治以前には、若狭湾で陸揚げされた物資が琵琶湖を通じて京都、さらには淀川経由で大阪方面へと運ばれており、内水系の重要港湾が数多く存在した。
• When Japan Sea was the center of commerce at sea before the Meiji period, goods landed from Wakasa Bay were carried to Kyoto via Lake Biwa, and then to Osaka via the Yodo-gawa River, which meant that there were a lot of important inland water ports in Shiga.

• 江戸時代の国学発生以降、平安時代以前の語彙・語音を知る資料として、また社会・風俗・制度などを知る史料として国文学・日本語学・日本史の世界で重要視されている書物である。
• Since the time when the study of Japanese classical literatures started in the Edo period, it has been highly evaluated as a document where information about vocabulary and about pronunciations of words is available, and in addition, it has also been highly evaluated in the fields of Japanese literatures, of Japanese language study and of Japanese history, as a document in which information about states of society, customs and social systems is available.

• 彼らは、輸入学問であった近代農学とは独立して、近世以前の在来農学の蓄積に基づき、単なる個人の経験の寄せ集めという段階を越えた実証主義的な態度からの技術改良を志向した。
• Being independent of the modern agriculture studies imported from abroad, they intended to make improvements on techniques from the viewpoint of positivism, based on the accumulation of the conventional agriculture studies before modern times, which was beyond the phase of the mere collection of personal experiences.

• 万葉集の注記によると、万葉集以前にも『古歌集』『柿本人麻呂歌集』『笠金村歌集』『高橋虫麻呂歌集』『田辺福麻呂歌集』『類聚歌林』などがあったとされるが、現存していない。
• According to the notes in Manyoshu, there had been some other anthologies before Manyoshu, such as 'Kokashu (Collection of Old Poetry),' 'KAKINOMOTO no Hitomaro's Collection,' 'Kasanokanamura Collection,' 'TAKAHASHI no Mushimaro's Collection of Poetry,' 'Book of poetry of TANABE no Sakimaro,' 'Ruiju-karin (Collection of Poetry),' etc., but none of them has survived.

• 近畿地方では大阪市のイカリソース、神戸市のオリバーソースなど大手メーカーが以前からお好み焼き用のソースを販売しているほか、近年は広島市のオタフクソースも流通している。
• In the Kinki region, major manufacturers such as Ikari Sauce Co. in Osaka City, Oliver Sauce Co., Ltd. in Kobe City and so on have sold okonomiyaki sauce for a long time and recently those from OTAFUKU SAUCE Co., Ltd. in Hiroshima City have also been sold.

• 持氏も幕府中央の混乱に乗じて関東・奥州各地に発生した武装蜂起に対して自己の政権の権限と基盤の強化に乗り出して幕府中央の権威を否定する動きを以前から見せていたからである。
• This is because Mochiuji also had started to deny the authority of the central bakufu by strengthening the power and basis of his regime against the armed uprisings which were breaking out in various areas in Kanto and Oshu regions during the confusion of the central bakufu.

• ただし、明治維新後に近代的な刑法典が確立する以前において、軽微な財産刑を「過料」と称していた（「科料」という言葉は存在していなかった）事例があるため、注意を必要とする。
• Before the modern penal code (criminal code) established after the Meiji Restoration; however, there were cases that a minor punishment by seizing assets was called a 'Karyo' (there was no word for petty fines [Karyo] in this period) so you need to pay attention to these mixed terms.

• しかし、同じく『吾妻鏡』八月三日条によると、8月3日_(旧暦)、頼朝は義経に伊勢国の平信兼追討を指示しているので、任官以前に義経は西海遠征から外れていたとも考えられる。
• However, according to the article August 3 of the same year of 'Azuma Kagami,' on August 3 (old lunar calendar), Yoritomo ordered Yoshitsune to expel TAIRA no Nobukane in Iyo Province, and this fact might suggest that Yoshitsune had been already excluded from the mission of the expedition over the western sea, before Yoshitsune was granted the title from the Imperial court.

• このため、若くしてその後を継いだ兼右が、以前に卜部家本を書写していた三条西実隆の本を書写させてもらい、更に一条家の本（一条兼良写、卜部兼煕証）で校合して証本としたもの。
• Therefore, Kanamigi, who succeeded it at a young age, copied the transcript which was copied by Sanetaka SANJONISHI from the original copy of the Urabe family before, and made shohon (a verified text) after collation with the original copy of the Ichijo family (copied by Kaneyoshi ICHIJO and checked by Kanehiro URABE).

• この物語の転輪聖王とは仏で、兵士たちは弟子、種々の手柄により与えられた宝とは爾前経（にぜんきょう＝法華経以前の様々な教え）、髻中の明珠とは法華経であることを表している。
• This story indicated that Tenrinjoo was Buddha, soldiers were disciples, treasures given according to various feats were Nizenkyo (various teachings before Hoke-kyo Sutra) and a brilliant gem in the king's top-knot was Hoke-kyo Sutra.

• また近世以前においては、「餅なし正月」と呼ばれる、正月三箇日に餅を神仏に供えたり食することを禁忌とする風習が、畑作地帯を中心として広く存在していたことも指摘されている。
• It is also pointed out that, so called 'mochinashi shogatsu' (New Year days without mochi), a custom that made it taboo to offer mochi to deities or to eat them within the first three days of New Year, was widely practiced in farming regions before the early-modern times.

• 同年2月2日、以前から織田方に加勢していた根来衆に加えて雑賀三組（三緘）の協力も得られることになったため、信長は雑賀の残り二組、雑賀荘・十ヶ郷を攻略すべく大動員をかけた。
• On March 1 in the same year, since the Saiga three groups (Mikarami) came to cooperate with Nobunaga, added with the Negoro shu who had previously joined the Oda side, Nobunaga announced a large-scale mobilization in order to capture the remaining two Saiga groups, that is, Saigaso and Jikkago.

• この法度の以前においては天子は法を越える存在であるとされ、武家法には勿論のこと、大宝律令・養老律令をはじめとする公家政権の法制においても天子に関する条文は存在しなかった。
• Before this law, the emperor was treated as an entity transcending the law; therefore, no provision concerning the emperor had existed not only in Buke ho (Samurai laws) but also in any law made by the Kuge (court nobles) Government including the Taiho Ritsuryo and Yoro ritsuryo code (code promulgated in the Yoro period).

• ロシア公使シェービッチは以前から日本に対して恫喝的な態度をたびたび取っており、この事件に関しても事件の対処にあたった青木周蔵、内務大臣・西郷従道らに死刑を強硬に要求した。
• The Russian envoy Schaevitz had always adopted harsh attitudes since before the incident, and in this case, he also strongly required Shuzo AOKI and the Minister of Home Affairs, Tsugumichi SAIGO to execute the death penalty.

• それ以前の鞆の成り立ちがどのようなものであったかは、はっきりしないが、遺跡の分布状況などから、弥生時代にはすでにある程度の集落が成立していた可能性が高いと考えられている。
• Although the origin of Tomo until that is unclear, the distribution of ruins and others suggests that it is highly possible that some sort of settlement was organized to some extent in the Yayoi period.

• これ以前より陸奥は肺結核を患っており、三国干渉が到来したとき、この難題をめぐって閣議がおこなわれたのは、すでに兵庫県舞子で療養生活に入っていた陸奥の病床においてであった。
• Even before then, Mutsu was suffering from pulmonary tuberculosis; when the Triple Intervention arrived, a cabinet meeting was held over this challenge at the sickbed of Mutsu, who was already in a recuperation in Maiko, Hyogo Prefecture.

• 「古史古伝」という言い方は、吾郷清彦が著書『古事記以前の書』（大陸書房、1972年）で最初に提唱したもので、この段階では「古典四書」「古伝三書」「古史三書」とされていた。
• The term 'koshi koden' was proposed by Kiyohiko AGO in his book 'Kojiki izen no sho (documents before Kojiki)' (published by Tairiku Shobo, 1972) and, at this stage reference was made to 'koten sisho (four classics),' 'koden sansho (three legends)' and 'koshi sansho (three ancient historical documents).'

• 以前の国防方針で定められた開国進取や国利民福の国家目標や中国・東南アジアへの進出という国家戦略に大きな変化が見られなかったために国防方針も大きく変化するものではなかった。
• Since there was no great change in the national goals which were the opening of Japan and the promotion of national interests and people's welfare, and in the national strategy which was the invasion of China and Southeast Asian in the previous policy, the policy was not significantly changed.

• 学制以来の明治政府の啓蒙主義的な教育政策を否定し、明治以前の儒教中心の教育に戻すこと、庶民教育は読み書き算盤を主体とする実学と儒教的徳目育成のみで十分とする趣旨であった。
• Opposed to the thought-provoking education policy of the Meiji government that had been in place since the Government Order of Education in Japan, Kyogaku Seishi wanted to return to the type of Confucian-centered educational system that had been pursued prior to the Meiji period; he believed that just practical learning with the main focus on reading, writing and arithmetic combined with the teaching of Confucian-type virtues was sufficient for the masses.

• 東福門院の後水尾天皇入内をきっかけとして十二単の着用に関して研究が進められたが、その結果出来た物は以前の物とは異なり、裳の長さは極端に短くなり、床すれすれの長さであった。
• When Tofukumonin was sent to court to marry the Emperor Gomizunoo, research on the proper way to wear juni-hitoe was conducted, however, the costume newly made from the research was different from the traditional one and the length of mo became extremely short and the hem barely reached the floor.

• 明治初頭の頃まで、唐手以前の「手」は特に沖縄手（おきなわて、ウチナーディー）と呼ばれ、唐手とは区別されていたとされるが、両者の間にどのような相違があったのかは不明である。
• It is said that until the beginning of the Meiji period 'tee,' which had existed prior to toudee, was called 'Okinawa-te' or 'uchina-dee,' and that it was distinguished from toudee, but it isn't known what differentiated the former from the latter.

• 文章得業生は定員が少なく、しかも給料学生が優先的に選ばれる慣例であったため、長く文章生であった学生は中途で教官の推挙を受けて学業を終える以前に官職に任じられることもあった。
• As the number of monjo tokugosho was very limited and there was a tradition of choosing kyuryo gakusei primarily from them, those students who remained monjosho for a long time were sometimes appointed to government posts with their teacher's recommendation before finishing their study.

• また民間放送のニッポン放送でも以前は毎日演奏（ジャンクション (放送)）を放送していたが、1998年4月より毎週月曜日の放送開始時と土曜日の午前5時前に限って放送している。
• Nippon Broadcasting System, Inc., which is a commercial broadcaster, broadcasts previously performance every day (junction - broadcasting), but, since April 1998, it broadcasts only before staring broadcasting on Monday, every week, and before 5:00 in the morning of Saturday.

• 当時の学問水準より比定の誤りなどが見られるが、平安初期以前の薬物の和名をことごとく記載しておりかつ来歴も明らかで、本拠地である中国にも無いいわゆる逸文が大量に含まれている。
• Although there are some errors in the identification of the medicines by analogy due to the low level of the study at that time, every single Japanese name of the medicines used before the early Heian period is recorded, and the origins and histories of them are revealed, and plenty of so-called itsubun (lost writings), which previously existed but do not exist now even in its home country, China, are included in the dictionary.

• 早くも古代（後1世紀以前）に成立した『九章算術』では、負の数の四則演算を扱い、その成果に基づいて多元連立一次方程式を一般的に扱うことに成功し、ガウスの消去法を導入している。
• In 'The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art,' which was written in the early ancient period (before the first century A.D.), four arithmetic operations for negative numbers were developed, and the book generally succeeded in introducing pluralistic simultaneous linear equations based on the results of those operations; Gaussian elimination was also introduced.

• 近代史学の発展に伴い、官製の『古事記』や『日本書紀』などの文献批判が行われ、記紀以前の古い史料が基礎になっていると思料される本書が、信用度の高い古典として脚光を浴びてきた。
• The government-manufactured literature such as 'Kojiki' (The Records of Ancient Matters) and 'Nihonshoki' (Chronicles of Japan) were criticized hand in hand with the advancement of the modern historical science, and this manuscript which seems to have been based on the old historical materials before 'Kojiki' and 'Nihonshoki' drew people's attention as a highly reliable classic.

• この試みは、『基督教新聞』にて「子児之話」欄が創設されたことや、その以前から発行されていた、家庭向けの小冊子『喜の音（よろこびのおとずれ）』に影響を受けたものとされている。
• It is considered that this attempt was inspired by the facts that the Shoni no Hanashi column was created in the Christian Newspaper and Yorokobi no Otozure, the booklet intended for family which had already been in circulation.

• 当初の案ではその幅員は広い歩道を含め70mから90mで、中央または車・歩間に緑地帯を持つと言う遠大なもので自動車が普及する以前の時代では受け入れられなかったのも無理はない。
• This lofty original plan suggested that the width of a road should be 70 to 90 meters including a broad sidewalk and a green strip be set up between roads or a road and a sidewalk, and it is a matter of course that such plan could not be accepted in those days before the spread of cars.

• 元和通宝（げんなつうほう）は、元和 (日本)元年（1615年）もしくは2年（1616年）頃に鋳造されたとされる、江戸時代の元号を用いた銅銭であり、寛永通宝以前のものである。
• Genna Tsuho is a copper coin named after an era in the Edo period, which is thought to have been minted in around the first or second year of the Genna era (1615 or 1616) in Japan, and it is older than the Kanei Tsuho coin.

• 以前から僧位らしいものはあったが、760年（天平宝字4年）大法師位のもとに伝法位と修行位がおかれ、伝法位と修行位とにそれぞれ法師位、満位、住位、入位の4種の位階が置かれた。
• There had been something like soi, but in 760, Denbo-I and Shugyo-I were placed under Daihossi-I, and four types of ikai (Hosshi-I, 満位, 住位, and 入位) were placed respectively under Denbo-I and Shugyo-I.

• ミカンの期限は奈良時代以前にもさかのぼるが、生食用としては江戸時代初期、徳川家康が駿府城に隠居したとき、紀州から紀州みかんが献上され、家康が植えたこの木が起源とされている。
• Mikan dates back to before the Nara period, however, for eating raw as a food, it is said the tree as the origin that, in early Edo period when Ieyasu TOKUGAWA retired to Sunpu-jo Castle, Kishu presented him a Kishu Mikan tree and Ieyasu planted it.

• 例えば、隋以前に均田制は北朝のみで施行されており、南朝では実施されていなかったので、唐初期において均田制は、おそらく華北を中心に施行されたにとどまっただろうと考えられている。
• For example, as the equal-field system before the Sui period was enforced only in the Northern Dynasties and not in the Southern Dynasties, it is considered that the it was enforced only around the North China in the early Tang Dynasty.

• 近年はアメリカ人になろうとして努力し続けた二世～三世と違い、若年層に自らのルーツである日本にアイデンティティーを求める傾向が強くなり日本語学習者が以前より多くなってきている。
• Unlike the second to third generations who kept striving to become Americans, young Japanese Americans today have the tendency to identify more and more with Japan, so the number of Japanese learners is increasing.

• 秀吉が豊臣氏の姓を授かるのは、この一件の翌年の天正14年9月9日_(旧暦)（1586年10月21日）であるため、当時の表記にあわせて賜姓以前については「羽柴秀吉」表記とする。
• Because he was awarded the clan name of Toyotomi on October 21, 1586, the following year of the dispute, Hideyoshi before the award is described as 'Hideyoshi HASHIBA' in this section according to the name at that time.

• 特に以前武家伝奏として皇位継承問題に関与していた中院は天皇本人を前にして後水尾法皇と前将軍家綱が死んでから1年余りでその意向をひっくり返した天皇と綱吉を公然と罵ったのである。
• Especially Nakanoin, who had been involved in the imperial throne succession as a Buke Tenso (liaison officer between the Imperial Court and the Bakufu), abused the Emperor and Tsunayoshi, openly in the presence of the Emperor himself, for reversing the intention of Cloistered Emperor Gomizunoo and former Shogun Ietsuna in only a little over one year after the deaths of both.

• 「美術」という単語自体が明治時代案出の訳語であり、西洋の概念を日本に当てはめたものであった以上、「日本美術」あるいは「日本美術史」という概念もそれ以前の時代には存在しなかった。
• It was only in the Meiji period that the word 'bijutsu' itself was devised as the Japanese equivalent of the Western concept of 'art,' so the word 'Nihon bijutsu' (Japanese art) or 'Nihon bijutsu-shi' (Japanese art history) had not been seen until then.

• しかし良雄が切腹前に幕府に出した親類書には、「一、養父・実祖父　二十八年以前正月病死大石内蔵助　一、実父三十一年前九月病死大石権内」となっていることから、養子説の信憑性は低い。
• However, the document of Yoshi's kinship, which was submitted to the bakafu (feudal government) prior to his seppuku states '1. His foster father and real grandfather, Kuranosuke OISHI, died of illness on New Year's Day 28 years ago, 1. His real father, Gennai OISHI, died of illness in September 31 years ago', which reduces the credibility of the adopted child theory.

• 一説には、中華思想により、他国の地名、人名には『蔑字』を使っているため、このような表記になっている原田常治『記紀以前の資料による 古代日本正史』 同志社・婦人生活社 1976年。
• According to another account, 'characters of contempt' were used for the names of foreign places and people as a result of Sinocentrism (Tsuneji HARADA, 'Official History of Ancient Japan Based on the Materials before Kiki' Doshisha, Fujin Seikatsusha, 1976.)

• 天智天皇は即位以前の天智天皇2年（663年）に百済の復興を企図して朝鮮半島へ出兵して新羅・唐連合軍と戦うことになったが、白村江の戦いでの大敗により百済復興戦争は大失敗に終わった。
• Before his accession, Emperor Tenchi took up arms against Siila and Tang allied forces to attempt the recovery of Baekje in 663 but this war turned into a fiasco due to the loss of the Battle of Hakusukinoe.

