中世: 1000 Terms and Phrases

• 中世
• Middle Ages
• medieval times
• mediaeval times
• Chuusei
• Nakase
• Nakaze
• Medieval period
• The medieval period
• In the Kamakura Period and the Muromachi Period
• Medieval age
• The Middle Ages
• The medieval period.
• Barriers in the medieval period
• Middle Ages wide 2

• 中世の
• Medieval
• mediaeval

• 中世木
• Nakaseki

• 中世古
• Nakaseko
• Nakazeko
• Nakayoko

• 中世に
• in the middle years

• 中世倭館
• Medieval wakan

• 中世以前
• In the medieval period or before

• 中世英語
• Middle English

• 中世木川
• Nakasekigawa

• 中世古町
• Nakasekochou

• 中世以降
• The Middle Ages and beyond
• From the Middle Ages
• After the Medieval Period (after the Kamakura and Muromachi Periods)

• 中世後期
• In Later Medieval Japan
• Late Middle Ages

• 中世前期
• In Early Medieval Japan

• 中世以来
• since the Middle Ages

• 中世盛期
• High Middle Ages

• 中世料理
• Medieval cuisine

• 中世哲学
• Medieval philosophy

• 中世の伝説
• Medieval legends

• 中世の家人
• Kenin in medieval times

• 中世日本語
• Middle Japanese
• Late Middle Japanese

• 中世・近世
• The Medieval Period and Early Modern Times
• Middle Age and Pre-modern Age

• 中世の水軍
• Suigun in medieval period

• 中世日本紀
• Chusei Nihongi (A set of medieval Japanese myths)

• 中世～近世
• Medieval Period to early-modern times

• 中世の記録
• Medieval records

• 中世の学者
• Medieval scholars

• 中世期の出挙
• Suiko in medieval Japan

• 中世から近世
• From the Medieval Period to the early-modern times

• 古代から中世
• From Ancient Times to Medieval Times

• 中世北仏方言
• langue d'oi¨l

• 細川氏と中世
• Hosokawa clan and the medieval period

• 中世の御家人
• Gokenin in the Middle Ages

• 中世西洋音楽
• Medieval music

• 中世フィドル
• Vielle

• 中世の温暖期
• Medieval Warm Period

• 中世ラテン語
• Medieval Latin

• 中世ゲール語
• Middle Gaelic

• 中世の鋼鉄兜
• a medieval steel helmet

• 会所 (中世)
• Kaisho (meeting place) (Medieval Era)

• 中世の武家住宅
• Samurai residences in the medieval period

• 中世の馬よろい
• bard

• 中世～近世初頭
• Medieval period to beginning in the early-modern times

• 中世 - 近世
• From the medieval period through the early-modern times

• 中世哲学史専攻
• Medieval Philosophy

• 中世スペイン語
• Old Spanish language

• 中世ヨーロッパ
• Middle Ages

• 中世の戦闘部隊
• medieval engines of war

• 日本の中世文学史
• The history of medieval literature in Japan
• History of Medieval Japanese Literature

• 起源から中世まで
• The time when kyozuka came into existence up to the middle ages

• 中世の伝説の生物
• Medieval European legendary creatures

• 中世西洋の作曲家
• Medieval composers

• 中世の英国の農奴
• a medieval English villein

• 中世レバノンの歴史
• History of Lebanon under Arab rule

• 中世日本の被差別民
• People Discriminated Against in the Medieval Japan

• 中世以前の主従関係
• The relationship between master and vassal until the medieval period

• 中世以降の小早川氏
• The Kobayakawa Clan after the medieval period

• 古代・中世社格制度
• The Ancient Times/Middle Ages Shakaku System

• 中世ヨーロッパ文学
• Medieval literature

• 中世史に造詣が深い
• well-read in medieval history

• 彼は中世史を教える
• he teaches Medieval history

• 中世のマスケット銃
• a medieval musket

• 中世国家における役割
• The role in the medieval state

• 中世の長い鎖かたびら
• chausses

• 中世における神仏習合
• The syncretism of Shinto and Buddhism in medieval times

• 室町水墨画・中世絵画
• Muromachi-Suiboku-ga (Ink landscape paintings in the Muromachi Period)/ Middle Ages paintings

• 中世の衣類で使われる
• used in medieval clothing

• 中世ヨーロッパの人物
• Medieval people

• コソボの中世建造物群
• Medieval Monuments in Kosovo

• 中世（鎌倉・室町時代）
• Medieval period (Kamakura period and Muromachi period)

• 中世の重装備をした騎兵
• a heavily armed and mounted soldier in medieval times

• 中世の伝説で妖精の女王
• the queen of the fairies in medieval folklore

• イタリア王国 (中世)
• Kingdom of Italy (medieval)

• セルビア公国 (中世)
• Moravian Serbia

• セルビア王国 (中世)
• Serbia in the Middle Ages

• 中世ヨーロッパの哲学者
• Scholastic philosophers

• 大ブルガリア (中世)
• Old Great Bulgaria

• 中世の大学の1人の学者
• a scholar in one of the universities of the Middle Ages

• 中世以降の色目・文様の例
• Examples of color and patterns after the Medieval period

• 中世の日本史における将軍
• Shogun in the Japanese medieval period

• 中世、山陵の所在を逸した。
• In medieval times, the whereabouts of the mausoleum were unknown.

• これも中世には用いられた。
• Suo was already used in the medieval period.

• 私は中世史を専攻している。
• I specialize in medieval history.

• 中世イングランドで用いられた
• used in medieval England

• 中世の化学の擬似科学の前触れ
• a pseudoscientific forerunner of chemistry in medieval times

• 中世封建制度（フューダリズム）
• Hoken system in the medieval ages (Feudalism)

• これが中世における地子である。
• This was jishi in the medieval period.

• 本来は、中世と同じ意味である。
• Chuko carries the same meaning as the 'Middle Ages.'

• 中世に至るまで盛んに行われた。
• The horse racing was actively held till the Medieval Period.

• 中世に流行した流行性の腺ペスト
• the epidemic form of bubonic plague experienced during the Middle Ages when it killed nearly half the people of western Europe

• 中世の騎士道と伯爵の時代の特性
• characteristic of the time of chivalry and knighthood in the Middle Ages

• 中世の戦争と疫病の不気味な物語
• macabre tales of war and plague in the Middle ages

• そこで医師が一晩中世話をした。
• where the physicians tended him all night.

• ここに中世陶器の時代がはじまる。
• It is when the era of the pottery in the medieval period started.

• 中世～近世（平安時代～江戸時代）
• From medieval times to recent times (from the Heian Period to the Edo Period)

• 私の専門は中世ヨーロッパ史です。
• My major is medieval European history.

• 中世ヨーロッパで広く流通していた
• widely circulated in Europe in the Middle Ages

• これらの宝物は中世後期に失われた。
• These treasures were lost in the late Middle Ages.

• 以降中世非人の拠点の一つとなった。
• Later in medieval times, people at the bottom of society used them.

• 中世の酒造法が詳しく記されている。
• The sake brewing method in the medieval period is described in detail.

• 中世は人間が自由でない時代だった。
• The medieval times were an age when a human being wasn't free.

• 中世には「祭神不詳」とされていた。
• In the middle ages, no one knew what deities were worshipped at this shrine.

• キリストの生涯を題材にした中世の劇
• a medieval play representing episodes from the life of Christ

• 中世ドイツの辺境地域の軍政府統治者
• the military governor of a frontier province in medieval Germany

• 中世に典礼の目的で使われたラテン語
• Latin used for liturgical purposes during the Middle Ages

• デートすることに関する中世の考え方
• a medieval attitude toward dating

• 中世及び近世における日本の軍事政権。
• It had been the Japanese military regime in medieval times and early modern times.

• 中世には仏教的な歴史意識が広まった。
• During the medieval period, history became widely understood based upon Buddhism.

• 中世万葉集研究に大きな功績を残した。
• In the Medieval period he left behind great achievements in the study of Manyoshu (Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves).

• 中世の町家はほとんどが平屋であった。
• Most machiyas built in the middle ages were single-story buildings.

• 中世には横目扇の基本的要素は出揃う。
• By the time of the medieval period, the basic elements of cross-grained fan were all present.

• 中世のヨーロッパの放浪しているの学者
• a wandering scholar in medieval Europe

• 中世ヨーロッパで支配的だった哲学大系
• the system of philosophy dominant in medieval Europe

• 英語, 中世 (1100-1500)
• English, Middle (1100-1500)

• 堀之内・土居は、中世を通じて存続した。
• Horinouchi and Doi existed through the medieval Japan.

• 古代と中世では意味合いが異なっている。
• Its significance differs in ancient times and medieval times.

• 板碑は中世仏教で使われた供養塔である。
• Itahi is a memorial tower which was used in Buddhism in the Medieval Period.

• 前者については、中世神話とも呼ばれる。
• The former is also called 'Chuse Shinwa' (Medieval Japanese Myths).

• 私はその中世の音楽に深い感銘を受けた。
• I was deeply impressed with the medieval music.

• 白川道の跡（中世～近世）：本部構内など
• Relics of Shirakawado Street (from medieval to early modern ages) : in Main Campus and others

• 中世以降は源氏など武家の信仰も集めた。
• From the medieval period, samurai including Minamoto clan also became devotees.

• 中世の紋章で使用された炎を吹くドラゴン
• a fire-breathing dragon used in medieval heraldry

• 中世ではエンブレムは兜を装飾したものだ
• in medieval times, an emblem used to decorate a helmet

• 馬の頭を保護するための中世の板金よろい
• medieval plate armor to protect a horse's head

• その大聖堂の建立は中世にもさかのぼる。
• The cathedral dates back to the Middle Ages.

• 中世から近代まで栄えた豪族・大名の一族。
• The Naito clan is a clan of gozoku (local rulers) and daimyo (feudal lords) which has flourished from the Middle ages to Modern times.

• 催馬楽は中世には雅楽とともにうたわれた。
• Saibara was sung with gagaku in the medieval period.

• 中世に武士が使用していたものとほぼ同型。
• The yugake used by samurais in medieval times were almost the same type.

• 中世には「東西上の岩屋三社」と呼ばれた。
• It was called 'The three iwaya (rocks) shrines in east, west and on the top' in the Middle Ages.

• 中世には御所城主楢原氏の菩提所であった。
• In the Medieval Period, it was the family temple of the lord of Gose Castle, of the Narahara clan.

• 中世の教会は肉体をさげすみ霊をたたえた。
• The medieval church despised the body and exalted the spirit.

• 中世に関するものであるか、属しているさま
• relating to or belonging to the Middle Ages

• （中世の手書き写本）に装飾と彩色を加える
• add embellishments and paintings to (medieval manuscripts)

• 中世に男性が着用したチュニックに似た外衣
• a garment resembling a tunic that was worn by men in the Middle Ages

• 中世の城や要塞の壁の内側にある中心的な塔
• the main tower within the walls of a medieval castle or fortress

• その大聖堂の建立は中世にまでさかのぼる。
• The cathedral dates back to the Middle Ages.

• 以下に中世日本語における子音の一覧を示す。
• A list of consonants of Middle Japanese is shown below.

• 中世以降は、相次ぐ戦乱などにより荒廃した。
• However, after the Middle Ages, it was repeatedly attacked and destroyed because of successive conflicts in the area.

• 中世には五社大権現ともよばれ信仰を集めた。
• During the medieval period, the five shrines were called Gosha Daigongen (the Great Avatar of five shrines) and became very popular.

• 中世以降は庶民の地蔵信仰の寺として栄えた。
• After the medieval period it prospered as a temple for jizo (Ksitigarbha or guardian deity) worship by the common people.

• だが、中世以前の沿革はあまり明らかでない。
• However, the history before the medieval times is not quite sure.