• 短陌（たんはく、省陌（しょうはく）とも）は、近代以前の東アジア地域で行われてきた商慣習で、100枚以下の一定枚数によって構成された銅銭の束を銅銭100枚と同一の価値として扱う事。
• Tanhaku (also called shohaku) is a business custom which had been conducted in East Asia before the early modern times; with this custom, a bundle of copper coins consisting of a certain number of coins less than 100 is treated as equal value to 100 copper coins.

• それ以前は、古代の戸籍制度・計帳・班田収授法などに立脚した律令制統治が行われていたが、この頃には、人民の浮浪・逃亡・偽籍が著しく増加したため、律令制統治が行き詰まりを見せていた。
• Before that, Japan had been ruled by the ritsuryo system of governance (a constitutional form of governance) built on an ancient family register system, tax book, handenshuju-no-ho (law on the distribution and collection of farmlands) and so on, but at that time, vagrancy, elopement, false family registration of the people dramatically increased and the ritsuryo system of governance ran into an impasse.

• また、名古屋大学名誉教授の安川寿之輔は、初期の福澤の思想にも国権論的立場を見出し得るのであるから、「脱亜論」がそれ以前の福澤の考えと比較して特段異なるものとはいえないと指摘する。
• Also, Junosuke YASUKAWA, a professor emeritus at Nagoya University said that, because Fukuzawa's national power perspective can be detected in his earlier thoughts, the 'Datsu-A Ron' was no different from what he had said before.

• 私軍（わたくしいくさ・私戦（しせん））とは、近世以前の日本において太政官符や宣旨、幕府の命令などの公的命令によらずして、敵討や自力救済のために行われる小規模な武力行使・戦闘行為。
• Watakushiikusa (also called shisen [private warfare]) is a small-scale military/battle conducted in Japan before the early-modern period for Katakiuchi (revenge) or for self-preservation, without an official order such as Daijokanpu (official documents of Daijokan, which is the office of the supreme political leader), senji (imperial decree) or an order from bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun).

• これは朝鮮人労働者が激しく抵抗したためであったが、欠員は以前通信事業に従事していて悪事を働いた為に免職になったものや、病気で退職したものを半ば強制的に集めて当初はしのいだという。
• The holes left by the stiff resistance of Korean workers were filled by almost forcibly gathering former workers of communication services who had been dismissed for having done wrong or retired for health reason.

• どこでいつから関西風お好み焼きにマヨネーズをつけるようになったかは諸説あり定かではなく、ぼてぢゅうの説、個人店が最初という説、またそれ以前から家庭内で使われていたと言う説もある。
• There are various theories about from where or when Kansaifu-okonomiyaki started to be made using mayonnaise and this isn't known for sure, but there is a theory that Boteju (a long-established okonomi-yaki chain famous throughout Japan) started to use it, and another theory that an individual shop started using it, and also a theory that it has been used in households for a long time.

• これ以前の中国法制では特に律と令の区分はなかったが、このとき初めて、社会規範を規定する律と統治体制を規定する令が明確に区別され、体系的な統一法典としての律令が登場することとなった。
• There were no classifications between Lu and Li in the earlier Chinese legislations, and this was therefore the first establishment of Luli as a system developed on collective codes with clear classification of Lu defining the social standards and norms, and Li prescribing the ruling system.

• その支配体制は富樫氏滅亡以前である文明年間末期の段階において室町幕府が守護に対して下す奉行人奉書などの命令書が富樫政親ではなく直接蓮綱・蓮悟あてに送付されていることからでも分かる。
• This ruling system can be seen in the fact that the orders such as bugyonin hosho (magistrate orders) given from the Muromachi bakufu to provincial governors in the late Bunmei Era when the Togashi clan still existed, were not sent to Masachika TOGASHI but sent directly to Renko and Rengo.

• が、この朝鮮使を宗氏は「朝貢使」と称して秀吉に謁見させると、秀吉からしてみると、要求に応じ「朝貢使」を派遣し「服属」してきた朝鮮に、以前からの要求通り征明の先導（征明嚮導）を命じた。
• However, as the So clan introduced these Korean delegates as 'tributary delegates' to Hideyoshi, he believed that the Joseon Dynasty had sent 'tributary delegates' to yield allegiance to him as he had demanded, and ordered them again to be the guide for conquest of the Ming (Seimin kyodo).

• 日向国ではなく日向と書かれており、日向国は景行天皇の言葉が基で命名されたとあるので、神武天皇即位以前には存在せず、日向はヒュウガではなくヒムカと読み、東向き、南向きの意か美称である。
• The text indicated Hyuga instead of Hyuga Province which was said to be named based on the word of Emperor Keiko, thus the province should not exist before the enthronement of Emperor Jinmu; the name of the place should be read Himuka instead of Hyuga, meaning it is facing East or South, or it is an eulogistic name.

• 御料そのものは憲法制定以前から存在し、明治維新後に木戸孝允・徳大寺実則・元田永孚らによってその充実を求める意見書が出されていたが、大部分の御料の形成は憲法制定に深いかかわりがあった。
• However, since goryo as such had existed before the Constitution, Takayoshi KIDO, Sanetsune TOKUDAIJI, Nagazane MOTODA and others submitted a written opinion looking to improve imperial holdings, but most goryo was deeply linked with the formulation of the Constitution.

• また、石井行雄によって『春華秋月抄草』（宗性作）の寛元4年（1246）の執筆箇所に、物語古態本の断片が存在することが確認されており、すくなくともこの年以前には成立していたと目される。
• Yukio ISHII confirmed that the fragment of the oldest manuscript of the story was included in the article dated 1246 in 'Shunka shugetsu shoso' (a book written by Sosho), therefore it is considered that the work was completed at least before 1246.

• だが、『増鏡』によれば他に『弥世継』（いやよつぎ）と言われる「鏡物」（世継とは『大鏡』の別称）が存在していた事が明記されており、『今鏡』以後『増鏡』以前の歴史を扱ったと見られている。
• However, 'Masukagami' cites another 'kagami-mono' book called 'Iya-yotsugi' ('yotsugi' is another name for 'Okagami'), and it is believed that this book covers the history between that of 'Imakagami' and that of 'Masukagami.'

• これが今日知られる京枡であるが、前述のように豊臣政権・江戸幕府初期の京枡（江戸枡）とは異なるものであるために、新京枡（しんきょうます）と呼称してそれ以前の京枡と区別される場合がある。
• This is what is known today as a kyo-masu, but since it differs from the kyo-masu made in Edo during the Toyotomi government and the early Edo period, as stated above, it is sometimes called 'shin-kyomasu' to distinguish from the previous kyo-masu.

• 絵巻物にしても、現存するものは『源氏物語絵巻』など12世紀頃の作品が最古であり、11世紀以前の物語絵で現存するものはないので、その実態や様式の変遷については、不明と言わざるをえない。
• As to Emakimono, the existing oldest works are those produced around the 12th centuries such as the 'Genji Monogatari Emaki,' and there were no existing narrative paintings produced before the 11th century, and it is a pity that the reality of this situation and the history of its style are not clear.

• 多宝如来は、過去仏（釈尊以前に悟りを開いた無数の仏）の1人であり、東方無量千万億阿僧祇（あそうぎ）の宝浄国に住するという（「無量千万億阿僧祇」とは「無限のかなた」というほどの意味）。
• Taho Nyorai is one of the former Buddha (a myriad of Buddhas who reached enlightenment before Sakyamuni), and is believed to live in the land called Treasure Purity in an immeasurable thousand, ten thousand million of asamkhyas of worlds to the east ('immeasurable thousand, ten thousand million of asamkhyas of worlds' means 'far-off').

• これは、餅を主体とする雑煮は近世以後に全国的に普及したもので、それ以前においては民衆社会に根ざした正月用の儀礼料理であり、餅主体の雑煮は畿内周辺にしか存在しなかったとするものである。
• This theory argues that zoni (without mochi) was one of the ritual dishes of the New Year among common people, and zoni containing mochi as essential ingredients was eaten only in the Kinai region (provinces surrounding Kyoto and Nara) before the early-modern times, and since then it has spread across the country.

• 以前は豆のほかに、米、麦、かちぐり、炭なども使用されたというが、豆撒きとなったのは、五穀の中でも収穫量も多く、鬼を追い払うときにぶつかって立てる音や粒の大きさが適当だったことによる。
• In the past, rice, wheat, dried chestnuts, charcoal and other materials were reportedly used along with beans, but eventually beans became exclusively used because they are the most productive of the five main cereals, and also because of their hitting sound and proper size for throwing.

• また、福岡県久留米市でも、8世紀以前の曲水の宴の跡とされるものが発掘されており、筑紫の君磐井が「天皇の命に従わず、礼無きことが多かった」と非難された理由の一つであるという見解もある。
• In Kurume City, Fukuoka Prefecture, the remains of what seems to be a location where Kyokusui no en was held before the eighth century was excavated, and there is a view that this is one of the reasons why Iwai, King of Tsukushi was blamed for 'his rudeness and disobedience to the Emperor.'

• 以上のように「（旧）国宝」「（新）国宝」「重要文化財」の関係が錯綜しているため、「第二次世界大戦以前には国宝だったものが、戦後は重要文化財に格下げされた」と誤って理解されることが多い。
• Because the actual relationship, as described above, between the 'old' and 'new' national treasures, and 'Important Cultural Properties' is very convoluted, many have mistakenly assumed simply that 'all the items designated before the Second World War as National Treasures were downgraded to Important Cultural Properties after the war.'

• 大塚統子『「一宮記」の諸系統』では、応安8年（南朝の元号では天授 (日本)元年、1375年）2月24日以前に成立した卜部氏宿禰奥書『諸国一宮神名帳』と『大日本国一宮記』を比較している。
• 'The Various Lines of Ichinomiya-Ki' by Noriko OTSUKA compares 'Dainihonkoku Ichinomiya-Ki' with a copy of 'Shokoku Ichinomiya Jinmyocho' (Catalogue of High-Ranking Shrines of Provinces) which was copied by Urabe-sukune before 3 April 1375.

• 源五郎沢堆積場崩壊事故後の毛里田地区鉱毒根絶期成同盟会との交渉については（それ以前から鉱毒問題に関しては）、「つねに前向きの姿勢で対処してきた」（『創業100年史』より）と述べている。
• And Furukawa (according to 'History of 100 Years of Business from Foundation') 'had always, on the company's own motion, faced with' the negotiations with the Mining Pollution Eradication Association in Morita after the Gengorozawa accumulation site had collapsed (and they say that since before the negotiation, they had been facing with the mining pollution.)

• 天文方廃止後の明治2年（1869年）春に嫡孫の山路彌吉（彰善の長男）を連れて無禄にて静岡市に移り住み、程なく（遅くとも明治5年（1872年）以前に）彌吉に家督を譲り、隠居生活を送った。
• After the abolition of Tenmonkata, in Spring 1869, with his legitimate grandchild Yakichi YAMAJI (oldest son of Akiyoshi), he moved to Shizuoka City with no salary; soon after that (no later than 1872), he handed over the family estate to Yakichi and lived there in retirement.

• 一方、日本以外の国、特に西欧諸国においては、第二次世界大戦以前においても軍部大臣に文官を任用する例も多く、政治の軍事に対する優位を原則とするシビリアン・コントロールの理念が確立している。
• On the other hand, in many countries other than Japan especially in Western Europe, there were examples of civil officers who were appointed to the position of Military Minister even after the World War II, and the Civilian Control philosophy which claims the superiority of military affairs over politics was established.

• 『平家物語』に描かれた平氏随一の剛将として知られ屋島の戦い、壇ノ浦の戦いで義経を苦しめた教経の最後だが、『吾妻鏡』によれば教経はこれ以前の一ノ谷の戦いで討ち死にしているという記述がある。
• The above is the account given in the 'Heike monogatari' of the final moments of Noritsune, known as the greatest of the strong leaders of the Taira clan and a thorn in Yoshitsune's side at both the battle of Okushima and at Dannoura, yet in the 'Azuma kagami,' Noritsune is recorded as having been killed during the battle of Ichinotani.

• 関東では京都で応仁の乱が起きる以前より、享徳の乱・長享の乱・永正の乱の3つの大乱が立て続けに起こっており、古河公方と関東管領山内上杉家・その庶流の扇谷上杉家が3つ巴になって覇権を争った。
• In Kanto, even before the occurrence of the Onin Disturbance in Kyoto, three great uprisings, the Kyotoku Disturbance, Chokyo Disturbance, and Eisho Disturbance, occurred successively and Koga-kubo, the Yamanouchi-Uesugi family that was Kanto Kanrei (shogunal deputy for the Kanto region) and its branch family, the Ogigayatsu-Uesugi family, competed for dominance in a three-cornered struggle.

• 1591年に関白を豊臣秀次に譲るまでは太閤（たいこう）ではなかったが、1591年以降は秀吉自身が「太閤」の称号を好んで使用したこともあり、1591年以前の検地も含めて「太閤検地」と言う。
• Although Hideyoshi had not had the title of Taiko (the father of the Imperial adviser) until he handed over the title of Kanpaku (the chief adviser for an emperor) to Hidetsugu TOYOTOMI in 1591, all his land surveys including the surveys conducted before 1591 were included in the 'Taiko-kenchi,' because Hideyoshi had been pleased with the use of the title of 'Taiko' since 1591.

• 『読史余論』の自跋には「右三冊ハ正徳 (日本)二年春夏之間、座ヲ賜テ古今ヲ論ジ申セシ時ノ講章ノ草本也」とあるが、実際に稿本が完成されたのはそれ以前であることが漢文の自跋によって知られる。
• Although he said in his afterword to 'Tokushi Yoron' that 'these three books above are drafts of lecture notes from when I gave lectures on ancient and modern times in the presence of my master from spring to summer in the second year of Shotoku (Japan),' it is known from the afterword in kanbun (Sino-Japanese) that in fact the original draft was completed before then.

• 昭和やそれ以前の時代において、冬の時期に道路や庭に積った葉落葉を集め、焚き火として燃やす際に、一緒にサツマイモを入れて焼く光景は、冬を物語るものとして扱われ、冬を表す季語ともなっている。
• During the Showa period or before, pictures of people collecting falling leaves on the road or the garden during the winter season, and of putting sweet potatoes inside the leaves when burning them on the bonfire, were considered scenes which speak for winter, and ishiyaki imo is a season word to describe winter.

• これ以前、救助活動にあたったイギリス艦船が二次攻撃で遭難して6,000名の死者を出したことにより、たとえUボートにより被害を出した船が近くにいたとしても、救助しないということになっていた。
• Before then, British navy ships engaging in rescue work met with a disaster in the secondary attack, in which 6,000 people died, so that they made it a rule not to rescue ships attacked and damaged by U-boats even if they were close.

• 即ち、関東大震災以前にも東京が震災や火災による被害を受けていた点、また帝都復興予算が削られたために復興委員会は買収費用がかからない共有地の杜を潰し掘割を埋めているのもまた周知の事実である。
• It is also a common knowledge that Tokyo had experienced various damages from earthquakes and fires even before the Great Kanto Earthquake, and under the budget cuts of the project, the reconstruction committee utilized common lands of shrines and filled up old canals without costing any money.

• この時期の内閣改造では、陸軍の非主流派や不拡大派の石原莞爾らが、以前閣僚にと考えていた人たちが主に入閣し、これにより軍部を抑える考えがあったものとされるが、板垣は結局「傀儡」となり失敗した。
• Since during this cabinet reshuffle, most of those who became cabinet members were ones that the Army fringe and the nonaggression faction, including Kanji ISHIWARA, had in mind, it can be considered that there was an intention to suppress the military, but in the end, Itagaki was unsuccessful and regarded as a 'puppet.'

• 以前は本格焼酎と紛らわしい表示がされたり、混和率などの情報が表示されなかった商品もあったが、業界内で混和焼酎の表示に関する自主基準を設けて、2005年（平成17年）1月1日から実施している。
• It used to be labeled ambiguously as Honkaku Shochu and did not show any information like the mixed rate, but the industry introduced its own rules of labeling the mixed rate and it has been implemented since January 1, 2005.

• すなわち、近世以前の稲作適地は、地形で言えば洪積台地や河岸段丘の上、平地の分類で言えば盆地や河岸中流域など傾斜がある土地となり、集団化した農民が灌漑設備をつくって棚田をつくるのが一般的である。
• That is, before the modern times the best places for rice cropping were sloping lands, such as ones on diluvial plateaus and stream terraces in terms of landform, or basins and midstream sites in terms of classification of plains, and generally a group of farmers established an irrigation facility and built Tanada there.

• 孝綱は藤姓塩谷氏と同族の宇都宮氏嫡流の出身なので、藤姓であることには変わりないが（ただし孝綱の父の正綱は芳賀氏（清原氏）からの養子）、それ以前と区別して重興塩谷氏（再興塩谷氏）などと呼ばれる。
• Because Takatsuna was from a direct descendant of the UTSUNOMIYA clan, the same family as the SHIONOYA family of the FUJIWARA family, his name remained Fujiwara, but to distinguish it from that of the former time he was called Juko SHIONOYA clan (revived SHIONOYA clan) and so on (however, Masatsuna, the father of Takatsuna, was an adopted person from the HAGA clan (KIYOHARA clan)).

• なお、日本には記紀が成立する以前に『古事記』の序文などに記されている『帝紀』と『旧辞』のような二つの史書を組み合わせた「日本式の紀伝体」とでもいうべき形態が存在したのではないかとする説もある。
• In addition, some people have a view that before the establishment of kiki (the Kojiki and Nihonshoki), Japan already had 'Japanese kiden-tai'-like format, combined with the two historical books such as 'Teiki' (imperial records) and 'Kyuji' (mythical tradition), which were written in the preface of 'Kojiki.'