• 中世には二十二社の下八社のひとつとされた。
• In the medieval period, it was categorized into one of the Lower Eight shrines of Nijuni-sha Shrines (the 22 most important Shinto shrines were classified into three types: Upper seven shrines, Middle seven shrines, Lower eight shrines)

• 中世の医者なら彼の陰気を土星に帰したろう。
• A medival doctor would have called him saturnine.

• 肩で支えるようになった中世の大型ヘルメット
• a large medieval helmet supported on the shoulders

• 何の思想が中世英人に一番影響したと思うか。
• What thought do you think had the biggest impact on the English in the Middle Ages?

• 利稲出挙は、中世後期になっても存続していた。
• However, the Rito-Suiko (Suiko managed by using rice plant) remained even in the late medieval period.

• これらのほとんどは中世の館跡に由来している。
• These places were originally the site of the town Horinouchi in the medieval Japan.

• 中世の絵巻物などに庶民の町屋が描かれている。
• Machiya houses of the common people in urban areas are depicted on picture scrolls and others in the early feudal period.

• 中世の山城は、山上に城郭、麓に居館を築いた。
• When a medieval mountain castle was constructed, the castle itself was built on the top of a mountain and their residence at the foot of it.

• 眼部を除き首までおおう中世の合戦用の樽型大兜
• heaume

• 破却された城の多くは、中世的な山城であった。
• Most of the castles that were destroyed were medieval mountain castles.

• 中世の日本では、主に戦闘員である武士がいた。
• Samurai were professional warriors in medieval Japan.

• 小槻氏は中世より太政官の諸記録を司っていた。
• The Otsuki clan had been responsible for record keeping for the Daijokan (Grand Council of State) since medieval times.

• やや凸状の中世の幅広の短剣で先端が尖っている
• a short broad slightly convex medieval sword with a sharp point

• ひさしと首の防護具のついた、中世のヘルメット
• a medieval helmet with a visor and a neck guard

• オランダ語, 中世 (約1050-1350)
• Dutch, Middle (ca. 1050-1350)

• アイルランド語, 中世 (900-1200)
• Irish, Middle (900-1200)

• フランス語, 中世 (約1400-1600)
• French, Middle (ca. 1400-1600)
• Korean, Middle (10th-16th cent.)
• Korean, Old (3rd-9th cent.)

• 武士起源研究は中世の発見と密接に関わっている。
• The study of the origin of bushi is closely related with discovering the medieval times.

• 粟飯原氏（あいはらうじ）は中世に活躍した武家。
• The Aihara clan was a samurai family that played an active role during the Medieval Period.

• 中世、近世には妻側の建物であることが多かった。
• In the medieval and early-modern times, merchant houses were often built with the entrance on the side of the building.

• 中世にはそれはハンザ同盟の主要なメンバーだった
• in the Middle Ages it was a leading member of the Hanseatic League

• 見えるように細長い孔のある軽い中世のヘルメット
• a light medieval helmet with a slit for vision

• 中世英語は1100年から1500年の英語である
• Middle English is the English language from about 1100 to 1500

• フランス語, 中世 (約 1400-1600)
• French, Middle (ca. 1400-1600)

• この壮大な大聖堂の建立は中世にまでさかのぼる。
• This magnificent cathedral dates back to the Middle Ages.

• 中世荘園における勧農は、大きく2つに区分される。
• Kanno in the medieval shoen was roughly divided into two.

• 11世紀後期からは、中世に移行したと考えてよい。
• Japan is considered to have moved into the Medieval Ages in the latter half of the 11th century.

• 中世においては成文法と慣習法の不一致が見られた。
• In the medieval times, there was a discrepancy between written code and common law.

• これは、中世的な地子が廃止されたことを意味する。
• This means that jishi in the medieval periods was abolished.

• 段銭（たんせん）とは日本の中世における税の一種。
• Tansen was a form of tax in Japan's Middle Ages.

• また中世や近世から能楽師の家に伝わる装束も多い。
• Moreover, from the Middle Ages and during the early modern age, a lot of costumes spread among the families of Noh actors.

• 中世の武士達は武芸練達のために様々な稽古をした。
• During medieval times, Japanese warriors used to practice martial arts in a variety of ways.

• 年預（ねんよ）は、中世日本に置かれた役職の1つ。
• The Nenyo was an official position during the middle ages in Japan.

• 中世において、ミルクはまだ薬として普及していた。
• In the Middle Ages, milk was still popular as a medicine.

• 中世前期にこれらを母体とする公家層が形成された。
• In the early medieval period, the Kuge (court noble) class was established based upon them.

• 頭の上から首や耳を覆うもので、中世の女性が着けた
• worn over the head and around the neck and ears by medieval women

• 中世の城の持送り積みが支持する、突出した手すり壁
• a projecting parapet supported by corbels on a medieval castle

• 彼は中世の細密画のような複雑なペン画を完成させた
• he did complicated pen-and-ink drawings like medieval miniatures

• そういう話のなかには、中世紀時代の話もでました。
• Amongst other things they spoke of the middle ages:

• （中世当時も惣村・惣という用語が使用されていた。）
• (The term soson or so was also used during the medieval period.)

• 中世の公文書、私文書ともにこの形式を採用している。
• Both official and private documents adopted the style of Ate okonai jo during in the medieval period.

• 中世以後には後者の行為を指すことが一般的となった。
• Since the middle ages, Kanjin has generally meant the latter.

• 中世以後各地の有力な神社では巫女舞が恒例となった。
• Mikomai dance became customary at every well-known shrine throughout Japan from the medieval period.

• 中世においては日本は一般民の移動は制限されていた。
• In the medieval period, travelling by common people was restricted.

• また中世の芸能を知る上でも、欠かせない一書である。
• In addition, it is an essential book to know the performing art in Medieval Period in Japan.

• 中世以降の度々の戦禍により創祀の年代・由緒は不詳。
• The history of the shrines is unknown because of the war devastations during and after the medieval period.