• 伯耆国でも当初平氏側であった成盛ら西伯耆の武士が源氏方につくことにより平氏の小鴨、源氏の紀（村尾）という中央の対立を反映した構図が出来上がり、以前から続いていた抗争に拍車をかけることになった。
• The Nishi Hoki warriors, including Narimori, who had first supported the Taira clan but changed their policy to support the Minamoto clan while the Ogamo clan supported the Taira clan; that reflected the nation-wide confrontation and fueled the long-lasting conflicts between the Ki (Murao) and Ogamo clans.

• 日本に仏教が公に伝わる（仏教公伝）以前から仏教を信仰していたとされ、584年（敏達天皇13年）播磨国で高句麗からの渡来僧で還俗していた恵便に、娘の嶋（善信尼）とその弟子2人を出家させたという。
• It is said that he had been believing in Buddhism since before the official introduction of Buddhism and he had his daughter, Shima (Zenshin-ni) and her two disciples become a priest under Eben, a monk from Goguryeo (kingdom of Korea), who returned to secular life in Harima Province in 584.

• 従って、弥生時代前期前半より以前に（夜臼式土器に代表されるような刻目突帯文土器と総称される一群の土器形式に示された）水稲農耕技術を伴う社会が（少なくとも北部九州地域には）成立していたとされる。
• Therefore, a society with rice-paddy cultivation techniques (at least in northern Kyushu) existed before the first half of the early Yayoi period (Shown in a form of earthenware called Kizamimetottaimon earthenware such as Yusu earthenware.)

• また、「魏志倭人伝」の記載は、祭祀について触れられたものではないこと、6世紀以前は3種ではなく、多種多様な祭器が土地それぞれで使用されていたことも九州説では重要視されない理由として挙げられる。
• Also, the fact that the 'Gishiwajinden' does not mention rituals, and the fact that not merely three kinds but various ritual utensils were used in each place before the 6th century, can be used to suggest that the above theory is not essential to the Kyushu theory.

• これは、古河側が鉱毒事件で責任を認めて賠償金（契約書上の文言は「補償金」）を支払った最初の出来事である（それ以前の資金提供は常に「寄付金」「見舞金」「協力金」などの名目で、賠償金ではなかった）。
• This was the first case that Furukawa accepted responsibility for the mining pollution and paid compensation (called 'baishokin,' however, in the contract, it says 'hoshokin' which means the money you give them as they suffer from damage, while 'baishokin' means the money you give them as you hurt them; before that, any monetary provision was not under the name of compensation but either of 'donation,' 'consolatory money 'cooperation money.')

• 現在の京都市は、伏見市をはじめとする周辺の市町村を編入したため、江戸時代以前からの伝統的な「京都」の範囲は、現在の京都市内の一部に過ぎない（京北町に至ってはかつては丹波国桑田郡の一部であった）。
• Due to the fact that modern-day Kyoto City was formed by merging surrounding cities, towns and villages which included Fushimi City, the area of the traditional pre-Edo period 'Kyoto' accounts for only part of modern-day Kyoto City (the area extending to Keihoku Town was formerly part of Kuwata District in Tanba Province).

• 近代以前において馬は最も重要な輸送手段であったから、優れた馬（駿馬）は軍事や行政用として用いられるのが常であり、輸送に用いられた駄馬は人を乗せて早く走らせることの出来ない質の良くない馬であった。
• Since a horse was the most important means of transportation before modern times, swift horses (shunme) were usually reserved for military or government use, and the daba used for transportation were poor quality horses that were unable to run fast while carrying a person.

• 公出挙によって、百姓が疲弊し始めたことを知った律令政府は、720年（養老4）3月、公出挙の利子率の低減（年利50％→30％）、そして養老2年以前に生じた全ての債務の免除を決定し、諸国へ通知した。
• Knowing that peasants gradually became impoverished due to Ku-Suiko, the ancient Japanese government of centralized governance decided in April 720 to reduce the annual interest rate of Ku-Suiko from 50% to 30%, and to forgive all debts born before 718, notifying various districts.

• 没年は不明だが、同じ文直（書直）の書智徳が天武天皇10年（681年）12月10日に連の姓を与えられており、このとき他の文直も連に改まったと考えられるので、「文直成覚」の死はそれ以前と推測できる。
• While the year of his death is unknown, 'Fumi no Atai Jokaku' probably died before January 26, 682 when FUMI no Atai Chitoko and presumably others with the same title were given a new kabane (hereditary title) Muraji (seventh highest of the eight hereditary titles).

• 『古事記』本文の記述以外には編纂の記録が直接は見当たらず、最古の写本も南北朝時代のもの（写本を参照）であるため、それより以前の姿をそのままにとどめているかどうかに疑義を抱く改竄説も出されている。
• Aside from the main text of the 'Kojiki,' it appears that the compilation history was not recorded and the oldest manuscript was from the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (refer to the manuscript), therefore, some people don't believe the Kojiki maintains the original issues prior to the period of the Northern and Southern Courts and this adds to the theory that the original was falsified.

• 俳句以前の連歌・俳諧の時代には「もがな」「し」「ぞ」「か」「よ」「せ」「れ」「つ」「ぬ」「へ」「ず」「いかに」「じ」「け」「らん」など、先の3個と合わせ、計18種類の助詞、助動詞が使われていた。
• In the era of the renga and the haikai prior to the haiku, a total of 18 types of particles and auxiliary verbs were used such as 'mogana,' 'shi,' 'zo,' 'ka,' 'yo,' 'se,' 're,' 'tsu,' 'nu,' 'he,' 'zu,' 'ikani,' 'ji,' 'ke,' and 'ran,' including the three mentioned above.

• 例えば将来的に東京からの首都移転が行われた場合、東京の改称が行われた場合などに、それ以前と以後を区別する必要性から、明治以後の歴史の一括表現としてこの言葉が用いられる可能性があると考えられている。
• For example, if the capital is relocated from Tokyo or if Tokyo is renamed, the term 'Tokyo period' may be used for collectively referring to the period since the Meiji era in order to distinguish the times before and after such relocation or rename.

• 大宝律令以前は膳職という官司であったが、大宝律令制定時に、饗宴における食事の調理と配膳を担当する大膳職と分かれて、天皇の日常における食事の調理と配膳および食料の調達を担当する官司として設立された。
• Before the Taiho Ritsuryo (Taiho Code), it was a government office called Zenshiki, but when the Taiho Ritsuryo was formulated it was divided into Daizenshiki which cooked and served foods in a feast and Naizenshi which cooked, served and delivered foods for the Emperor's daily diet.

• 唯一の根本的治療である減感作療法（治療の項を参照）に関しては、以前より保険での評価が低いことが普及を妨げているひとつの原因と指摘されていながら、これについても医療行政はなんらのてだてを打っていない。
• Regarding the desensitization therapy - the only effective fundamental therapy (refer to 'Treatment'), the health service also hasn't taken any action although its low assessment by the insurance industry has been identified as a factor inhibiting the widespread use of this therapy.

• 基経を中祖とする藤原北家および藤原北家と近しい関係にある村上源氏が朝廷の主流を占めつづけたこともあり、近代以前には暴君・陽成天皇を廃した「功臣」として前漢の霍光に擬える説が儒学者を中心に唱えられた。
• The northern branch of the Fujiwara clan (Fujiwara Hokke), of which Mototsune was an important progenitor (Nakaso), and the Murakami-Genji (Minamoto clan), which had a close relationship with the Fujiwara Hokke continued to hold sway over the Imperial Court, and before modern times, those putting forward the argument that Mototsune was similar to Huo Guang of the Former Han Dynasty, in that he was a 'model vassal' who had toppled the tyrannical Emperor Yozei, were mainly scholars of Confucianism.

• 坂本太郎 (歴史学者)は、1979年の『聖徳太子』において、「国司」は推古朝当時に存在したと見てもよく、律令制以前であっても官制的なものはある程度存在したから、『日本書紀』の記述を肯定できるとした。
• Taro SAKAMOTO (a historian) stated in 'Prince Shotoku' published in 1979 that since 'Kokushi' might have existed at the time of the reign of Empress Suiko and there had been also some sorts of bureaucratic systems prior to the ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code), the description in the 'Nihonshoki' could be correct.

• これが通称としての「紀伝道」の成立である（ただし、『皇代記』には延暦24年（805年）6月に「紀伝儒者始」があったと記されており、紀伝博士成立以前に紀伝を担当する専門教員が置かれていた可能性がある）。
• This is how the name, 'kidendo,' was established (however, as 'Kodaiki' (The Chronicle of the Emperors) states that there was 'Kiden jusha hajime' (Start of Confucianism Class) in June, 805 (old lunar calendar), there is a possibility that an expert in teaching kiden had already been set up before kiden hakase).

• なお、歴代将軍の中には中途で改名したものもおり、改名以前にその当時の下の字が与えられている例もあるので注意を要する（足利義稙（義材）の「材」、足利義澄（義高）の「高」、足利義輝（義藤）の「藤」など）。
• Note that some shogun changed their names and some were received a character of his former given name (such as 'ki' [材] of Yoshitane ASHIKAGA [former Yoshiki, 義材], 'taka' [高] of Yoshizumi ASHIKAGA [former Yoshitaka, 義高], and 'fumi' (藤) of Yoshiteru ASHIKAGA [former Yoshifumi, 義藤]).

• 神別姓氏は、さらに、ニニギが天孫降臨した際に付き随った神々の子孫を「天神」とし、瓊瓊杵尊から3代の間に分かれた子孫を「天孫」とし、天孫降臨以前から土着していた神々の子孫を「地祇」として3分類している。
• The clans of Shinbetsu are further divided into three types: 'Tenjin,' descendants of gods that had come with Ninigi for tensonkorin (the descent to earth of the grandson of the sun goddess); 'Tenson' (the grandson of the sun goddess); descendants who branched out in three generations from Ninigi-no Mikoto; and 'Chigi,' descendants of gods that had been on earth since before tensonkorin.

• この時の九条兼実の日記『玉葉』には資盛を「嫡男」と記されており、また同年12月以前においては異母兄であるとされている平維盛よりも官位で上回っていた事から当初は重盛の嫡男として扱われていたと見られている。
• In 'Gyokuyo', the diary of Kanezane KUJO, Sukemori is described as being the individual who was to succeed to the position of head of the family, and from the fact that he had already surpassed TAIRA no Koremori, who is thought to have been his older brother by a different mother, in official rank before December of the same year, it is considered that he was treated as Shigemori's heir from the beginning.

• このようにして別府・辺見・河野・小倉壮九郎（東郷平八郎の兄）らが区長になり、私学校党が県政を牛耳るようになると、政府は以前にもまして、鹿児島県は私学校党の支配下に半ば独立状態にあると見なすようになった。
• In this way, Beppu, Henmi, Kono and Sokuro OGURA (the older brother of Heihachiro TOGO) became ward mayors and the Shigakko party controlled politics in the prefecture, thus the government considered the prefecture of Kagoshima to be controlled by the Shigakko party, and it became mostly independent.

• ただ『続日本紀』「天平元年8月条」には官位役職は「少納言小花下」と見え、天智3年（670年）以前の官位制に基づいた名称となっており、ここから考察するに壬申の乱後幾ばくも経たない頃に早世したと考えられる。
• Although his name appears in the article of August of the first year of the Tenpyo Era of 'Shoku Nihongi' (Chronicles of Japan Continued) as 'Shonagon Shokage,' it was a position under the official rank system effective in 670 or before, and therefore, it is probable that Yasumaro died young soon after the Jinshin War.

• もちろん令外の官の成立ははやく九世紀にさかのぼるものであり、また摂関政治を通じて貴族身分内部の再編がおこなわれつづけたのであり、律令体制の質的な変化は院政以前にゆっくりとではあるが進行していたものである。
• Of course, formation of ryoge no kan dates as early as the ninth century and reorganization within nobles continued through regency, and a qualitative shift of ritsuryo system was going along slowly but steadily before cloister governments.

• ただし、明治時代初期に変更された町名、近隣の二、三町が合併して成立した町名、寺院境内地、畑地など従来町名のなかった地区に新たに起立した町名なども一部に存在し、現行町名のすべてが近世以前からの町名ではない。
• However, there are some town names which had been changed during the early Meiji period, created by the merging of few towns, or given to areas where town names had not originally existed including the precincts of temples or fields, and not all the town names in the present-day derive from the town names before the early modern era.

• 直ちに諸社諸寺に調伏の祈祷が命じられ、翌天慶3年（940年）1月9日には源経基が以前の密告が現実になったことが賞されて従五位下に叙され、1月19日には参議藤原忠文が征東大将軍に任じられ、討伐軍が出立した。
• Temples and shrines were immediately ordered to pray for the quelling of the rebellions, and on February 24 of the following year (940), MINAMOTO no Tsunemoto was given the court rank of Jugoinoge (Junior Fifth Rank, Lower Grade) in recognition of the fact that his previous secret report became true; on March 5, a punitive force headed by Sangi FUJIWARA no Tadafumi as Seito taishogun (literally, 'great general who subdues the eastern barbarians') set out from Kyoto to the eastern provinces.

• すなわち、信長は本能寺の変以前に、大名としての織田家の家督は信忠に譲っており、自らは、織田・柴田・明智・羽柴・神戸（信孝）・北畠（信雄）などの「大名（信長の取立による大名）」の上に君臨する存在となっていた。
• That is to say, Nobukatsu had already handed over the headship of the family to Nobutada before the Honno-ji Incident, and he reined over such 'daimyo (selected by Nobunaga)' as Oda, Shibata, Akechi, Hashiba, (Nobutaka) KANBE, and (Nobuo) KITABATAKE.

• 前田晴人は四道将軍の神話自体は史実とは認めないものの、ここに描かれた「四道」を五畿七道成立以前のヤマト王権の地域区分であったとし、四道将軍はその成立を説明するために創作された説話であるとする説を唱えている。
• Haruto MAEDA, a contemporary historian, would not acknowledge the historical authenticity of the Shido-shogun stories, and instead advocates that 'shido' referred to the regional division designed by Yamato sovereignty before establishing the goki-shichido system (a geological classification composed of five provinces in the capital region and seven circuits outside), and that the tales of Shido-shogun were fictions created to explain the process of establishing the goki-shichido system.

• 守護大名や守護代、国人領主が戦国大名になるためには、それは室町時代以前からの庶家や傘下の土豪とのゆるやかな同盟関係のしがらみを絶ち、強固な主従関係により結ばれた家臣団の獲得こそが大きな条件であったといえる。
• In order for shugo daimyo, shugodai, and kokujinryoshu to become a sengoku daimyo, it was necessary to abolish the ties of their loose alliances with shoke and local clans under them that began before the Muromachi period and then to obtain vassal groups with which they were tied based upon a strong relationship of master and vassal.

• 氏族単位での技能・学術の「世習」による継承は大和時代以前の日本の氏族において見られる現象であるが、律令制のもとではこうした方法を排除して公的機関である大学寮・典薬寮・陰陽寮において教育を行う制度を採用した。
• Handing down skills and learning by 'Seshu' (hereditary) within the clan was a phenomenon seen among Japanese clans before the Yamato period, but under the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code) these customs were abolished and the education system at public institutions such as Daigakuryo (Bureau of Education), Tenyakuryo (the Bureau of Medicine), and Onmyoryo (Bureau of Divination) was adopted.

• 弟子入りの時期については建治元年（1275年）が通説とされているが、それ以前の文永9年（1272年）に日蓮によって書かれたとされている「弁殿御消息」の中において、日蓮が日高を「そつ」と呼んでいた事が分かる。
• It is commonly believed that Nichiko became the pupil of Nichiren in 1275, and there remains such a passage in the 'Bendono Goshosoku' (a collection of letters from Nichiren to Ben no ajari [acarya or Master Ben, referring to Nissho]) in 1272, which is attributed to Nichiren, that Nichiren called Nichiko 'Sotsu.'

• 源氏物語古系図（げんじものがたりこけいず）とは、『源氏物語』の登場人物を実在の人物と同様に系図の形式で書き表した源氏物語系図（げんじものがたりけいず）のうち、三条西実隆が整えたとされるもの以前のものをいう。
• Among the genealogies of The Tale of Genji, in which characters in 'The Tale of Genji' were systematically written in the form of genealogy as if they were the real people, Genji monogatari kokeizu (old genealogies on the Tale of Genji) refers to the ones that were made before the genealogy produced by Sanetaka SANJONISHI.

• なお、第二次大戦終戦以前に国の指定を受けていた民家は大阪府羽曳野市の吉村家住宅（1937年（昭和12年）指定）と京都市の小川家住宅（通称「二条陣屋」、1944年（昭和19年）指定）のわずか2件のみであった。
• Only two cases involving private houses received national designation before the end of World War II: the Yoshimura Residence (designated in 1937) in Habikino City, Osaka Prefecture, and the Ogawa Residence (a.k.a. 'Nijo-jinya,' designated in 1944) in Kyoto City.

• 「賢聖の障子」の成立の確かな資料は、『日本紀略』延長 (元号)七年（929年）の条に、「少内記 小野道風をして紫宸殿障子を賢聖像に改書せしむ。先年道風書く所なり」とあり、この以前から存在していたことになる。
• The clear evidence of the existence of 'Kenjo no shoji ' is a description in the section of the year of 929 of 'Nihongi Ryaku' (history book of six countries) as 'Shonaiki made ONO no Michikaze overdraw the image of Kenjo sage on the Shoji of Shishinden. In past years ONO no Michikaze wrote it.,' therefore, it could have existed before this.

• 題目宗（日蓮宗、法華宗）の宗祖日蓮が正行（しょうぎょう）として据えたが、日蓮以前の天台大師（智顗）を祖とする天台宗・天台寺門宗などでも教義の中心ではないもののこの五字七字の題目は修行僧が唱えていたとされる。
• Nichiren, the founder of the Daimoku sect (Nichiren sect, Hokke sect), defined Namu-myoho-renge-kyo as Shogyo (a correct practice); although, prior to Nichiren, it was not a center of the creed in Tendai and Tendai Jimon sects, which Tendai Taishi (Chigi or Zhiyi) founded, it was chanted by the ascetic priests of those sects.

• 後装式(元込め)のスナイドル銃をいち早く導入し、集成館事業の蓄積で近代工業基盤を有していた薩摩藩は、イギリスから設備を輸入して明治5年の陸軍省創設以前からスナイドル弾薬の国産化に成功していた唯一の地域だった。
• The Satsuma Domain was armed with breech-loading Snider rifles before others; based on the modern industrial base that had been built up through the industries at Shuseikan, the domain was the only region in Japan to succeed in domestic production of ammunition for Snider rifles by importing facilities from England before the Army Ministry was established in 1872.

• かつての通説によると、鎌倉幕府は、1192年（建久3年）に源頼朝が征夷大将軍（以下、将軍）に任官されて始まったとされていたが、頼朝の権力・統治機構はそれ以前から存続しており、現在ではこの説は支持されていない。
• According to an old popular theory, the Kamakura Bakufu was thought to have started in 1192, when MINAMOTO no Yoritomo was appointed to seii taishogun (literally, 'great general who subdues the barbarians') (hereinafter, shogun), but the power and governing system of Yoritomo had existed before that and now this theory is not believed.

• 鳥越憲三郎が唱えた説で、三王朝交替説では実在を否定されている神武天皇及びいわゆる欠史八代の天皇は実在した天皇であり、崇神王朝以前に存在した奈良県葛城地方を拠点とした王朝であったが崇神王朝に滅ぼされたとする説。
• It was the theory advocated by Kensaburo TORIGOE that Emperor Jinmu and so called Kesshi-Hachidai (Eight undocumented Sovereigns), who were denied the existence in the changes of the three dynasties theory, were actual persons and they set the base on Katsuragi region in Nara Prefecture before the reign of Emperor Sujin who destroyed the dynasty.

• だが、朝倉氏との戦いは九頭竜川の戦いで敗れて逆に朝倉氏によって吉崎御坊は破壊された上に本願寺門徒への禁宗令が出され、蓮如以前からある数少ない末寺である超勝寺・本覚寺 (小松市)などは信者を連れて加賀に逃れた。
• However, Jitsunyo lost against the Asakura clan in the Battle of Kuzuryugawa, and the Asakura clan destroyed Yoshizaki Gobo in return and prohibited believing in the Ikko sect, so some of the few branch temples that had existed before Rennyo such as Chosho-ji Temple, Hongaku-ji Temple (in Komatsu City) escaped to Kaga with their followers.

• その後、天平勝宝4年2月21日（752年3月11日）に本貫のある京職・国司に対して廃止以前の旧雑戸籍を調査して旧雑戸であった人々を確定・登録してそれぞれの職種に旧来の如く従事させるようにとする命令が出された。
• Afterward, on March 15, 752, Kyoshiki (the Capital Bureau) and kokushi (provincial governors) with hongan (birthplace) received an order to identify and register those who were formerly members of zakko by investigating old zakkoseki before the abolishment of zakko in order to get them engaged in their jobs as before.

• 以前、学界では平氏政権を貴族政権的な性格が強いとする見解が主流であったが、1970年代・1980年代頃からは、平氏政権が地頭や国守護人を設置した事実に着目し、最初期の武家政権とする見解が非常に有力となっている。
• In the past, many theories in the field considered the Taira clan administration as being a strongly aristocratic administration, but from around the 1970s and 1980s, the theory that the Taira clan administration was the first warrior class government which focussed on the fact that the Taira clan administration established Jito (local lord of a manor) and Province officers became dominant.

• ただ「万国公法」ということばは、1876年12月の時点で使用されており、韓国の研究者の間では花房によってもたらされる以前に、すでに伝来していたと推測する論者もいる（李1982、金容九1999、金鳳珍2001）。
• However, the word 'bankoku koho' was already used in December, 1876 and according to some researchers in Korea, the word seemed to have arrived before Hanabusa brought it (李 1982, 金容丸 1999, 金鳳珍 2001).

• 正確な成立時期は分かっていないものの、仁治元年（1240年）に藤原定家によって書写された『兵範記』（平信範の日記）の紙背文書に「治承物語六巻号平家候間、書写候也」とあるため、それ以前に成立したと考えられている。
• Although it is not known exactly when the tale was completed, the shihai monjo (an old document which was written on the other side of a piece of used paper) of 'Heihanki' (diary of TAIRA no Nobunori) transcribed by FUJIWARA no Teika in 1240 states that 'Jisho Monogatari volume Six, transcribed,' therefore it is considered that the tale was completed before 1240.

• 歴史的にはほぼ同義語的に弓術、射術、射芸等とも呼ばれていたが、現在では日本における伝統的な弓射文化を総称して「弓道」と呼称されており、「弓術」とは「弓道」へ改称する以前の古武術との意味合いで使われることが多い。
• Historically known as; Kyujutsu, Shajutsu, or Shagei, but at present, traditional Yumiire/Kyusha (弓射) culture in Japan is called 'Kyudo (Japanese art of archery)' and the term 'Kyujutsu' is often used to distinguish the old martial art before it changed to 'Kyudo.'

• 以前は唐の都の長安を模倣して作られたというのが一般的な定説であったが、先行する藤原京との密接な関係から現在は関連が疑われており、北魏洛陽などをモデルとした、日本独自の発展系ではないかという見方も有力となっている。
• Although it was a well established theory that the capital was modeled after Changan of Tang Dynasty, its relationship with Fujiwara-kyo, previously thought to be close, became questionable, and therefore another theory became accepted, which stated that Rakuyo in Northern Wei Dynasty was the inspiration, yet the development of the capital was unique to Japan.

• 以前からくすぶっていた新県構想は請願権の獲得によって一気に高まり、明治23年（1890年）の夏頃には「会見郡・汗入郡・日野郡3郡の島根県編入案」と「鳥取・島根両県を合併させ、会見県を新設する案」の2つが示された。
• The previously-existing conception of creating a new prefecture grew rapidly after the right of petition was obtained, and in the summer of 1890, 2 ideas such as 'incorporating Aimi, Aseri and Hino counties into Shimane Prefecture' and 'incorporating Tottori and Shimane Prefecture and create Aimi Prefecture' were presented.

• 北条家内では梶原景時、比企能員など強力な政敵の排除には団結していたが、先妻の子義時・北条政子らと後妻牧の方との間には以前から亀の前事件などの諍いがあり、共通の敵が居なくなった事によって両者の対立が表面化していた。
• Although the Hojo family was well united to eliminate external political enemies such as Kagetoki KAJIWARA and Yoshikazu HIKI, due to the fact that they had no mutual enemies, internal conflicts arose such as the one between the children from his first marriage (Yoshitoki and Masako HOJO) and his second wife, Maki no kata, particularly after the Kamenomae Incident.

• 以前国宝が存在しなかった沖縄県では2006年（平成18年）に琉球王国第二尚氏関係資料が、北海道では2007年（平成19年）に土偶が、熊本県では2008年（平成20年）に青井阿蘇神社本殿他がそれぞれ国宝に指定された。
• Until recently, three other prefectures (Okinawa, Hokkaido, and Kumamoto) also did not have any national treasures, but each got one in the last few years; regarding Okinawa, in 2006 the materials related to the Daini shoshi (the second royal family) of the Ryukyu Kingdom were named a national treasure, while Hokkaido's clay figurines were named a national treasure in 2007, and the main hall and so forth of Aoi Aso-jinja Shrine in Kumamoto were designated national treasures in 2008.

• 天文博士の挙状によって後任の天文博士が任命される例はそれ以前にも存在していた（『朝野群載』）が、これ以後は安倍氏の天文博士が挙状によって自己の一族を天文博士・権博士に任命して世襲していくことが行われるようになった。
• Although there had been some precedent for new tenmon hakase to be appointed by a tenmon hakase's recommendation ('Choya gunsai (Collected Official and Unofficial Writings)'), from that point on, the tradition of tenmon hakase from the Abe family recommend their own kin for tenmon hakase or tenmongon no hakuji, keeping the positions in the family, was established.

• また、鎌倉時代以前には『源氏物語』は「雲隠」を含む37巻と「並び」18巻とに分けられており、並びの巻を含めない37巻という数え方が存在し、更に宇治十帖全体を一巻に数えて全体を28巻とする数え方をされることもあった。
• Additionally, 'The Tale of Genji' had been divided between the 37 chapters including 'Kumogakure' and 18 chapters of 'Narabi (parallel)' before the Kamakura period, and there was a view that the tale consisted of 37 chapters (excluding the Narabi chapters); or, it was sometimes counted as 28 chapters in total, taking all 10 chapters of the Uji part as one chapter.

• 日本へは原始的な火器は倭寇などにより鉄砲伝来以前に持ち込まれていたとする宇田川武久らの説もあるが、『鉄炮記』に記されているのはにポルトガル人により種子島へ鉄砲（火縄銃）が持ち込まれたとする事件（鉄砲伝来）を意味する。
• Another theory, advanced by Takehisa UDAGAWA and others, holds that before the arrival of guns in Japan, primitive firearms had already been introduced into by wako (Japanese pirates) and other people, but the 'Teppoki' provides an account of how firearms (arquebuses) were brought to Tanegashima Island in 1543 by Portuguese sailors ('introduction of guns into Japan').

• 無論、『武士道』以前より内村や新渡戸は日本文化における長所と短所について突き詰めた観察をしているし、戦後の教育基本法の審議委員に新渡戸門下生が加わっていた点を見ても戦後デモクラシーの大きな基盤となった点は間違いない。
• Of course, before 'Bushido' Uchimura and Nitobe observed carefully the advantages and disadvantages of Japanese culture and also seeing that the disciples of Nitobe participated in the council of the Fundamental Law of Education, obviously Bushido became a major basis of democracy after the war.

• アマテラスとタカミムスビは、アマテラスの子であるアメノオシホミミに、「葦原中国平定が終わったので、以前に委任した通りに、天降って葦原中国を治めなさい」（「今平訖葦原中國矣 故汝當依命下降而統之」『古事記』）と言った。
• Amaterasu and Takamimusubi said to Amaterasu's child, Amenooshihohomi, 'Now that pacification of Ashihara no Nakatsukuni is done, descend to earth and rule Ashihara no Nakatsukuni as you agreed to do' (the 'Kojiki' [The Records of Ancient Matters]).

• 先述した『日本の内側』、それ以前に著した『日本の女性』（日本語訳題『明治日本の女たち』）は明治時代の日本の女性事情を偏見無く書いた史料として貴重であり、ルース・ベネディクトが『菊と刀』を執筆するときに参考文献とした。
• Her books 'A Japanese Interior' mentioned above and 'Japanese Girls and Women' (Japanese title was 'Meiji Nihon no Onna-tachi' [Japanese Girls and Women of the Meiji Period]) written before 'A Japanese Interior' are important historical materials that describe Japanese women of the Meiji period without prejudice; and Ruth Benedict referred to it to write 'The Chrysanthemum and the Sword.'

• 長和3年（1014年）、『小右記』の2月7日条には陸奥国鎮守府将軍の重任を得るため、藤原道長に馬20疋他豪華な貢ぎ物を行い、門前にはそれを見ようとする見物人が列をなしたとあり、それ以前に鎮守府将軍であったことが解る。
• In 1014, in the section of February 7 in 'Shoyuki' (the Diary of FUJIWARA no Sanesuke), it is written that he presented 20 horses and other luxurious items to FUJIWARA no Michinaga in order to be reappointed as Chinju-fu shogun of Mutsu Province and onlookers were crowded in front of his house to see this incident, so it means that he had been Chinju-fu shogun before this.

• さらに言えば、これ以前からあった仇教事件のような列強の司法への介入、山東巡撫の更迭要求等のいくつもの列強の圧力、すなわち「累朝の積憤」（積もり積もった怒り。剛毅の言）が次第に清朝を「宣戦布告」へと追いやったと言える。
• Furthermore, what drove the Qing dynasty to the 'proclamation of war' was the ongoing interference in the administration of justice such as the previous Kyukyo Incident, and oppression by powerful western nations demanding Shandong Province's junbu (government official title that existed from Ming to Qing dynasty) be handed over (this was described by Gangyi as the 'build up of anger over generations of reign').

• したがって涅槃経の仏性常住（円教）は、法華経の命である円教を重ねて説いただけであるから、涅槃経は前三経（法華経以前に説かれた蔵・通・別の教え、つまり華厳・阿含・報道・般若の各経説）と同じで、それだけが得る部分である。
• Therefore, bussho josho (one of the Buddhist teaching about the status of reaching the Nirvana and its eternity) (en teaching) is just a repetition of en teaching that is the life of Hoke-kyo Sutra, so Nehan-gyo Sutra is the same as the former three Sutra (zo, tsu, betsu teachings that were preached before Hoke-kyo Sutra, that is, Kegon-kyo Sutra, Agon-kyo Sutra, Hodo-kyo Sutra, Hannya-kyo Sutra, and only that is what you should learn.

• 古くは16世紀、命を狙われた京阿波根実基（きょうあはごんじっき）が空手（くうしゅ）にて相手の股間を蹴り上げたとの記述が正史『球陽』にあり、これは唐手以前の素手格闘術であったと考えられているが、その実態は判然としない。
• The 'Kyuyo' (the chronicles of Ryukyu) introduces an episode in which, during the sixteenth century, when Jikki KYOAHAGON was assaulted by an assassin he kicked the assassin in the groin through an art of 'kushu' (空手), which is considered to be an unarmed (bare hands) martial art prior to toudee, although there is no clear depiction of such an art.

• 附則第三条第一項から第三項までに規定する計量単位による目盛又は表記を付した計量器であって、その目盛又は表記が、同条第一項から第三項までに規定する期日以前に付されたものについては、新法第九条第一項の規定は、適用しない。
• The provision of Article 9, paragraph 1 of the New Act shall not apply to a measuring instrument with a scale or indication using a measurement unit prescribed in Article 3, paragraphs 1 through 3 of the supplementary provisions if such scale or indication has been affixed to the measuring instrument on or before the effective date of the measurement unit prescribed in Article 3, paragraphs 1 through 3 of the supplementary provisions.

• 室町時代は、3代征夷大将軍足利義満の時代の全盛を除いて戦乱と無秩序の時代であったが、鎌倉時代以前には見られない、出自不明の農民・商人層の社会進出を可能とし、日本史上、初めて人間の顔が見える人物を登場させた時代でもある。
• Aside from the golden age of prosperity reached under the third seii taishogun (literally, 'great general who subdues the barbarians') Yoshimitsu ASHIKAGA, the Muromachi period was fraught with wars and disorder, but on the other hand, not since before the Kamakura period had there been such opportunity for common people of obscure origins, farmers and tradesmen, to advance socially, and among all the eras of Japanese history, the Muromachi period was the first to produce notable people whose faces and lives appear in clear focus to later eyes.

• 先の藤原利仁も、平将門の祖父の平髙望も、あるいはそれ以前に関東進出を果たしていた嵯峨源氏も、そうした「群盗蜂起」に対する治安維持の為に、京の貴族社会の中で武勇に優れたものが下向し、治安維持に当たったものと見られている。
• FUJIWARA no Toshihito, who lived earlier, TAIRA no Takamochi, who was the grandfather of TAIRA no Masakado, and Saga-Genji (Minamoto clan) that entered Kanto region even earlier than all of them sent one within the aristocratic society of Kyoto that excelled in martial arts to travel to districts to deal with the 'increase in robberies' for the sake of public peace.

• 現代のカトリック教会における葬儀は、この文書をうけて改訂され、1969年に発表されたカトリック教会の儀式書『葬儀』およびその各国語訳に基づいておこなわれているが、それ以前のものと比べると二つの特徴をあげることができる。
• The current funerals of the Roman Catholic Church are observed according to the funeral rites which were revised by the above document and published in 1969 as the Catholic liturgical book 'Ordo exsequiarum' and is translated into several foreign languages, and two characteristics can be mentioned as compared with the view of funerals before the revision.

• 未選別の中間加工品、茎・芽・硬葉等を含んだ茶葉（生葉）を蒸熱、揉み操作、乾燥等の加工処理を経て製造され仕上げ茶として再製する以前のいわゆる荒茶をそのまま販売する際に「青柳」と称する場合もあるので区別の必要なことがある。
• Sometimes, so-called Aracha (unsorted green tea) is sold as 'Aoyagi', it is necessary to make a distinction between such unfinished tea and refined Aoyagicha, which should be prepared by steaming, crumpling or drying, unpicked, half-finished products, or tea leaves (raw tea leaves) including stems, buds, and hard leaves,

• 国勢調査以前の日本の人口統計主要都市人口で見ると、日本三大都市の東京には麹町区以下東京15区、大阪には東区 (大阪市)・西区 (大阪市)・南区 (大阪市)・北区 (大阪市)の4区、京都には上京区・下京区の2区が置かれた。
• Regarding the three largest cities, according to the major city population statistics before a census was started, Tokyo had 15 wards including Kojimachi Ward, and Osaka had four wards; Higashi Ward (Osaka City), Nishi Ward (Osaka City), Minami Ward (Osaka City) and Kita Ward (Osaka City), and Kyoto had two wards; Kamigyo Ward and Shimogyo Ward.

• 中田薫 (学者)の『法制史論集』に収める諸論文や滝川政次郎『律令の研究』は、太平洋戦争以前に発表された代表的な研究文献であるが、これらに共通するものは、中国律令法と日本律令法との相違を明らかにしようとする課題意識である。
• Various research papers in the 'Hoseishi ronshu' (A collection of essays on legal history) by Kaoru NAKADA (scholar) and the 'Ritsuryo no kenkyu' (Studies on Ritsuryo) by Masajiro TAKIKAWA are major research literature published before the Pacific war, and the commonality between them is an attempt to clarify the difference between Chinese ritsuryo law and Japanese ritsuryo law.