• ロシアの最も古い都市および中世の重要な貿易センター
• Russia's oldest city and an important trading center in the Middle Ages

• ヨーロッパ史で、中世が終わり近代社会が勃興する時代
• the period of European history at the close of the Middle Ages and the rise of the modern world

• 寺子屋の起源は、中世の寺院での教育に遡ると言われる。
• The origin of Terakoya is said to be traced to education at temples and shrines during the middle ages.

• 分国（ぶんこく）とは、日本のに中世おける1国の単位。
• 'Bunkoku' is a unit used to delineate province-sized areas during the medieval period in Japan.

• 下記は日本、特に中世期の土豪を中心とした説明である。
• The following mainly pertains to dogo in Japan particularly during the middle ages.

• 中世には寺内町である今井町が自治都市として発展した。
• In medieval times, Imai-cho as Jinai-cho (temple villages) was developed as an autonomous city.

• 中世以後の蝦夷は、アイヌを指すとの意見が主流である。
• The mainstream theories say that 'Ezo' after the Medieval period means 'Ainu.'

• 院政の開始をもって中世の開始とする見解が有力である。
• It is usually interpreted that the initiation of the cloister government signaled the start of the Medieval Age.

• これを理由に、部落の中世起源説を支持する人々もいる。
• Based on the report, some people support the opinion that the Buraku originated from the Medieval Period.

• なお、法然を勢至菩薩の化身とする説が中世からあった。
• From the Medieval Period, there has been a theory that Honen was an incarnation of Seishi Bosatsu.

• 中世後期以後は勧進聖として活躍するものが多くなった。
• After the late medieval period, many of those practiced kokudachi played an active role as a Kanjin Hijiri (fund-raising Buddhist monks).

• 中世以降は束帯同様の単・あこめを重ねることがあった。
• After the Medieval period, sometimes hitoe (unlined clothes) and akome (a lined gown) were worn like sokutai.

• 中世当時、位の高い者達(侍・騎士)しかなれなかった。
• In the Medieval ｐeriod, only a person of high rank (samurai or knight) was able to join cavalry.

• 中世においてはそれは悪魔の乱交となるべきものであった
• in the Middle Ages it was supposed to be a demonic orgy

• 包囲攻撃の際に用いられた中世の大砲に使われたエンジン
• an engine that provided medieval artillery used during sieges

• その地で話されている中世の方言にちなんで名付けられた
• named after the medieval dialect of French that was spoken there

• 中世の学校の演習討議も同じような目的を持っています。
• The school disputations of the middle ages had a somewhat similar object.

• その他、京都の中世以降の石庭の多くは河原者の作である。
• Many other rock gardens in and after the Medieval Period in Kyoto are works by the Kawaramono.

• 中世・近世の給田に由来する給田地名が、全国各地にある。
• Kyuden place names derived from kyuden in the middle ages and modern ages are found throughout the nation.

• 仏教建築の影響を受けて中世に成立した形式と考えられる。
• Irimoya-zukuri style is considered to have been established in medieval times under Buddhist influence.

• なお、中世以降の港湾施設については渡辺津を参照のこと。
• For port facilities in the medieval period and later, refer to Watanabe no tsu.

• 出土遺物には、かわらけ（中世土器）や古瀬戸様式がある。
• Excavated relics include kawarake (medieval earthen cups) and Koseto style artefacts.

• 中世以降、牡丹唐草に尾長鳥の文様の浮織物が用いられた。
• After the medieval period, the Ukiorimono with the design of long-tailed cock and arabesque with peony flowers and leaves was used.

• あるいは古代・中世の日本における従五位の別称でもある。
• It was also another name for jugoi (Junior Fifth Rank) during ancient and medieval Japan.

• 江戸時代に形骸化した中世歌学を批判するかたちで現れた。
• It appeared as a form to criticize medieval Kagaku (Study of Japanese poems called waka) that lost it's popularity during the Edo period.

• 私の知る限り、この大聖堂の建立は中世にまでさかのぼる。
• To the best of my knowledge, the cathedral dates back to the Middle Ages.

• 中世に王や貴族を楽しませるために雇われた職業的道化役者
• a professional clown employed to entertain a king or nobleman in the Middle Ages

• 革または布製の胴に縫い付けた金属の輪でできた中世の鎖鎧
• a medieval coat of chain mail consisting of metal rings sewn onto leather or cloth

• 本に含まれる絵または挿絵（とくに彩色された中世に写本）
• painting or drawing included in a book (especially in illuminated medieval manuscripts)

• 中世の騎士の身分制度を復旧させるのと同じほど非現実的な
• as quixotic as a restoration of medieval knighthood

• 教皇の免罪符を売ることで教会の金を工面した中世の聖職者
• a medieval cleric who raised money for the church by selling papal indulgences

• 地名としての堀之内は、中世期のこの堀之内に由来している。
• There are places using the name of 'Horinouchi' nationwide, which originates from the Horinouchi in medieval Japan.

• 秀吉もまた中世的支配体系・支配勢力の排除・抑制に努めた。
• Hideyoshi as well endeavored to remove or suppress the medieval control system and controlling powers.

• 中世における座の形成にも寄人集団の関与が指摘されている。
• It is suggested that the establishment of Za in the middle ages may also have been influenced by yoriudo groups.

• 所従（しょじゅう）とは中世の日本に存在した隷属身分の一。
• Shoju (followers) was a category of slave that existed in Medieval Japan.

• いわゆる中世日本紀といわれる現象が見られるようになった。
• The phenomenon is so-called chusei Nihongi (medieval Nihongi).

• 所当（しょとう）とは、中世の田畠にかけられた租税のこと。
• Shoto was the tax levied on paddy fields and dry fields in the Medieval period.

• 摂津国にあった佃 (大阪市)は中世の佃を起源としている。
• Tsukuda in Settsu Province (Osaka City) originated from tsukuda of medieval times.

• 日本の「中世」における武士の存在形態が「武士団」である。
• The 'bushidan' was the formation of bushi itself that existed in 'medieval' Japan.

• 古い遺品は京都大学に儀式次第を墨書した中世のものが残る。
• An old fan from the medieval (Kamakura and Muromachi) period is left in the collection of the Kyoto University on which the program of a ceremony was written in black ink.

• 常滑焼については中世を通じて捏ね鉢しか生産されなかった。
• In the Tokoname-yaki (Tokoname ware) kiln, only kneading bowls were produced during the medieval period.

• 検校（けんぎょう）とは、中世・近世の盲官の最高位の名称。
• Kengyo (one of the officers governing Shoen manor) is the highest title of official rank for blind officers during the middle and early modern ages.

• 中世の京都は災害や盗賊などの災難に遭う可能性が高かった。
• In the Middle Ages there was a high risk of experiencing misfortune, such as disasters and theft.

• 理想の中世の王と考えられている（1214年−1270年）
• considered an ideal medieval king (1214-1270)

• 教会博士は中世後期までキリスト教思想に多大な影響を与えた
• the Doctors of the Church greatly influenced Christian thought down to the late Middle Ages

• 最後の判断を記述している中世のラテンの賛美歌の最初の歌詞
• the first words of a medieval Latin hymn describing the Last Judgment

• 中世には木綿の本格的栽培はまだ日本では始まっていなかった。
• In Medieval Japan, full-fledged cultivation of cotton had not yet begun.

• 総石垣で、安土城以前の中世城郭においては特異な点とされる。
• The base of the castle was made up entirely of stonewalls, which was rare for medieval castles before Azuchi-jo Castle.

• この修法は、中世に興った天台宗の口伝法流に源を発している。
• This learning method had its origin in the orally transmitted system of teachings by theTendai sect generated during the medieval period.

• 中世に入ると、応仁の乱のときに仁和寺は全焼して、衰退した。
• However, during the medieval period the temple was entirely destroyed by fire in the Onin War and therefore lost its power.

• 船岡山城（ふなおかやまじょう）は京都市内にある中世の山城。
• Funaokayama-jo Castle was a yamashiro (a castle on a mountain) in the medieval period, located in Kyoto City.

• 志苔館（しのりたて）は、北海道函館市に所在する中世城館跡。
• Shinoridate Castle is the ruin of a Medieval castle in Hakodate City, Hokkaido.

• おおむね中世までに属する遺跡は、原則として対象とすること。
• Remains of roughly the medieval period or earlier are covered in principle.

• 遺詔の「刻字之碑」は、中世、陵土の崩壊を見て田間に落ちた。
• In medieval times, the 'monument bearing an inscription' built according to the Empress's will fell between rice fields due to the collapse of the mausoleum.

• 神道集 （しんとうしゅう）は、日本の中世の説話集・神道書。
• Shintoshu is a collection of anecdotes and Shinto books in medieval Japan.

• 中世以降になって、寺院や陰陽道などで祭られるようになった。
• Only after the medieval period did it begin to be worshipped in temples and Onmyodo (way of Yin and Yang; occult divination system based on the Taoist theory of the five elements).

• フランスの中部と北部で話されるフランス語の中世の田舎の方言
• medieval provincial dialects of French spoken in central and northern France

• 中世の時代、人々はガラスを美しい青に染める方法を知っていた
• people knew how to stain glass a beautiful blue in the middle ages

• その起源を突き止めるには中世にさかのぼらなくてはいけない。
• We must go back to the Middle Ages to trace the origin.

• これも中世の日本の一揆とは似て非なるものと言わざるを得ない。
• However, it should be noted that those uprisings may appear similar but are in fact quite different from the ikki that occurred in Japan during the middle ages.

• また、中世後期の一揆の盟約による政治的共同体が武装していた。
• In the later middle ages, the political community formed by a league of ikki would be armed.

• 「十六ノ井」という中世の岩窟（井戸とも墓所ともいう）がある。
• It has a cave (although some may call it a well or a tomb) dug in the medieval period and named 'Juroku no I' (Sixteen wells).

• 蔵法師（くらほうし）とは、中世京都における土倉経営者のこと。
• Kurahoshi means manager of doso (pawnbrokers and moneylenders) in the Medieval Period of Kyoto.

• 中世末期まで継続した給田は、形を変えて近世にも引き継がれた。
• Kyuden continued into the late middle ages and were passed on to the modern age with some changes.

• 武家領（ぶけりょう）とは、中世日本における武家の所領のこと。
• Bukeryo was shoryo (individual holdings) of military families during the medieval Japan.

• 1930年代から日本中世史での学術用語として使用され始めた。
• It was used as an academic term for studies on medieval Japanese History from the 1930's.

• 中世武家社会において荘園などを分譲する際の文章で用いられる。
• This style of document was used in samurai society during the medieval period as a proof of transfer for belongings, such as a shoen (manor).

• これらは中世日本語研究において非常に貴重な資料となっている。
• Their works are very valuable materials for the study of Middle Japanese.

• 中世には、中原親能のように鎌倉幕府と関係を持つようになった。
• During the Medieval Period, members of the clan such as NAKAHARA no Chikayoshi came to have contacts with the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun).

• このように中世には雅楽は法楽にもちいられることがおおかった。
• As such, gakaku was often used for horaku (pleasures of pious life) in the medieval period.

• 以前、フランス南部で話されていたフランス語の中世の地方の方便
• medieval provincial dialects of French formerly spoken in the south of France

• 中世に穢れ観念が日本に流入した事により大衆から賤視されていた。
• After the concept of kegare (being dirty) was brought to Japan in the medieval period, these people became treated with contempt.

• 琵琶湖に面しており、中世においては水運の拠点として栄えていた。
• katata faces Lake Biwa and was prosperous as a center of water transportation system in the Middle Ages.

• そのため、白河による院政開始をもって中世の起点とする事もある。
• Therefore, in some cases the commencement of Insei by Shirakawa is considered to be the start of the medieval age.

• 中世には年貢と公事と呼ばれる2つの租税体系によって構築される。
• During Japan's medieval period, a taxation system was established with nengu (land tax) and kuji (public duties).