• 先に足利義教が暗殺された嘉吉の変では、管領らが協議して直ちに後継将軍が定められたが、永禄の変以前の永禄6年（1563年）に管領細川氏綱が死去して以後、管領は置かれておらず、将軍の死により幕府機能は事実上停止するに至った。
• In the Kakitsu Incident in which Yoshinori ASHIKAGA was assassinated, his deputy and other officials held consultations and immediately selected the succeeding Shogun, but, since Deputy Ujitsuna HOSOKAWA had died in 1563 before the Eiroku Incident, the position of deputy was unfilled, allowing the functions of the Bakufu to be virtually halted by the Shogun's death.

• 近衛親子を初めとする五摂家が秀吉の関白就任を容認したのは、天下人である秀吉が相論収拾のために一時的に関白に就任して時が来れば近衛信輔に地位が譲られて再び以前のように五摂家間の持ち回りになるものと解釈されていたからである。
• The five sekke including Nobusuke KONOE and his father accepted the appointment of Hideyoshi to Kanpaku because they had presumed that Hideyoshi, the ruler of Japan, would temporarily assume the position of Kanpaku to settle the dispute and relinquish it to Nobusuke KONOE in due course, and that the position of Kanpaku would be rotated among the five sekke again as it had been.

• 『本朝世紀』の「天慶元年（938年）11月3日の条」によると、駿河国・伊豆国・甲斐国・相模国の四ヶ国に将武の追捕令が発せられており、将門が承平天慶の乱をおこす以前から伊豆・相模辺りを拠点に猛威を奮っていたとみられている。
• According to 'the article of November 3, 938' of 'Honcho seiki' (Chronicle of Imperial Reigns), a warrant to search and capture Masatake was issued in four provinces of Suruga, Izu, Kai and Sagami, which tells that Masatake had been exerting overwhelming influence based in Izu and Sagami before Masakado launched the Johei and Tengyo War.

• そこで翌明治3年4月29日に政府はそれまでに自訴状を提出した藩の贋貨鋳造を赦免し、またそれ以外の藩でも箱館戦争終結以前の贋貨鋳造行為に関してはかつて明治政府と戦った斗南藩（旧会津藩）なども含めてその罪を不問にするとした。
• Consequently, on April 29, 1870, the government pardoned the domains that had handed in the jisojo before then, and also decided to overlook the coining of counterfeit money done by the other domains before the end of the Hakodate War, including the Tonami Domain (the old Aizu Domain) which used to fight with the Meiji government.

• また、近年では、ある特定の血統が大王（天皇）位を独占的に継承する「王朝」が確立するのは継体・欽明朝以降のことで、それ以前は数代の大王が血縁関係にあっても「王朝」と呼べる形態になっていなかったとする見解が主流になっている。
• In recent years the mainstream is the theory which says that the 'dynasty,' in which a specific blood line inherits great king (emperor) exclusively, established after the dynasties of Emperor Keitai and Emperor Kinmei; until then, even if great kings of several generations shared the same blood line, they were not in a form to be called 'dynasty.'

• 満州事変勃発以降は、戦時体制・翼賛体制が強化されたことを勘案しても、満州国成立を容認・擁護し、昭和17年（1942年）に発表した『白櫻集』で、以前の歌「君死にたまうことなかれ」とは正反対に、戦争を美化し、鼓舞する歌を作った。
• After the Manchurian Incident broke out, by taking into consideration that the wartime regime and Yokusan Taisei (Support system of Taisei Yokusan-kai - Imperial Rule Assistance Association) were strengthened, she approved and supported the establishment of Manchukuo and in 'Hakuo-shu' that she published in 1942, she wrote poems that glorified and encouraged the war, completely opposite of her pervious work 'Kimi Shinitamou koto nakare.'

• その中で己が権益には強い姿勢を見せながらも、将軍家を尊重する姿勢は一貫して崩さなかった三好長慶を排除すればどうなるかすら予見し得なかった義輝は、図らずも程なく長慶が病没する事によって、以前の試みの帰結を知る事となったのである。
• Unable to foresee the consequences of the ousting of Nagayoshi MIYOSHI who, although firmly insistent on his own interests, had never deviated from the posture of respecting the Shogun family, Yoshiteru happened to learn from the soon succumbing of Nagayo

• 奈良県教育委員会による調査報告には、近世以前のルートの指摘や、文化的景観の観点からの自然誌・考古・歴史・景観に関する報告、民俗・文化財、さらに調査・研究史の概観や古文書・史料の解題といった、重要な調査・研究の成果を含んでいる。
• The reports by Nara Prefectural Board of Education listed the older routes before the early-modern period and reported the information linked to the conservation of cultural scenery including the information of natural history, archaeology, history and sceneries, in addition, it gave the results of the important investigations and studies such as summaries of the history of the investigations and studies, and bibliographies of the old documents and historical materials.

• 当時うつけ、かぶき者などと評されていた信長は、同じく傾奇者であった犬千代を気に入り、共に女物の着物や動物の皮などで仕立てられた派手な着物を着て無法・逸脱行為を働いていたという（信長と利家は仕官以前から面識があったともいわれる）。
• It is said that Nobunaga who was called an utsuke (the stupid) or a kabukimono (an eccentric person) in those days got to favor Inuchiyo who was also a kabukimono, and that they dressed in the kimono for women or the outlandish kimono made of animal skin and others and they committed delinquent and deviated behaviors together (it is also said that Nobunaga and Toshiie had already known each other before Toshiie became a page.)

• 超勝寺は先の本覚寺蓮恵の一件以来、本覚寺と並んで賀州三ヶ寺から圧迫を受けていたが元々は蓮如以前からの由緒のある末寺であり、北陸全域に門徒を抱えており、｢北の超勝寺・南の本覚寺｣と呼ばれてきた状況は加賀一向一揆後も変わりがなかった。
• Chosho-ji Temple had been oppressed in the same way as Hongaku-ji Temple by Gashu Sanka-ji Temples since the incident caused by Rene at Hongaku-ji Temple as mentioned before, but it was originally a historic branch temple that had existed before Rennyo and had followers all around Hokuriku, and its fame described as 'Chosho-ji Temple in the north, Hongaku-ji Temple in the south' was invariable even after the uprising of the Ikko sect followers in Kaga.

• ただし、書紀以前に成立した書とされ、作為が少ないと思われた『上宮聖徳法王帝説』や『元興寺縁起』についても、近年の研究において書紀以後の成立とする説も現れ（後世に用いられた「天皇」号が記載されているなど）、その地位は確定していない。
• However, some recent research considers that 'Jogu Shotoku Hooteisetsu' and 'Gangoji Garan Engi,' which were thought to be written before Shoki and to have little modification, were written after Shoki (partly because the title of 'emperor' which was used in later years was already seen), so that their positions have not been established.

• 一般的には池田屋事件に参戦した隊士として有名で、入隊時期に関しては、正確には不明なものの、文久3年（1863年9月30日）に起きた八月十八日の政変に参加している事から、それ以前、つまり、新選組の前身・壬生浪士組の頃からの隊士である。
• Generally, Ryozo has been famous for participating in the Ikedaya Incident, and although it is unclear when he joined the Shinsengumi, yet he participated in the Palace Coup of August 18 which occurred on September 30, 1863, thus making it possible to infer that he had been a member since the time of the Miburoshigumi which was the forerunner of the Shinsengumi.

• 第二次世界大戦以前の日本における伽耶地方の研究については、当時の併合政策を正当化しようとする姿勢から、『日本書紀』に現れる任那日本府を倭国（大和政権）が朝鮮半島南部を支配するために設置した出先機関であるとする前提に立つものであった。
• Before the World War II, the study of Goya region in Japan stood on the premise that Mimana Nihon-fu, which appears in 'Nihonshoki', was the regional office established by Wakoku (Yamato Administration) to govern the southern area of the Korean Peninsula, which would justify Japan's annexation policy.

• 更には民間も含めて下位者から上位者に出す文書は全て「解」と称されるようになるが、これは、律令制以前においては上申は全て口頭で申すことを原則としていたが、解の書式がその手続をそのまま文書化したための名残が反映されたものとも言われている。
• Furthermore, all monjo to be submitted from a person with a lower rank (including ordinary citizens) to a person with a higher rank came to be referred to as 'ge,' which was because all reports had been given orally before the ritsuryo system, and calling all monjo 'ge' is said to be a reflection of the fact that the 'ge' form put all the oral procedures for monjo in writing.

• 「機務六条」が定められて以後、天皇は閣僚と直接謁見して政策について下問したりするようになり、また以前は「外国人」に対する恐怖から渋りがちだった外交団との謁見にも応じるなど、天皇自らが立憲君主としての振る舞いを積極的に行うようになった。
• After 'Kimu rokujo' came into practice, the Emperor proactively engaged himself in behaving as a constitutional monarch, for example, he started to meet directly with bureaucrats to ask about policies and also to accept the audiences with diplomatic corps which he would have been reluctant for fear of 'foreigners'.

• 方言差については、東西に長い日本列島（主に本州・九州・四国と周辺離島）の地理的制約もあって、近代以前は東西に離れた者どうしでは意思疎通に困難を来すほどの差異があったが、音韻や語彙を中心とした相違にとどまり、特に文法面では大きな差はない。
• As for dialects, due to the geographical constraints of the Japanese archipelago, which stretches east to west (consisting mainly of Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku and nearby islands), there were enough differences that those who lived in the east and the west had difficulty communicating before modern times, though the differences were only in phonemes and vocabulary; there was not much difference grammatically.

• また、『とはずがたり』発見以前には後深草天皇の女性関係に関する記録が乏しく、『増鏡』における同天皇の女性関係の記述を創作あるいは弟の亀山天皇のものとの誤認説を唱える学者もいたが、この書の発見以後『増鏡』の記述に根拠がある事が確認された。
• Also, because there were very few records of Emperor Gofukakusa's romances before 'Towazugatari' was found, some scholars used to think that the descriptions of his romances in 'Masukagami' were fictional or had been confused with those of his brother Emperor Kameyama, but after the discovery of 'Towazugatari,' it was confirmed that there was a basis for the descriptions in 'Masukagami.'

• また、『政事要略』巻30に採録された『宇多天皇御記』仁和4年6月2日条には天皇が以前「卿従前代猶摂政焉、至朕身親如父子、宜摂政耳」と基経に伝えたことに対して基経が「謹奉命旨必能奉」と解答しているのに裏切られたと憤慨する記述が残されている。
• According to the description of June 2, 886 in 'Uda Tenno Gyoki' compiled in volume 30 of 'Seiji Yoryaku,' the Emperor was disappointed and got angry with Mototsune because when the Emperor asked Mototsune by saying 'you have served as acting Sessho so far, but please assume the position of Sessho since we are like father and son,' Mototsune replied by saying 'I was told your order.'

• 富本銭が発掘された地層から、700年以前に建立された寺の瓦や、687年を示す「丁亥年」と書かれた木簡が出土しており、また『日本書紀』の683年（天武天皇12年）の記事に「今より以後、必ず銅銭を用いよ。銀銭を用いることなかれ」との記述がある。
• From the stratum from which Fuhonsen coin was excavated, roof tile of a temple constructed before 700 and mokkan (a long and narrow wood plate written with a brush) marked 'Yin Fire Pig year' indicating the year 687 were excavated; furthermore in 'Nihonshoki' (Chronicles of Japan) in 683 it was written 'Use copper coins from now on and do not use silver coins any more.'

• 後三条天皇以前の天皇の多くも即位した直後に、王権の確立と律令の復興を企図して「新政」と称した一連の政策を企画実行していたが、後三条天皇は外戚に摂関家を持たない強みも背景として、延久の荘園整理令（1069年）などより積極的な政策展開を行った。
• Many emperors prior to Emperor Gosanjo also planned and implemented a series of policies called 'new policies,' being intended for establishment of sovereignty and the revival of ritsuryo legal codes, which they enacted immediately after succeeding to the throne; but Emperor Gosanjo conducted active policies, including Enkyu-no Shoen Seiri-rei (an order given in the Enkyu era to consolidate manors) (in 1069), supported by his advantage of not having Sekkan-ke as his cognates.

• 綱吉は小倉の勅命違反の事実を重視して小倉実起と嫡男の小倉公連、その弟の竹淵季件を佐渡国へと流刑を命じ、藪家や中園家といった小倉家の同族に対しても逼塞を命じた（なお、この処分が決定する直前に天和への改元が以前からの予定通りに実施されている）。
• Taking Ogura's failure to obey the imperial command seriously, Tsunayoshi ordered to banish Saneoki OGURA, his legitimate son Kintsura OGURA and Kintsura's younger brother Kiken TAKEBUCHI to Sado Province, and relatives of Ogura including the Yabu and Nakazono families under house arrest (incidentally, immediately before these punishments, the imperial era name had been changed to Tenwa as scheduled beforehand).

• ただし五味文彦は、それ以前の1235年頃に、「頼朝将軍記」とかの『原吾妻鏡』と呼べるような歴史書が原型として出来上がり、同じころに京都では『原平家物語』が著され、また東国では『原曽我物語』がつくられたということもあり得るのではないかとする。
• However Fumihiko GOMI considers that history books which deserve to be called 'The original Azuma Kagami,' like 'A Record of Shogun Yoritomo,' were completed in their original form around 1235, and around the same time, 'The Original Tale of the Heike,' and in the eastern provinces, 'The Original Tale of Soga' could also be said to have been written.

• 神戸市街地は1945年に大空襲を受けたため、現在の神戸市役所西側一帯にあった居留地時代（1899年以前）の建物で残っているのは旧居留地十五番館（旧アメリカ合衆国領事館、国の重要文化財）が唯一で、多く残る近代ビル建築は主に大正時代のものである。
• The urban areas of Kobe were devastated by the great air raids in 1945, so building No. 15 of the former settlement (the former consulate of the United States, and an important cultural property of Japan) was the only building left standing among those built in the settlement period (that is, before 1899) in the western area of the settlement, which corresponds to the vicinity of the present-day city hall of Kobe; most of the modern-era buildings that remain standing were built in the Taisho period.

• 以前までは、企業間の接待や政財界人の利用、官官接待が毎日のように行われてきたが、現在ではほとんど行われなくなったために、全国の料亭は一般に利用しやすい価格にしたり、スタイルを変えたり、様々なプランやイベントを行ったりし、顧客の誘致をしている。
• Before, ryotei were used almost every day by the receptions among enterprises, politicians, financiers and bureaucrats, however, now these receptions are rare, so ryotei nationwide are lowering prices to be reasonable for common people, changing the style, providing various plans and events to attract customers.

• 鎌倉幕府がそれ以前の武家政権である平氏政権と最も異なる点は「問注所」（後に評定所）と呼ばれる訴訟受付機関を設置したことで、これまでは地所の支配権をめぐる争いは当事者同士の武力闘争に容易に発展していたものをこれにより実質的に禁止することになった。
• The most striking difference between the Kamakura bakufu and the prior warrior government run by the Taira clan was the bakufu's creation of what was called the Monjusho (hereafter referred to as the Hyojosho or 'Office of Arbitration'), an organization devoted to hearing and ruling on legal disputes over land ownership; until this office was founded, final authority to own land rested with the side whose military might was greatest and disputes were resolved in a simple way--through force--but the new office substantially reduced such bloody conflicts.

• 平安京から山陰道を下る場合、山城国と丹波国の国境にある大江坂に設けられた大江関（おおえのせき）を必ず越えて京と別れを告げることになった事から、古くから歌枕の地として知られていた（平安遷都以前にも淀川経由で平城京に向かう場合の経路とされている）。
• People using the Sanin-do Road from Heian-kyo, passed through Oeno-seki (the Oe gate station) placed on Oeno-saka Slope, located in the boundary between Yamashiro Province and Tanba Province, in order to bid farewell to the capital; therefore, it was known as a place of utamakura (a place name often used in ancient Japanese poems) (even before the capital was moved to Heian-kyo, this route was used for going to Heijo-kyo via Yodo-gawa River).

• 11世紀より12世紀にかけて成立した数々の物語は、その丁寧な叙述と心理描写のたくみさ、話の波乱万丈ぶりよりも決めこまやかな描写と叙情性や風雅を追求しようとする性向において、あきらかに『宇津保物語』以前の系譜を断ちきり、『源氏物語』に拠っている。
• Many tales composed from the eleventh to twelfth centuries clearly discarded the tradition before 'Utsuho monogatari' and depended instead on 'The Tale of Genji,' in that they had careful narration, excellent psychological descriptions, detailed descriptions rather than eventful stories, and a tendency toward lyricism and refinement.

• 『摂州名所記』承応4年（1655年）篇には「名塩、鳥の子紙、昔よりすき出す所也、越前にもおとらさる程にすく、或いは色々 紙有り」とあり、同書が書かれた承応年間（1652～54年）より以前の十七世紀前半には、名塩で紙業が発展していたことが分かる。
• In the section 1655 of the 'Sesshu meisho ki' (a guide to noted places of Settsu province) there is a description of 'Najio being a place where torinoko-gami was made in the past. They make paper as skillfully as people in Echizen province and there are various types of paper.,' which shows that the paper manufacturing in Najio had already been developed in the early part of the 17th centuries during 1652 and 54 when it was written.

• 当初、軍事目的のための備蓄米であった城米も長い間の平和のために次第に飢饉などの災害の救済や臨時の出費の際の財源に流用されるようになり、ついに元禄2年（1689年）には、幕府財政の赤字穴埋めのために備蓄量を寛文以前に戻し、その余剰を売却させている。
• At that time, because of the long-lasting peace, jomai which was originally stockpiled for the purpose of the military was gradually being used as a redress for the disaster such as famine, or diverted to the resources of extraordinary expenses, and finally, in 1689, the bakufu put the criteria of stock back before Kanbun era to cover the deficit of its financial affairs and sold the surplus rice.