• しかし中世当時は必ずしも明確に区分されていたわけではなかった。
• However, they were not exactly classified in medieval age.

• 中世の一部五輪塔には、地輪内部に遺骨等を納めたものが現存する。
• Some Gorinto built in the medieval era contain remains of the deceased in their earth rings.

• 中世期は、平安期に比べて石造美術品の造立数は格段の数となった。
• In the Medieval period remarkable numbers of stone construction arts were produced compared to the Heian period.

• 日本の中世の武家において、家督の男子子弟のうち、嫡男以外の者。
• This refers to a son who was not the oldest in the samurai class families in the Middle Ages in Japan.

• 中世には公家や高級武士の宴会ではこれに酒をそそいで飲み干した。
• In the Middle Ages, sake was poured into kawarake and dried up in a party of court nobles and high-rank samurai.

• 当初は中世から近世にかけて公家に仕えた女官の名のことであった。
• From the middle ages at first through to recent times such names were used by ladies at court who served the nobility.

• 中世以降は衰微して、明治時代初期の廃仏毀釈の際に廃寺となった。
• The temple went into decline after the middle ages and was abandoned when Haibutsu-kishaku (a movement to abolish Buddhism) took place in the early Meiji period.

• 狐を稲荷神の使いとする民間信仰は、中世より始まったものである。
• A folk belief that the fox is an envoy of the god Inari occurred during the middle ages.

• 1225年のラテラン公会議は中世において最も重要な会議であった
• the Lateran Council in 1215 was the most important council of the Middle Ages

• 古代や中世の生理学では、それは停滞を引き起こすと信じられていた
• in ancient and medieval physiology it was believed to cause sluggishness

• 9世紀にスカンジナビアの商人によって設立された中世ロシアの国家
• the medieval Russian state established by Scandinavian traders in the 9th century

• 多くの中世の手書き写本はマジャスキュールの筆記体で書かれている
• many medieval manuscripts are in majuscule script

• どんな思想が中世のイギリス人に最大の影響を与えたと思いますか。
• What thought do you think had the greatest influence on the English in the Middle Ages?

• 府中は中世・近世に生まれた地名で、当時の国府・守護所に由来する。
• '府中' (Fuchu) is a place name created in the Medieval and early Modern periods, derived from Kokufu and Shugo-sho (governor's office).

• 職業としての「酒屋」への移行に関しては「中世以前」を参照のこと。
• For how the 'sakaya' business started, refer to the section of 'In the medieval period or before.'

• 中世には朝鮮半島や大陸との交易で栄え、日本海交易が発達していた。
• During the Medieval Period, these Sanshin-shichiso flourished through trading with the Korean Peninsula and the Chinese continent when the Japan Sea Trade was active.

• 中世においては、祠堂銭を元手とした寺院による金融のことも指した。
• In medieval times, the term Shidosen also referred to the financing provided by temples using Shidosen as capital.

• なお、本堂を称する氏に中世から近世にかけての出羽の本堂氏がある。
• Meanwhile, a clan whose name was Hondo existed in Dewa Province from the medieval period to the pre-modern period.

• 中世に入ると、田楽などの発達などによって、お囃子太鼓が隆盛した。
• Entering the Medieval Period, with the development of dengaku (ritual field music), the Japanese drum for musical accompaniment became popular.

• また古代以来、天皇が行ってきた神道儀式は中世以降衰退していった。
• Shinto rituals emperors carried out since ancient times declined since the medieval period.

• 古代～中世の青は、キハダなどで下染めした上に藍をかけて色を出す。
• In ancient and medieval times, the color of blue was made by dyeing with Amur cork or other materials for bottoming and with indigo for topping.

• 中世には、天文学者はあるギリシアの哲学者の説にすがりついていた。
• During the Middle Ages, astronomers had clung to the theory of a Greek philosopher.

• 出納（すいとう）とは、中世日本の荘園に設置された下級荘官の1つ。
• 'Suito' is a position set up for the lower-lanked officers in the Shoen manor in medieval Japan.

• この塔は中世に大きく改造され、三層の柱間も3間に変更されていた。
• The pagoda was modified greatly in the medieval time and the number of the areas existed between the pillars on the third layer were also changed into three.

• 中世以後各地の有力な神社では巫女による神楽の奉納が恒例となった。
• In the middle age and onward, the kagura (Shinto dance and music dedicated to the gods) came to be routinely performed by miko at major shrines throughout the country.

• かなりの数の総社は中世にいったん廃れ、後に再興されたものである。
• A large number of soja once disappeared in the medieval period and some revived later.

• 長鼻衆は中世風に装い、肩に豪華な翼のひとそろいを身につけていた。
• Attired after the fashion of the Middle Ages, they bore upon their shoulders a splendid pair of wings.

• 古くは興福寺の荘園で、中世の環濠集落を母体として発展した町である。
• Being a private estate of the Kofuku-ji Temple in olden times, the town developed from a medieval village surrounded by a moat.

• （ただし中世の蝦夷はアイヌのみならず後に和人とされる渡党も含む。）
• (However, these theories include some opinions stating that the Ezo in the Medieval period were not simply Ainu but latter-day Japanese.)

• 古代においては校田と同義であったが、中世になると検注と同義となる。
• In ancient times, it meant the same as koden (cadastral survey), but in the Medieval period it meant the same as kenchu (land survey).

• 王朝国家体制期には後の中世社会の基礎となる要素が多数生まれている。
• Lots of elements which later became the base of medieval society are included in the Dynastic polity.

• 不明な点が多い中世の朝廷儀礼について伝える史料の一つとしても著名。
• This book is renowned as a historical document about the imperial protocol in the Middle Ages, about which much is still unknown.

• 中世日本語は中古日本語からの9種類の動詞の活用を全て継承している。
• Middle Japanese succeeded all of the nine types of verb conjugation from Early Middle Japanese.

• 中世には、現世に失望し来世の幸福を願い沢山の人々が寺院へ巡礼した。
• In medieval times, people that despaired of their world, made a pilgrimage to temples in hope of happiness in the afterlife.

• 中世においては催馬楽のつくりかえの歌が寺院の法会などでうたわれた。
• In the medieval period, modified songs of Saibara were sung in a hoe (Buddhist mass) in temples etc.

• 風流（ふりゅう）とは、中世以後の日本において高揚した美意識の1つ。
• Furyu is one of the aesthetic values that became popular after the Middle Ages in Japan.

• 中世の『五郡神社記』にも当社のことが「湯起請の神」と記されている。
• The shrine is described as 'yugisho no kami' (the god for testimonies with boiling water) in the 'Gogun Jinja-ki' written in the medieval period.

• 室町時代・戦国時代 (日本)を中心とした中世後期の日本社会を考える。
• Consider the Japanese society of the later middle ages around the Muromachi and Sengoku periods (the Warring States period).

• これに見るとおり、一円知行は中世後期から加速度的に進行したのである。
• As described above, ichien chigyo was exponentially developed from the end of the Middle Ages.

• 出挙（すいこ）は、古代～中世の日本に見られた利子付き貸借を指す用語。
• Suiko (government loans made to peasants) was a term that indicated the loans carrying interest observed in ancient and medieval Japan.

• 丹波郡（たにはぐん／たんばぐん）は、丹後国中郡の中世末期までの呼称。
• Naka-gun in Tango Province had been referred to as Taniha-gun or Tanba-gun until the late Medieval period.

• 学問所（がくもんじょ）とは、中世・近世における教育機関の名称の1つ。
• Gakumonjo (a school) was the name of a kind of educational institution in medieval and modern times.

• 中世日本では、禅文化が盛んとなり、漢文学としての五山文学が興隆した。
• In the medieval period of Japan, Zen culture progressed and Gozan publications prospered as Chinese classical literature.

• 著名な一族は、相模国土肥郷を発祥とする、中世から近世にかけての武家。
• The origin of this famous family was in Dohigo, Sagami Province and they were a samurai family from the medieval to the early modern period.

• しかし近年の調査結果から、古墳ではなく中世の山城跡とする見方が強い。
• However, as a result of research conducted in recent years, the Kojo-ichigo-fun Tumulus is widely viewed not to be a tumulus but the ruin of a medieval mountain castle.

• そして、さまざまに形を変えながら、平安期から中世・近世まで存続した。
• This custom continued to exist from the Heian period to medieval and premodern times, undergoing various changes.

• その一方で、13世紀半ば頃から中世社会の大規模な変動が始まっていた。
• Meanwhile, a major shift in medieval society began around the middle of the 13th century.

• 中世以来、仏教者のために王道が衰え、神道が廃れたのに憤り筆をとった。
• Razan wrote the book out of indignation that the influence of the Imperial family and Shintoism plunged after the medieval period due to the emergence of Buddhists.

• 中世日本紀では、記紀の神々が仏教の諸天諸仏と同一視されることが多い。
• In Chusei Nihongi, it is often the case that Shinto deities described in the Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters) and the Nihonshoki are identified with Buddhist devas and many types of celestial Buddhas.

• 寺社伝奏（じしゃでんそう）は、中世・近世の公家政権に設置された役職。
• Jisha denso was a post placed in the Kuge (court nobles) Government in the medieval period and modern times.

• 中世には田中荘の鎮守社として「田中大明神」「田中天王社」と呼ばれた。
• In the medieval period it was also called as Tanaka Daimyojin (the Great God of Tanaka) and Tanaka Tenno-sha Shrine as the chinju-sha shrine (Shinto shrine on Buddhist temple grounds dedicated to the tutelary deity of the area) of Tanaka no sho.

• 修験道は中世末期以降、「本山派」と「当山派」の2つに大きく分かれた。
• After the end of Medieval period, Shugendo (Japanese mountain asceticism-shamanism incorporating Shinto and Buddhist concepts) was divided into two major groups: the 'Honzan school' and 'Tozan school'

• 英国の歴史家で、中世英国の憲政史で知られる（1825年−1901年）
• English historian noted for his constitutional history of medieval England (1825-1901)

• 武士の起源研究は「日本の歴史における中世の発見」と密接に関わっている。
• The study on the origin of bushi is closely related to 'Discovering the medieval times in Japanese history.'

• 江戸時代には百姓身分の自治結集の単位であり、中世の惣村を継承していた。
• A 'village' in the Edo period (1615-1868) was a unit of autonomous community of farming ranks that developed from medieval 惣村 (soson, a self-governing rural community).

• 式目（しきもく）とは、中世日本で用いられた箇条書き形式の法令集のこと。
• Shikimoku was an itemized form of law code used in medieval Japan.

• 『官職秘抄』・『職源鈔』と並んで中世を代表する官職制度の解説書である。
• Along with 'Kanshoku Hisho' and 'Shokugensho,' this book is a typical instruction manual of the court official system during medieval times.

• 家領（けりょう）とは中世の権門が代々伝領してきた所領・荘園などのこと。
• Keryo were such holdings as shoryo (individual estates) and shoen (manor in medieval Japan) inherited by kenmon (an influential family) for generations in Medieval Japan.

• 中世日本において武士同士の主従関係は、御恩と奉公により成り立っていた。
• The relationship between lord and vassal in medieval Japan was based on favor and service.

• 中世に比叡山の僧兵が強訴のために担ぎ出した神輿は日吉大社のものである。
• The portable shrines carried by warrior monks of Mt. Hiei for a direct petition in the mediaeval era belonged to Hiyoshitaisha Shrine.
• In the medieval period, it was Mikoshi from Hiyoshi Taisha Shrine (portable shrine carried in festivals) which Monks of Mt. Hiei used to carry out petitions.

• 中世館跡の遺構例としては稀少な遺跡であり、保存度もきわめて良好である。
• It is a rare site of a castle residence from the medieval period and is well preserved.