• このことは、池田の関心が本書の完成によって青表紙本・河内本というものについての研究が一応完成し、その成果を基礎として青表紙本・河内本が成立する以前の源氏物語の本文の流れを明らかにし、紫式部の書いた「原本」に迫ることにあったからであるとされている。
• It is said that this is because IKEDA got interested in 'the original book' which Murasaki Shikibu wrote after the completion of this work, which tentatively perfected the study of the Aobyoshi-bon and the Kawachi-bon, and the results of the work revealed the changes in the text of The Tale of Genji before the Aobyoshi-bon and the Kawachi-bon were made.

• 附則第三条第一項から第三項までに規定する期日以前に、これらの規定で定める計量単位による表示を文書に記載し、又は商品その他の物件に付したときは、その表示は、新法第八条第一項の規定にかかわらず、当該期日後においても、取引又は証明に用いることができる。
• An indication using a measurement unit prescribed in the provisions of Article 3, paragraphs 1 through 3 of the supplementary provisions that has been stated on a document or affixed to a commodity or other objects on or before the effective date of the measurement unit prescribed in these provisions may be used for the purposes of transactions or certifications even after such effective date notwithstanding the provision of Article 8, paragraph 1 of the New Act.

• 更に遣隋使・遣唐使とこれに随伴した留学生達によって、畿内ヤマトに中国の社会制度・文化の多くが初めて直接伝えられたとされていることから、遣隋使・遣唐使以前は畿内ヤマトには中国の社会制度・文化は殆ど伝わっておらず、倭と畿内ヤマトとは明らかに別物である。
• In addition, since it has been said that many of Chinese social system and culture were directly transferred for the first time by ken-suishi, kento-shi, and students accompanied them, before kensui-shi and kento-shi went to China, almost no Chinese social system and culture hadn't been transferred to Yamato kingship in Kinai region, so Wa and Yamato kingship in Kinai region were obviously different.

• 応仁の乱以前に起源を持ち、大舩鉾の直前を巡行した大規模な曳山だったが、文政9年（1826年）に激しい夕立に遭って懸装品に甚だしい汚損を被ってしまい、休山していたところに元治元年（1864年）の蛤御門の変による大火で御神体と一部の懸装品を残して焼失。
• Takayama originated before the Onin War, and it was a giant-float parading the streets of Kyoto before 'Ofuneboko' (a different yamaboko), but in 1826 the ornaments of Takayama become grossly stained from the raindrops of a hard shower, so parading the float stopped and in 1864, a big fire broke out at 'Hamagurigomon no Hen' (the rebellion at the Hamaguri Gate) and burned the float except for some of it's ornaments and 'Goshintai' (object of worship in Shinto).
• The Taka yama originates before the Onin War; the Taka yama was a large-scale hikiyama (festival float) paraded just in front of the Ofune boko (decorative floats shaped after the vessel of Empress Jingu); the Taka yama was caught in a sudden heavy evening rain in 1826 causing great damage to the objects used for decoration; while being stored, the Taka yama was lost in fire caused by Conspiracy of Hamaguri-gomon Gate in 1864 except for the object of worship and some of the objects used for decoration.

• 編纂に当たっては「弘仁格」・貞観格に既出のもの、編纂当時に廃止されていたものは掲載せず、文章が長すぎるものは削り、以前の格で内容が不十分あるいは不明確であったものは書き加え、更に一部が使われていない場合には該当部分を削除するなどの修正が施されている。
• In compiling the new collection, such corrections were made as excluding items already taken up in Koninkyaku or Jogyankyaku and those already abolished at the time of compilation, shortening too long sentences, supplementing insufficient or unclear statements in any earlier Kyaku and, where some rules were partially out of use, clearing the pertinent rules of those unused parts.

• だが、実際には当時（版籍奉還以前）の明治政府は諸藩に対して命令を下す権限を持っておらず（従って明治政府の命令である太政官布告ではなく、要請に近い太政官達が出されていた）、特に薩摩・土佐両藩は「戦勝国」の立場を利用してその後も贋貨を鋳造続けたのである。
• However, in reality, the Meiji Government at the time (before the return of lands and people to the emperor) did not have the authority to give orders to various domains (therefore the notice of Daijokan [Grand Council of State], which was more of a request, was issued instead of the edict of Daijokan, which was a command from the Meiji Government), and particularly the Satsuma and Tosa Domains used their position as a 'victor country' and still continued to coin counterfeit money.

• しかしそれより以前、平安時代末期の承安 (日本)1年（1171年）、平治の乱から約10年、平清盛の娘を妻とする高倉天皇の即位後、後白河天皇が出家して法皇となった後に、後白河法皇が静賢法印に命じ、絵師明実の筆による4巻の絵巻を制作させたことが知られる。
• However, before that, it was known that the Cloistered Emperor Goshirakawa ordered Joken hoin to have four volumes of Emaki drawn by the painter Akizane (明実) in 1171, about ten years after the Heiji War and after the Emperor Goshirakawa became a priest and a Cloistered Emperor after the enthronement of Emperor Takakura whose wife was a daughter of TAIRA no Kiyomori.

• 1970年代より以前は大和朝廷（やまとちょうてい）と呼ばれることが多かったが、「大和」という表記は奈良時代以降のものであるとともに、この政治勢力を説明するには「朝廷」という用語は適当でないとされ、1980年代以降はヤマト王権の呼称が一般的となっている。
• Until the 1970s, Yamato Imperial Court (written in Chinese characters) was the more frequently used term but, since the 1980s, Yamato Kingdom (with Yamato written phonetically) has become more common after it was pointed out that the Chinese characters for 'Yamato' were not used until the Nara period and that 'Imperial Court' was not an appropriate expression for the polity of that time.

• 秀吉の父・弥右衛門は百姓であったとされるが、百姓＝農民とするのは後代の用例であり、弥右衛門の主たる生業は織田家の足軽だったとする説もある（一説には百姓では思いつかないような発想などから秀吉は武家へ仕官以前は針の行商人で商人出身であったという説がある）。
• Hideyoshi's father, Yaemon was said to be a 'Hyakusyo', but it is a later way to see 'Hyakusyo' as a farmer and there is an opinion that his main business was 'Ashigaru' (conscripted foot-soldiers) of ODA clan (there is an another opinion that Hideyoshi was a peddler of needles before serving warlords and had a origin of merchant class, judging from his different ideas which a farmer could not hit).

• しかし、その届出額は当時の歳入の倍に相当する7413万円（両）にも達して（しかもこの金額には後述の理由で天保年間（1830年～1843年）以前に発生した債務の大半が含まれていないものと考えられている）おり債務を引き受けた新政府にも財政的な余裕はなかった。
• The amount, however, reached 74.13 million yen (ryo), twice the government revenue at the time, and the new government couldn't afford to repay (in addition, the sum of debts which were made before the Tenpo era (1830 - 1843) was not included in this amount because of the reason mentioned below).

• これらの説は以前から取りざたされてはいるが、信玄と三条夫人の仲が悪かったという事実は確認できない、川中島の合戦の失策で義信が謹慎したり出陣を控えている事実も確認できない、義信の死後に勝頼を正嫡にする事をためらっている事など、いずれも説得力に欠けるとの指摘がある。
• These theories have existed for some time, but since the claims that Shingen and his wife were on bad terms with each other, that Yoshinobu was disciplined for his mistake in the Battle of Kawanakajima and refrained from battle, or that Shingen wanted Katsuyori as the rightful heir after Yoshinobu's death cannot be confirmed, they are unconvincing.

• 多くの韓国人学者は、庶民も含む広範な文学の成立と固有言語の表記法が、自国よりもはるか以前の時期に日本において文献で確認できることに複雑な感情を抱いており、「古代朝鮮語」と『万葉集』の直結的関連性については、韓国の学界では科学的論証を経ずに肯定的に捉えられている。
• Many Korean scholars have mixed feelings in relation to documents which prove that literature and an original writing system had been widely established in Japan including for people outside the aristocracy much earlier than in Korea; therefore, some Korean scholars may prefer to adhere to hypothesis of direct relationship between 'the ancient Korean language' and the 'Manyoshu' without concrete scientific evidence to back up the assertion.

• 律令制以前には陶作部（すえつくりべ）として存在していたことが分かっているが、陶器の生産技術の広まりによるものか、後世においては祭祀などに使う特殊な器を除いて官で陶器の生産を行うことはほとんど無くなったと考えられ、陶作部が律令制のもとでどうなったかも定かではない。
• It is known that Kyotoshi existed as suetsukuribe before Ritsuryo system, but it is unknown that Kyotoshi was born because of the spread of producing technique of earthenware or not, and for years to come, except for the special containers used for ritual and so on, the government is considered to have stopped producing earthenware and it is not sure what happened to suetsukuribe under the Ritsuryo system.

• 侘に関する記述は古く万葉集の時代からあると言われているが、「侘」を美意識を表す概念として名詞形で用いる例は江戸時代の茶書『南方録』まで下り、これ以前では「麁相」（そそう）という表現が近いが、千利休などは「麁相」であることを嫌っていたから必ずしも同義とは言い難い。
• It is said that there have been descriptions concerning wabi since the ancient days of the Manyoshu (Ten Thousand Poems), but the term 'wabi' as a conceptual noun representing a sense of beauty first appeared in 'Nanporoku,' the tea book during the Edo period; before above, the expression 'soso' (coarse) was used in close meaning, however, it is difficult to say that they are necessarily synonymous since SEN no Rikyu disliked 'soso.'

• 後を継いだ実如にとっては門徒を見捨てて加賀国を放棄することは、すなわち延暦寺への従属を余儀なくされ、親鸞の教義を説くことの禁止を強要されていた蓮如以前の本願寺に戻ることであり浄土真宗の教えそのものを放棄するに等しい行為であったために受け入れられるものではなかった｡
• For the successor Jitsunyo, abandoning his followers and discarding Kaga Province meant subordinating himself to Enryaku-ji Temple, returning to what Hongan-ji Temple was before Rennyo, where they were prohibited from preaching Shinran's creed, and almost giving up the doctrine of Jodo Shinshu itself, so he could not accept it.

• その後、届出額の半数以上が天保年間以前の債務に由来するまたは幕府債務として無効を宣言されて総額で3486万円（うち、新公債1282万円、旧公債1122万円、少額債務などを理由に現金支払等で処理されたものが1082万円）が新政府の名によって返済されることになった（藩債処分）。
• Thereafter, more than half of the above amount was declared void as the debts made before the Tempo era or the debts of bakufu, and the total amount of 34.86 million yen (shin-kosai: 12.82 million yen, kyu-kosai : 11.22 million yen, small amount debts that were repaid in cash: 10.82 million yen) were repaid by the new government (hansai-shobun (the policy on the disposition of the debts of feudal domains)).

• 7世紀－8世紀以降の刀剣には原形を良く留めているものが多く、四天王寺の「丙子椒林剣」（へいししょうりんけん）や「七星剣」（しちせいけん）、正倉院の「金銀鈿荘唐大刀」（きんぎんでんそうのからたち）などが知られている（湾刀完成以前の直刀には「太刀」ではなく「大刀」の字をあてる）。
• Most swords after the seventh to eighth century retain their original form well, 'Heishishorinken' and 'Shichiseiken' of Shitenno-ji Temple and 'Kingindensono karatachi' of Shoso-in (treasure house of Todai-ji Temple) are well-known (Straight swords before appearance of curved swords are written as '大刀' instead of '太刀').

• 清の徐継畭の『瀛環志略』や李氏朝鮮の安鼎福の『東史綱目』には、倭寇の原因は日本に対する侵略行為(元寇)を行った高麗（朝鮮）への報復である、と記述されており、応永の外寇以前の前期倭寇は局地的な奪還・復讐戦であるとして『倭寇』と呼ばず、これ以降の後期倭寇を『倭寇』と考える説もある。
• In both the 'Ying huan zhi lue' by the Qing-period Chinese writer Jiyu XI and the 'Tongsa kangmok' by the Joseon-era Korean writer Chong Bok AN, the motivation of the Wako is considered to be retribution for Goryeo-era Korea's participation in the two invasions (by the Mongols) of Japan, and as such some have argued that the actions of the early Wako, who appeared before the Oei Invasion, should be considered a local effort to recapture lost wealth and a war of vengeance against Korea and China, so these pirates should not be called Wako (Japanese pirates); according to this theory, only pirates appearing after this point should be considered 'Wako,' or Japanese pirates.

• ブッダとは歴史上にあらわれた釈迦だけに限らず、過去にもあらわれたことがあるし未来にもあらわれるだろうとの考えはすでに大乗以前から出てきていたが、大乗仏教ではこれまでに無数の菩薩たちが成道し、娑婆世界とは時空間を別にしたそれぞれの世界でそれぞれのブッダとして存在していると考えた。
• The idea that Shakyamuni was not the only Buddha to appear in history, but that Buddhas had appeared in the past and will appear in the future, existed before Mahayana; however, according to Mahayana Buddhism, countless Bosatsu had completed the path to becoming a Buddha by attaining enlightenment, and each of them exists in their own world, separate from this corrupt world both temporally and spatially.

• つまり、貞安の問いである「方座第四の「妙」の一字を捨てるか、捨てざるか」というのは、「もし天台教学の考えを以って、法華以前の教えをすべて“方便（真実に導く手だて・手段）”として否定するなら、方等時において説いた円教＝妙も捨てるのか、捨てないのか？」というのが真相であるとされる。
• Consequently, the Teian's question 'Do you abandon a letter 'Myo' of the fourth Hoza?' really meant that 'If you deny the Shakyamuni's teachings before he established Hokke as merely 'a means to lead people to the truth' according to the education of the Tendaishu sect, do you abandon Enkyo; i.e., Myo, that Shakyamuni preached in his Hoto?'

• 更にこの条文が実際に源頼朝の時代に行われていた法理を根拠とするものなのか、はたまた頼朝以前からの慣習法が頼朝の時代以後も行われたものなのか、更には頼朝以後に成立した又は御成敗式目で初めて採用した法理を頼朝によって定められた法理として仮託させたものなのかについては意見が分かれている。
• And the opinion is divided; this provision was based on the legal principle exercised indeed in the period of MINAMOTO no Yoritomo; the common law before Yoritomo was also done after the period of Yoritomo; or the legal principle, established after Yoritomo or adopted for the first time for the Goseibai-shikimoku, was treated as the legal principle established by Yoritomo.

• 以前から天皇は、弟宮の八条宮智仁親王への譲位を望んでいたが、豊臣秀吉の猶子となったことがある親王への譲位は、豊臣家と敵対する幕府が難色を示し、また後陽成帝の皇子・後水尾天皇へ徳川秀忠の娘徳川和子を入内させようとしていた家康の意向に沿わなかったため、譲位すらもままならない状況が続いた。
• The Emperor had wished to abdicate his throne in favor of his younger brother Imperial Prince Toshihito HACHIJONOMIYA, but the Bakufu, the arch enemy of the Toyotomi family, was against his wish, as the Prince had been once a yushi (an adopted son in an old Japanese way) of Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI, and it also was the intention of Ieyasu who wanted judai (entering the Imperial Palace after an official ceremony) of Kazuko TOKUGAWA, a daughter of Hidetada TOKUGAWA, as a consort of Emperor Gomizunoo, a son of Emperor Goyozei, with the consequence that the Emperor was not free even to abdicate.

• しかし、山上憶良の「貧窮問答歌」などにも見られるように、親が子を思い、そのために何かをしてやりたいという気持ちは時代が違っていても変わることはなかったようで、資料の残っている以前から、親や大人たちが子どもや若者が1人前になっていく上で、何かの手助けや指導をしていたことは想像に難くない。
• However, as seen in 'Hinkyu mondo ka (Dialogue on poverty)', made by YAMANOUE no Okura, it seems that at any period the parents cherished their children and wanted to do something for them; it is easy to imagine that even long ago, before any document was made, parents or grown-ups have given help or guidance when their children or younger people were growing up.

• 現代人は遊女というと江戸時代の零落した女性が行き着く暗くマイナスなイメージを強く持つが、室町時代以前の遊女はむしろ知識人であり歌舞などの技芸を厳しく長者と言われる元締めのような存在の女性から躾けられ、時には教養も身につけた女性たちで、神聖な存在として巫女の代わりをするようなこともあった。
• People today have a dark and negative image on courtesans who lived during in the Edo Period as ruined women, but in days prior to the Muromachi Period, courtesans were rather intelligent women who were strictly trained in singing and dancing by a female controller called Choja, and some of them acquired some culture, so they were sometimes regarded as sacred women and played the role of miko (shrine maiden).

• この猪名県を支配していたのが、現在の大阪府箕面市石丸に存在する為那都比古神社の豪族であった「為那都比古一族」（いなつひこ）で、飛鳥時代に起こった天智天皇・藤原鎌足らが蘇我氏を滅ぼし（乙巳の変）、それに伴う改革である「大化の改新」以前に現在の北摂を支配していた国家が成立していたとみられる。
• Ina no Agata was controlled by 'the Inatsuhiko family', gozoku (local ruling family) of Inatsuhiko Shrine was located in now Ishimaru, Mino City, Osaka Prefecture, and it is thought that a state had been established in now Hokusetsu area before the Isshi Incident (when Emperor Tenchi and FUJIWARA no Kamatari destroyed the Soga family) and following 'Taika no Kaishin' (Great Reformation of the Taika Era) occurred in the Asuka period.

• しかし一般的にはその前年にあたる1867年（慶応3年）の大政奉還、王政復古以降の改革を指すことが多い（日本の歴史学界における明治維新研究では、前段階である江戸幕府崩壊期（天保の改革あるいは黒船来航以後）も研究対象とされるが、維新体制が整う以前の政治状況については幕末の項で扱うものとする）。
• However, the Meiji Restoration generally includes Taisei-hokan (transfer of power back to the Emperor) and Osei-hukko (the restoration of the Imperial rule) which started in 1867 (according to various academic studies of the Meiji Restoration in Japan, it includes the late Edo Shogunate period (after the Tempo reforms or the Perry Expedition) as the first part of the Restoration, but some political situations prior to the Restoration are mentioned in the article of 'Bakumatsu' (the end of the Edo Shogunate)).

• これは徳川家康が通貨統一にあたり、以前から秤量銀貨が大坂を中心として商人に広く使用されている実情を踏まえ、この形態をそのまま継承し、慶長銀を豊臣秀頼の膝元である上方に流通させることにより、常に天下は徳川のものであることを知らしめ全国統一を円滑に進めるという、したたかな政略のひとつであった。
• In unification of the currency, it was Ieyasu TOKUGAWA's ambitious strategy to show people that he was a ruler of the country facilitating the smooth unification of the country, by way of taking over the system in which silver by weight standard had been widely used among merchants centering around Osaka, as well as distributing the keicho-chogin in Kamigata (Kyoto and Osaka area), the base of Hideyori TOYOTOMI.

• それゆえ、狭義の意味での唐手の歴史は佐久川に始まる（さらに厳密に言えば、佐久川はあくまで「トゥーディー」＝中国武術の使い手であり、「日本の武技の手・空手」の起源を考えるならば、佐久川の弟子の松村宗棍以降になる）が、「手」も含めた沖縄の格闘技全般の唐手の歴史は、もちろんそれ以前にさかのぼる。
• Therefore, karate in a more limited sense dates from Sakukawa (more strictly speaking, however, Sakukawa was merely a master of toudee, or Chinese martial arts; when discussing the origin of karate as an art of Japan's martial skills, it has to wait until the era after Sokon MATSUMURA, a pupil of Sakukawa), but of course the history of karate as an Okinawan martial art as a whole, including tee, dates from periods prior to Sakukawa.

• こうした取引は循環的かつ継続的に毎年繰り返されるが、正貨獲得時期と正貨支出時期が一致するとは限らず、正貨獲得以前に支出を要する場合には、販売予定の年貢米や特産品を担保として有力商人（特に蔵屋敷に出入りする蔵元や掛屋）から金銀を借りて、実際に入ってきた年貢米や特産品をもって返済することになる。
• As the timing of inflow and outflow of specie money did not always match although this business was done every year cyclically and continuously, when expense was needed before attaining the current money, it was unavoidable to borrow gold and silver from powerful merchants (especially kuramoto [sake brewer] or kakeya [merchants dealing in finance]), putting up their annual rice tax or local special products which were to be sold later as security, and they paid back when such rice tax or products were actually delivered.

• またそれ以外に、50年以前の受図書人（朝鮮王朝により通交許可を受けた者）・受職人（朝鮮王朝より官位を受けた者）の通交権の停止、入港場を釜山浦・薺浦（慶尚南道鎮海市）の二港から釜山浦一港に削減、加徳島以西に来泊する者は倭寇とみなす等、壬申約条よりもさらに通交の抑制を進める厳しい内容となっていた。
• In addition to this, the Teibi Yakujo was greater in severity than the Jinshin Yakujo in that it stopped the right to trade for Jutoshonin (Japanese given Korean government evidence to be granted special privileges in trading) and Jushokunin (Japanese given Korean government post who has special technique such as healing art) before 1550, reduced the entry ports from both Busan Inlet and Jepo (Jinhae City, Gyeongsang-namdo Prefecture) to one of only Busan Inlet, and took those who stayed on Gadokdo Island or further west places as wako.

• また、明治時代末期から第二次世界大戦敗戦まで、当時の政府の公式見解においては、南朝 (日本)を正統な皇統としてこの時代を「南北朝時代 (日本)」と称していたが、その結果、北朝 (日本)が任じた初代尊氏・2代足利義詮・3代足利義満（南北朝合一以前）は正式な将軍とは認められていなかった（皇国史観）。
• Also, according to the official opinion of the government at the time, from the end of the Meiji period until defeat in World War II, Nancho (Japan) was regarded as the legitimate imperial line, and this age was referred to as the 'period of the Northern and Southern Courts (Japan)'; because of such a view, the first shogun Takauji, the second shogun Yoshiakira ASHIKAGA and the third shogun Yoshimitsu ASHIKAGA were not acknowledged as official shoguns (based on imperial history).

• あるいは、「もし青表紙本がそれ以前に存在したどれか一つの本文を忠実に伝えたのであれば、河内本が新しく作られた混成本文であるのに対し青表紙本とは別本の中の一つであり、源氏物語の本文系統は青表紙本・河内本・別本の3分類で考えるべきではなく別本と河内本の2分類で考えるべきである。」といったものがある。
• There is also an opinion that 'if the Aobyoshibon were true to the text that had existed before, Aobyoshibon would be one of the Beppon, in contrast to Kawachibon, which is a mixed text newly made; therefore, the lines of the text of The Tale of Genji shouldn't be divided into the three of Aobyoshibon, Kawachibon and Beppon, but instead into the two groups of Beppon and Kawachibon.'

• 篳篥のカタカナで記されている譜面を唱歌（しょうが メロディーを暗謡するために楽譜の文字に節をつけて歌う事）として歌うときにハ行の発音をファフィフフェフォと発音するなど16世紀以前の日本語の発音の特徴もそのまま伝えられており、全体的にもかなり忠実に再現されているのではないかということが推測される。
• The features of pronunciation of the Japanese language before the sixteenth century are passed on without change: the line of Ha is pronounced as fa, fi, fu, fe, fo, when singing the musical score of the Hichiriki instrument written in katakana as Shoga, for example by chanting the letters of the musical note to recite the melody, which implies that the whole style can be quite faithfully recreated.

• 旧施行法第三条、第六条第 一項、第九条第一項又は第十条第一項に規定する期日以前に、文書に記載し、又は商品その他の物件に付した旧施行法第四条、第五条、第七条、第八条、第九条 第一項又は第十条第一項に規定する計量単位による表示は、新法第八条第一項の規定にかかわらず、取引又は証明に用いることができる。
• An indication of a measurement unit prescribed in Article 4, Article 5, Article 7, Article 8, Article 9, paragraph 1 or Article 10, paragraph 1 of the Old Act for Enforcement that has been stated on a document or affixed to a commodity or other objects on or before the effective date of the measurement unit prescribed in Article 3, Article 6, paragraph 1, or Article 10, paragraph 1 of the Old Act for Enforcement may be used for the purposes of transactions or certifications even after such effective date notwithstanding the provisions of Article 8, paragraph 1 of the New Act.

• しかしながら、家康による古活字本開版の準備が1603年（慶長8年）には始まっていることから、この説には疑問もあり、楮紙の古い料紙の32冊と、楮紙の古い料紙に修善寺紙を用いた補入が施されている10冊、修善寺紙のみの1冊の計43巻を家康は1603年（慶長8年）以前に一括して手に入れていたと推定される。
• However, a doubt about this view arose because Ieyasu had already begun to prepare to publish old typographic books in 1603, and it is conjectured that in 1603 he had already got 32 bundles of kozo (paper mulberry), 10 bundles of kozo to which Shuzenji paper was added, and a bundle of Shuzenji paper only, which came to 43 bundles all together.

• 光綱の子孫・及川光重は、下総国の結城氏の家臣となって下総に土着、その子孫・及川光房は白河結城氏の家臣となり奥州（福島県）にも所領を得た（喜多方市に「笈川村」という地名あり、あるいはこの頃の及川氏に関係あるやにも思われるが、この地名ができたのは承応年間以後のことでそれ以前は新国（にっくに）といった）。
• Mitsutsuna's offspring Mitsushige OIKAWA became a retainer of the Yuki clan in Shimousa Province and was localized in Shimousa, and Mitsushige's offspring Mitsufusa OIKAWA became a retainer of the Shirakawa Yuki clan and obtained territory in Oshu (Fukushima Prefecture) (there is the place name 'Oikawa village' in Kitakata City, which may suggest that there was a relationship with the Oikawa clan in those days, but the birth of the place name was after the Shoo era and previously it was called Nikkuni).

• このEU指令下では、京都議定書策定以前から技術のみに依存するのではなく化石燃料を使わない方法で化石燃料由来排出量を減らしてきた北欧諸国などは京都議定書の目標値が緩く設定されており(p.84)、例えばスウェーデンは +4%が認められているなど、具体的な成果を挙げている国については相応の評価がされている。
• Under the EU directive, Scandinavian countries, which have reduced the amount of emissions generated from fossil fuel by not only depending on technology but also lessening use of fossil fuel since the time before the formulation of Kyoto Protocol, are evaluated for their emissions reduction achievements and allowed to have lower reduction targets (p.84) in the Kyoto Protocol, for example, Sweden's target is +4%.

• 後三年の役から10年後の1098年（承徳2）に「今日左府候官奏給云々、是前陸奥守義家朝臣依済舊國公事、除目以前被忩（そう）行也（件事依有院御気色也）、左大史廣親候奏」（『中右記』正月23日条）と白河天皇の意向もあり、やっと受領功過定を通って、4月の小除目で正四位下に昇進し、10月には院昇殿を許された。
• Ten years after the Later Three Years' War, in 1098, he passed the Zuryo-kokka-sadame with the support of Emperor Shirakawa ('Chuyu-ki,' dated January 23) and promoted to Shoshiinoge (Senior Fourth Rank, Lower Grade) in a Kojimoku (extraordinary inauguration ceremony done outside of the biannual jimoku) in April, and was granted permission to visit the imperial residence in October.

• 兵食の問題（実は航海食がビタミン欠乏状態）、艦船の行動範囲拡大、高木の脚気原因説（たんぱく質と炭水化物の比例の失衡）の誤りの影響、「海軍の脚気は撲滅した」という信仰がくずれたこと（脚気診断の進歩もあって見過ごされていた患者を把握できるようになった（それ以前、神経疾患に混入していた可能性がある））である。
• The quality of army food (food on board was short in vitamins), expansion of the sailing area, the effect of Takagi's incorrect theory on the causes of beriberi (unbalance between protein and carbohydrate), the collapse of the belief that 'beriberi in the Navy has been exterminated' (thanks to the progress of diagnostic standards of beriberi, patients who might before have been diagnosed with nervous disorder could now receive a correct diagnosis).

• ただし、伏見天皇以前に即位灌頂を行った可能性がある後三条天皇や後深草天皇についてどう説明するのかという点と、先に紹介した二条康道の記録によれば、後深草天皇の時には一条実経、後伏見天皇の時は鷹司兼忠など、当の二条家の記録に、鎌倉～室町時代に二条家以外の人物が即位灌頂を行ったことが記されている点の説明が難しい。
• However, it is difficult to explain about Emperor Gosanjo and Emperor Gofukakusa who might have conducted sokuikanjo before Emperor Fushimi and, according to the records by Yasumichi NIJO introduced above, the records of the Nijo family described cases where persons from families other than the Nijo family conducted sokuikanjo from Kamakura to Muromachi periods, such as Sanetsune ICHIJO for Emperor Gofukakusa and Kanetada TAKATSUKASA for Emperor Gofushimi.

• その一方で、近年では宇多天皇が醍醐天皇に譲位して法皇となった後に天皇の病気に伴って実質上の院政を行っていた事が明らかになった事や、円融天皇が退位後に息子の一条天皇が皇位を継ぐと政務を見ようとしたために外祖父である摂政藤原兼家と対立していたという説もあり、院政の嚆矢を後三条天皇よりも以前に見る説が有力となっている。
• On the other hand, the view that insei started before the reign of Emperor Gosanjo has become more prevalent in recent years, since it is increasingly apparent that Emperor Uda conducted virtual insei after he abdicated to Emperor Daigo to become Hoo (法皇) as the result of the new Emperor's illness, and based on the view that Emperor Enyu was opposed to Kaneie FUJIWARA, a regent and his maternal grandfather, since Enyu tried to participate in political affairs after his abdication and succession of the throne by his son, Emperor Ichijo.

• 財閥（ざいばつ）とは、財閥解体以前の非常に大きい独占的な資本家または企業の事であるが、一般的には、家族または同族によって出資された親会社（持株会社）が中核となり、それが支配している諸会社（子会社）に多種の産業を経営させている企業集団であって、大規模な子会社はそれぞれの産業部門において寡占的地位を占めると定義される。
• The word Zaibatsu means a tremendous exclusive capitalist or enterprise of the pre-disposition of the era of financial cliques, but generally it is defined as a business group in which a parent company (holding company) capitalized by a family or its kinship forms the core of the group and has its subsidiaries run a variety of businesses, some of which hold monopoly positions in their respective fields or industries.

• これは実子がなかったことから六角家に代々伝わる家宝七品を高豊に贈り、高豊の子を迎えて後継者とした（これ以前には同じ宇多源氏の堂上家である庭田家から庭田雅純の子・庭田重条を迎えて後継者としており、重条が実家に戻った後には筑前黒田家や津和野亀井家に家宝を譲渡し後継者を得ようとしたが、成功していない）縁によるものである。
• This was based on the relationship in which because Ujisato had no son of his own, in exchange of presenting Takatoyo with the seven pieces of the family treasure that were handed down for generations by the Rokkaku family, he adopted Takatoyo's son to make him his successor (before this, he received Shigenaga NIWATA, a child of Masazumi NIWATA, to make his successor from the Niwata family which was the Tosho-ke [the hereditary lineage family of Court nobles occupying relatively high ranks] of the same Uda-Genji [the Minamoto clan of the Uda lineage] as he was, and after Shigenaga returned to his parents' home, he tried to get his successor by handing his family treasure over to the Chikuzen Kuroda family and the Tsuwano Kamei family, but in vain.)

• 前述のように最古の行基図とされているのは、延暦24年作成と伝えられているものであるが、原図は既に亡く、現在伝わるものは江戸時代の有職故実研究家藤貞幹（藤井・藤原とも、1732年－1797年）の写しのものであり、かつ延暦24年の実情と不一致の加筆が見られる（これが藤貞幹によるものか、それ以前からのものなのかは不詳）。
• As mentioned above, the version which is considered to be the oldest is said to have been made in 805, but the original version no longer exists and the version which has been handed down to today is the copy made by Teikan TO (FUJII or FUJIHARA, 1732-1797), a researcher of Yusoku-kojitsu (knowledge of court rules, ceremony, decorum and records of the past) and some additions inconsistent with the realty of 805 are recognized (and it is unknown whether the additions were made by Teikan TO or somebody else before him).

• なお、叙任時期については疑問視する意見があるが、山科言継の『言継卿記』によれば永禄11年（1568年）2月に行われた義昭の対抗馬である足利義栄への将軍宣下当日に宣下の使者であった言継の屋敷に義昭の使者が現れて従四位下への昇進推薦の仲介を依頼しに来たために困惑した事が書かれており、この以前に叙任を受けていた事は明らかである。
• There is some doubt about when he attaining governmental position, but it is obvious that he got it at least before February 1568; according to 'Tokitsugu kyoki' written by Tokitsugu YAMASHINA, Tokitsugu was confused when a messenger from Yoshiaki asked him to mediate recommendation of promotion to Juyon'i-ge on the same day Yoshihide ASHIKAGA, who was Yoshiaki's rival, was ordered to become Shogun.

• この話が島に広まると、同年7月22日、下里村の士族にして、以前は「下地頭」という旧吏でもあった奥平昌綱ら数名に率いられた島民約1,200名は、ある者は木棒、またある者は櫂、日用品の鈍器などまで手にして、口笛・法螺貝等を吹き鳴らしながら罵声を轟かせて派出所前に押し寄せ、四囲を取り囲んで投石を繰り返し、「下地を引き渡せっ」と迫った。
• When this story was spread to the island, with people who were Shizoku and also former officials, such as Shoko OKUHIRA in the lead, 1200 islanders with a wood stick, an oar or a blunt instrument for daily use in their hand, went to the police station whistling, blowing a trumpet shell or yelling, and they pressured the police station to 'hand over Shimoji' by surrounding the police station and throwing stones.

• 根拠とされる書物も、後に発見された永倉新八『浪士文久報国記事』（『顛末記』以前に書かれた日記）では「内山暗殺事件」について触れておらず、また『顛末記』には永倉自身ないしはそれが連載されていた「小樽新聞」編集者によると見られる脚色のあとがあり、一方『始末記』の西村兼文は新選組に悪意を持っていたため、共に信憑性を欠くというわけである。
• Regarding the documents cited as evidence, the 'Roshi (masterless samurai) Bunkyu Era Patriotism Articles' (a diary written before the 'Tenmatsuki') by Shinpachi NAGAKURA which was discovered later does not describe 'the Uchiyama assassination' and the 'Tenmatsuki' seems to have been dramatized by Nagakura himself and an editor of 'Otaru Shimbun' in which the 'Tenmatsuki' was serialized, while Kanefumi NISHIMURA who wrote the 'Shimatsuki' bore ill will toward Shinsengumi and therefore both documents lack credibility.

• 大久保ら岩倉使節団の外遊組帰国以前の8月17日、一度は閣議で西郷を朝鮮へ全権大使として派遣することが決まったが、翌日この案を上奏された明治天皇は「外遊組帰国まで国家に関わる重要案件は決定しない」という取り決めを基に岩倉具視が帰国するまで待ち、岩倉と熟議した上で再度上奏するようにと、西郷派遣案を却下している（岩倉の帰国は9月17日）。
• Prior to the homecoming of the official travel group of Iwakura Mission including OKUBO, on the August 17, dispatch of SAIGO to the Korea as an ambassador plenipotentiary was once approved in a Cabinet meeting, but when the Emperor Meiji received a report of the proposal on the next day he rejected the SAIGO's dispatch plan based on the agreement that 'won't decide important matters related to the country until the official travel group's homecoming', and asked them to wait for homecoming of Tomomi IWAKURA, and report it again after deep deliberation with IWAKURA (IWAKURA comes home on September 17).

• ところが、宮中行事などの衰退によって大饗が開かれることがなくなった上、相次ぐ戦乱や五摂家の成立による短期間での藤氏長者の交替などによって朱器台盤は散逸してしまったらしく、延文6年（康安元年/1361年）に近衛道嗣が藤氏長者に就任した際には「朱器渡りの儀」が行われていないために、その以前の段階で朱器台盤は既に存在していなかったと考えられている。
• But grand banquets ceased to be held due to the decline of court functions, and in addition, Shuki-daiban seem to have been scattered and lost due to successive conflicts and changes of Toshi choja within a short period of time caused by the formation of Gosekke (five top Fujiwara families whose members were eligible for the positions of Sessho [regent] and Kanpaku), and when Michitsugu KONOE assumed the post of Toshi choja in 1361, 'Shuki watari no gi' no longer took place, which suggests that Shuki-daiban had already been lost before that time.

• しかしながら鎌倉時代以降の『源氏物語』が古典として重要な教養の源泉であるとされた以後の時代に作成された写本は、証本となしうる信頼できる写本を元に注意深く写しとって、きちんと校合などもした上で完成させることが一般的であったが、それ以前、平安時代には『源氏物語』等の物語は広く普及し多くの写本が作られており、その中には源麗子本等の身分の高い人物が自ら作ったと見られる写本もあった。
• 'The Tale of Genji' after the Kamakura period was treated as an important intellectual source of classic knowledge, and in those days it was a general practice that manuscripts would be copied carefully from a reliable manuscript that could be the shohon (premised book) and completed after collation; however, in the Heian period stories like 'The Tale of Genji' were diffused widely and many manuscripts were made, and among them was a manuscript made by upper-class people such as MINAMOTO no Reishi.

• 現在、日本においては明治維新以後の時代区分を明治時代・大正時代・昭和時代・平成時代と元号を冠して用いるのが一般的であるが、日本の歴史における時代区分において明治維新以前には鎌倉時代・江戸時代などといった政治の中心地から取られて呼称が用いられている（弥生時代、戦国時代 (日本)のようにその中心地が確定できない時代を除く）が通例なのに明治以後は元号で分けるのはおかしいという意見がある。
• Today, the history after the Meiji restoration is generally periodized with the use of gengo (name for an emperor's period of reign), such as the Meiji period, Taisho period, Showa period and Heisei period, but the history before the Meiji restoration is normally periodized with the use of names of political centers, such as the Kamakura period and Edo period (except for the periods for which the political center cannot be ascertained, such as the Yayoi period and Sengoku period); thus there comes up a view that calling the periods after the Meiji restoration with their gengo is inappropriate.

• 邪馬台国九州説を発展させ、大宰府（太宰府）を首都とする九州王朝が成立したが、663年（天智元年）「白村江の戦い」の敗北をきっかけとしてヤマト王権により滅亡させられたとする古田武彦が唱えた九州王朝説の所論によれば、大化の改新として仮託された事件により後の天智天皇・天武天皇が権力奪取する以前の記紀の神代神話と皇統譜や事跡の記述の多くは九州王朝からの剽窃による創作であり、それまでのヤマト王権は統一王朝ではなかったとする。
• Developing the Yamatai-koku Kingdom in Kyushu, by the Kyushu Dynasty Theory advocated by Takehiko FURUTA that the Kyushu Dynasty was established with the capital Dazaifu but was destroyed by the Yamato Administration triggered by the lost in 'Battle of Hakusukinoe' (Battle of Baekgang) in 663, most of the immemorial myth, the genealogy and the achievements of the Imperial Family in Kojiki and Nihon Shoki before later Emperor Tenchi and Emperor Tenmu seized the political power through the incident called Taika Reforms were fiction by plagiarism from the Kyushu Dynasty and until then, the Yamato Administration was not a unified dynasty.

• 米倉・黒田らの論拠は多岐に渡るが、主要なものとしては、着用している冠の形式が鎌倉末期以降にしか見られないこと、毛抜型太刀の形式が13世紀-14世紀のものと考えられること、三像に使用されるほどの大きさの絹は鎌倉後期以降に出現し、それ以前は絹をつないでいたこと、三像の表現様式（眉・目・耳・唇などの画法）は、14世紀中期の肖像との強い類似が認められること、などであり、これらから三像の成立は南北朝期に置くことが最も自然であるとする。
• The theory claimed by Yonekura and Kuroda has wide-ranging evidence, for example, the form of the headdress worn in the portraits is observed only after the end of the Kamakura period, the hair pin type sword has a form that was established from the 13th to the 14th century, the silk in such a size used for the three portraits appeared after the late Kamakura period and silk was connected before that period, and the style of expression (drawing of eye brows, eyes, ears, and lips) of the three portraits is strongly similar to the one in the middle of the 14th century; based on such evidence, it is natural to suppose these three portraits were drawn in the period of the Northern and Southern Courts.

• 昭和五十九年十一月三十日 以前に第三十六条の規定による改正前の電気事業法第五十四条第四項第二号の規定による認定の申請をした者に対する認定及び主任技術者免状の交付並びに同日 において現に同号の規定により認定されている者及び電気主任技術者国家試験に合格している者に対する主任技術者免状の交付については、なお従前の例によ る。この場合において、当該交付を受けようとする者は、実費を勘案して政令で定める額の手数料を納めなければならない。
• With regard to the grant of a recognition and a chief engineer's license to a person who has applied for recognition, prior to November 30, 1984, pursuant to Article 54, paragraph 4, item 2 of the Electricity Business Act prior to the revision by of Article 36, and the grant of a chief engineer's license to a person who has obtained a recognition pursuant to the said item or passed a national examination for a chief electricity engineer's license prior to the said date, the provisions then in force shall remain applicable. In this case, the person who intends to obtain a recognition or a chief engineer's license shall pay the fee determined by a Cabinet Order in light of the actual cost.

• 従って、後白河法皇が自己の政権維持のために平氏を利用して、高い官職を与え知行国を増やさせてきたという経緯や当時の社会問題に対する貴族社会の対応能力の無さという点には触れず、清盛と平氏一門がいかに専横を振るい、「驕れる者」であったかを強調している（だが、実際には少なくても治承3年以前における平氏の権力は後白河との強い関係の下で行使されたものが大半であり、その段階において清盛及び平氏一門が独裁的権力を有していたという具体的な事実は存在していない）。
• Therefore, they do not mention that the Retired Emperor Goshirakawa used the Taira clan to maintain his government by giving them high positions and increasing the number of provinces that they were custodians of, and the inability of the aristocracy at that time to deal with the social problems that they faced, but instead emphasize the arrogant behavior of Kiyomori and the Taira clan members (whereas in reality, at least up to 1179, the authority of the Taira clan was mostly due to the strong relationship with Goshirakawa and there is no specific evidence that Kiyomori or the Taira clan members had any dictatorial powers).

• 当初、こうした政策は元寇などによって混乱する社会秩序の回復を図りたい鎌倉幕府の政策と軌を一にするもの（安達泰盛による幕政改革も「弘安徳政」と呼ばれている）であったが、やがて徳政の本格化とともに朝廷の威信回復の考えが旧体制（鎌倉幕府以前への）復帰を模索する動きに結び付けられるようになると、鎌倉幕府は皇位継承における両統迭立政策を名目とした政治介入を行い、亀山・伏見両上皇の院政停止を行った事から朝幕間に緊張状態を生み、やがて後醍醐天皇の親政に至ってついに鎌倉幕府に対する討幕運動へと転化することになったのである。
• Initially, these reforms were in agreement with the Kamakura bakufu's policies to recover public order after confusion due to Mongolian attempts to invade Japan, etc. (the bakufu reforms by Yasumori ADACHI are also called 'Koan-Tokusei'), but when the scale of tokusei was enlarged and consideration of reversion to the old system (before the Kamakura bakufu) became linked with the idea of recovering the authority of the Imperial Court, the Kamakura bakufu used Ryoto tetsuritsu policies for the Imperial succession as a reason to intervene politically and terminated the cloistered governments of Retired Emperors Kameyama and Fushimi, causing tension between the bakufu and the Imperial Court, leading to Emperor Godaigo's direct governance, which eventually transformed into the movement to overthrow the Kamakura bakufu.

• この法律の施行の日の六月以前から引き続きウラン鉱若しくはトリウム鉱を 掘採している者又はその承継人がこの法律の施行の日から三月以内にウラン鉱又はトリウム鉱を目的とする鉱業権の設定の出願をしたときは、当該掘採区域につ いては、その者は、鉱業法第二十七条の規定にかかわらず、他の出願（この法律の施行前にした出願及び試掘権者がその試掘鉱区と重複してした採掘権の設定の 出願を除く。）に対し優先権を有するものとし、かつ、鉱業法第十四条第二項、第十六条、第二十九条、第三十条及び第三十二条の規定は、その出願には、適用 しない。
• If a person or his/her successor who continues to mine uranium ore or thorium ore six months prior to the enforcement of this Act files an application for creation of mining right for uranium ore or thorium ore within three months from the day of enforcement of this Act, such person shall have the right of priority to other applications (except for the applications filed before the enforcement of this Act and the applications for creation of digging right filed by holders of prospecting right redundantly in their prospecting areas) in such digging area, notwithstanding the provision of Article 27 of the Mining Act, and the provisions of paragraph (2) of Article 14 and Articles 16, 29, 30 and 32 of the Mining Act shall not apply to such application.

• 前条第一項の規定 による第四年以後の各年分の特許料は、前年以前に納付しなければならない。ただし、特許権の存続期間の延長登録をすべき旨の査定又は審決の謄本の送達があ つた日（以下この項において「謄本送達日」という。）がその延長登録がないとした場合における特許権の存続期間の満了の日の属する年の末日から起算して前 三十日目に当たる日以後であるときは、その年の次の年から謄本送達日の属する年（謄本送達日から謄本送達日の属する年の末日までの日数が三十日に満たない ときは、謄本送達日の属する年の次の年）までの各年分の特許料は、謄本送達日から三十日以内に一時に納付しなければならない。
• The patent fees for each year from the fourth and subsequent years under Article 107(1) shall be paid by the end of the previous year; provided, however, that where the date on which a certified copy of the examiner's decision or the trial decision to the effect that the extension of the duration of the patent right is to be registered is served (hereinafter referred to in this paragraph as the 'certified copy service date') is on or after the thirtieth day before the end of the year in which the duration of the patent right would have expired if the said extension of duration had not been registered, the patent fees for each year from the year following that year to the year in which the certified copy service date falls (or, in the case where a period from the certified copy service date to the last day of the year in which the certified copy service date falls is shorter than 30 days, the year following the year in which the certified copy service date falls) shall be paid in a lump sum within 30 days from the certified copy service date.

• 『播磨国風土記』（713年-717年頃の成立とされる）印南郡大國里条にある生石神社（おうしこじんじゃ）の「石の宝殿（石宝殿）」についての記述に、「原の南に作石あり。形、屋の如し。長さ二丈（つえ）、廣さ一丈五尺（さか、尺または咫）、高さもかくの如し。名號を大石といふ。傳へていへらく、聖徳の王の御世、弓削の大連の造れる石なり」とあり、「弓削の大連」は物部守屋、「聖徳の王（聖徳王）」は厩戸皇子『日本古典文学大系　風土記』（岩波書店　1977年）、間壁忠彦 間壁葭子『石宝殿―古代史の謎を解く』（神戸新聞総合出版センター　1996年）と考えられることから、『日本書紀』（養老4年、720年）が成立する以前に厩戸皇子が「聖徳王」と呼称されていたとする論がある。
• 'Harima no Kuni Fudoki' (considered to have been completed between 713 and 717) has the description of 'Holy stone shrine' (Ishi hoden) in the Oushiko-jinja Shrine in Innami County, Okuni no sato no jo '原の南に作石あり。形、屋の如し。長さ二丈(つえ)、廣さ一丈五尺(さか、尺または咫)、高さもかくの如し。名號を大石といふ。傳へていへらく、聖徳の王の御世、弓削の大連の造れる石なり,' in which '弓削の大連' is considered to indicate MONONOBE no Moriya and '聖徳の王' (聖徳王)is considered to indicate Umayado no Miko 'Nihonkotenbungaku Taikei Fudoki' (Iwanami shoten 1977), 'Ishi Hoden - Kodaishi no Nazo wo Toku' by Tadahiko MAKABE and Yoshiko MAKABE (Kobeshinbunsogoshuppan center 1996); accordingly, someone insisted that Umayado no Miko was called '聖徳王 (Shotokuo)' before 'Nihonshoki' was completed (720).

• 第十一条第五項の規定 により公示された真珠養殖業を内容とする区画漁業に係る漁場の区域の全部が当該公示の日（当該区画漁業に係る漁場の区域について同項の規定による変更の公 示がされた場合には、当該公示の日）以前一年間に真珠養殖業を内容とする区画漁業権の存しなかつた水面である場合における真珠養殖業を内容とする区画漁業 の免許については、第十六条第八項第一号の漁業協同組合又は同項第二号若しくは第三号の法人は、第一項第一号、第二項第一号又は前項第一号に該当しない場 合であつても、その組合員、社員又は株主のうちに真珠養殖業を内容とする区画漁業に経験がある者がいる場合は、これに該当するものとみなす。この場合につ いては、第十六条第九項、第十項及び第十二項の規定を準用する。
• In the case where the whole of the area of the fishing ground pertaining to the demarcated fishery of performing the pearl aquaculture business publicly notified pursuant to the provision of paragraph (5), Article 11 is the waters where the demarcated fishery right for the pearl aquaculture business has not existed for one year before the data of said public notice (the date of the public notice of change, in the case where any change of the area of the fishing ground pertaining to said demarcated fishery is publicly notified pursuant to the provision of the same paragraph), the Fisheries Cooperative Association of item (i), paragraph (8), Article 16, or the juridical person of item (ii) or item (iii) of the same paragraph shall be deemed to fall under item (i), paragraph (1), item (i), paragraph (2) or item (i) of the preceding paragraph even if the association or the juridical person does not fall under any of the items if the members, partners or shareholders of the association or the juridical person include a person experienced in the demarcated fishery of performing the pearl aquaculture business. In this case, the provisions of paragraph (9), paragraph (10) and paragraph (12), Article 16 shall apply mutatis mutandis.

• 外国語でされた国際特許出願（以下「外国語特許出願」とい う。）の出願人は、条約第二条（ｘｉ）の優先日（以下「優先日」という。）から二年六月（以下「国内書面提出期間」という。）以内に、前条第一項に規定す る国際出願日（以下「国際出願日」という。）における条約第三条（２）に規定する明細書、請求の範囲、図面（図面の中の説明に限る。）及び要約の日本語に よる翻訳文を、特許庁長官に提出しなければならない。ただし、国内書面提出期間の満了前二月から満了の日までの間に次条第一項に規定する書面を提出した外 国語特許出願（当該書面の提出の日以前に当該翻訳文を提出したものを除く。）にあつては、当該書面の提出の日から二月（以下「翻訳文提出特例期間」とい う。）以内に、当該翻訳文を提出することができる。
• An applicant of an international patent application in foreign language (hereinafter referred to as a 'patent application in foreign language') shall submit to the Commissioner of the Patent Office Japanese translations of the description, scope of claims, drawings (the descriptive text in such drawings only), and the abstract, as provided in Article 3(2) of the Treaty, as of the international application date as provided in paragraph (1) of the preceding Article (hereinafter referred to as the 'international application date') within the period from the priority date under Article 2 (xi) of the Treaty (hereinafter referred to as the 'priority date'), to two years and six months (hereinafter referred to as the 'time limit for the submission of national documents') therefrom; provided, however, that the applicant of a patent application in foreign language who has submitted the document under paragraph (1) of the following Article during the period from two months before the expiration of the Time Limit for the Submission of National Documents to the expiry date thereof (excluding the case where the said translations have been submitted prior to the submission of the said documents) may submit the said translations within two months from the date of submission of the said document (hereinafter referred to as the 'special time limit for the submission of translations').

• 現に当該指定漁業の許可又は起業の認可を受けている者（次号の申請に基づく許可又は 起業の認可を受けている者にあつては、新技術の企業化により現にこの号の申請に基づく許可を受けている者と同程度の漁業生産を確保することが可能となつた ものとして農林水産省令で定める基準に適合するものに限り、当該指定漁業の許可の有効期間の満了日が前条第一項の規定により公示した許可又は起業の認可を 申請すべき期間の末日以前である場合にあつては、当該許可の有効期間の満了日において当該指定漁業の許可又は起業の認可を受けていた者を含む。）が当該指 定漁業の許可の有効期間（起業の認可を受けており又は受けていた者にあつては、当該起業の認可に係る指定漁業の許可の有効期間）の満了日の到来のため当該 許可又は起業の認可に係る船舶と同一の船舶についてした申請（母船式漁業にあつては、同一の船団に属する母船及び独航船等の全部について、当該許可又は起 業の認可に係る母船又は独航船等と同一の母船又は独航船等についてした申請）
• An application filed by a person granted a permission or an approval of business commencement of said designated fishery (including a person granted a permission or an approval of business commencement based on the application of the following item and still granted the permission or the approval of business commencement of said designated fishery on the expiration date of the valid period of said permission, if the commercialization of the new technology concerned conforms to the standard established by an Ordinance of the Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries based on the recognition that the new technology allows the same level of fishery production as that of the persons granted permissions based on the applications of this item and if the expiration date of the valid period of the permission of said designated fishery is before the last day of the period during which an application for a permission or an approval of business commencement should be filed pursuant to the provision of paragraph (1) of the preceding Article), with respect to the same boat as the boat pertaining to said permission or approval of business commencement owing to the arrival of the expiration date of the valid period of the permission of said designated fishery (the valid period of the permission of the designated fishery pertaining to an approval of business commencement in the case of a person who is or was granted said approval of business commencement) (or applications filed with respect to the same mother ship and self-navigating boats as the mother ship and self-navigating boats pertaining to said permission or approval of business commencement, to constitute one complete fleet consisting of a mother ship and self-navigating boats, in the case of mother ship type fishery)