• また山頂部にはかなり広い削平面が確認でき、典型的な中世の山城であった。
• There is also a large, flattened area on top of the mountain, indicating that it was a typical yamashiro.

• 闘茶（とうちゃ）とは、中世に流行した茶の味を飲み分けて勝負を競う遊び。
• The term 'Tocha' refers to a tea competition where participants taste different kinds of tea to compete in discerning them, which was popular in the medieval period.

• 「扈従」に由来し、中世以来、武将の身辺に仕えて、諸々の雑用を果たした。
• The term is derived from the word 'kosho' or 'koju' (attendant of a noble person) which from the middle ages was a post that meant serving in close proximity to a busho (Japanese military commander) and taking care of daily chores and affairs.

• 中世の熊野を支配し、熊野詣の先達をつとめたのは天台宗系の本山派であった。
• It was Honzan school of the Tendai sect line which controlled Kumano in the medieval period and served as the leader of pilgrimages to Kumano Sanzan.

• 公儀（こうぎ/くうぎ）とは、中世・近世において公権力を指して用いた言葉。
• Kogi (also referred to as Kugi) is the term used for 'official authority' in the middle and early modern ages.

• 中世以前の武士の主従関係において武門の棟梁に従属する武士を家人と称した。
• Until the medieval period, samurai within a master and vassal relationship who were subordinate to a Bumon no toryo (leader of samurai families) were called Kenin.

• 確かにこの時代の戦闘の様式は中世武士団による戦闘の様式とは大きく異なる。
• Definitely, the military style of this period differed greatly from that of the medieval bushidan.

• 12世紀を盛期に一時衰退するが、中世には廻国聖が諸国で納経活動を行った。
• After the 12th century, which saw its heyday, the practice of copying and burying Buddhist scriptures temporarily lost momentum until Kaikoku-hijiri (literally, 'country-traveling saint') appeared in the middle ages, who traveled across the country and encouraged people to perform the practice.

• 中世の京都では延暦寺、八坂神社など周辺の寺社が大きな影響力を持っていた。
• Temples and shrines such as Enryaku-ji Temple and Yasaka-jinja Shrine in the neighborhood had significantly influential powers in the medieval Kyoto.

• なお、国立歴史民俗博物館の第2展示室（中世）にレプリカが展示されている。
• By the way, its replica is exhibited in the Exhibition Room No. 2 (the Medieval Period) of National Museum of Japanese History.

• 唐物（からもの）とは、中世から近世にかけて尊ばれた中国製品の雅称である。
• Karamono elegantly refers to Chinese products which were esteemed from medieval times to recent times.

• 「長者」とは、古代・中世における貴族の「氏」を束ねる代表者のことである。
• Choja' of a clan indicates in the ancient and medieval times, the representative of the clan, who controlled them.

• 中世に免罪符売りによる贖宥状の節度のない販売が、広くはびこる悪習となった
• in the Middle Ages the unrestricted sale of indulgences by pardoners became a widespread abuse

• 算術、音楽、幾何学、天文学を含む中世の大学のカリキュラムのより高等な学科
• a higher division of the curriculum in a medieval university involving arithmetic and music and geometry and astronomy

• このように、実際に一揆の盟約によって秩序が達成されていた中世後期があった。
• As such, in the later middle ages the social order was actually secured based on the league of ikki.

• このため、10世紀前期に始まった王朝国家体制はより中世的な形態へ移行した。
• The dynasty state, which started in the early 10th century, changed into a more-medieval form.

• 喧嘩両成敗（けんかりょうせいばい）とは、中世日本の法 (法学)原則の1つ。
• Kenka Ryoseibai was one of the principles of law (jurisprudence) in Medieval Japan.

• 郎党（ろうとう、ろうどう）は、中世日本の武士社会における主家の一族や従者。
• Roto (郎党; retainer) or rodo was a family member or a follower of his master's house in the samurai society of medieval Japan.

• 大名の家臣団にとって、中世以前と大きく異なるのが、有能な家臣の登用である。
• Unlike their counterparts in the medieval period, Sengoku daimyo actively appointed capable vassals to important positions.

• 充行状（おておこないじょう/あてがいじょう）とは、中世に見られる文章形式。
• Ate okonai jo (also Ote okonai jo or ategai jo) was a style of document used during the medieval period.

• 中世城郭では、本城、実城、詰丸など、城によって呼び名が異なるとされている。
• For castles built in the middle ages, it is said that they were called Honjo, Mijo, Tsumenomaru, etc., depending on the castle.

• 中世ヨーロッパでの山城は「へーエンブルク（Hohenburg）」といった。
• In medieval Europe, castles built on mountains were called as Hohenburg.

• 江川家住宅、韮山役所（伊豆の国市）　一部に中世の部材も使われているという。
• House of the EGAWA family, Nirayama yakusho (government office) (Izunokuni City); part of its construction materials are said to be from medieval times.

• 中世に約500年間井伊谷の庄を治め、南北朝時代 (日本)は南朝方に属した。
• The Ii clan governed the Iinoyanosyo for approximately 500 years during the Middle Ages, and during the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (Japan), the Ii clan belonged to the Southern Court.

• 中世の武家社会においても武運長久に通じるとされ、陣中見舞などに用いられた。
• Believed to bring good fortune in battles among warriors during the Japanese medieval period, abalone was used as gifts for soldiers at the time of war.

• なお、その源流は中世に遡り、諸藩の中にも同様の役職を設置したところがある。
• Falconry dates back to the medieval times when similar positions could be found in feudal domains.

• 諸大夫（しょだいぶ）は日本の古代から中世、近世にかけての官人の階層の名称。
• Shodaibu is the name of class of government officials (especially one of low to medium rank), which was used from ancient times through medieval period to the early-modern times in Japan.

• 中世以降は興福寺一乗院の支配下に属するとともに、法隆寺の別院とも称された。
• In the Medieval Period, it was under the control of the Ichijo-in Temple, a branch temple of the Kofuku-ji Temple, and also regarded as a branch temple of the Horyu-ji Temple.

• 興福院の創建については複数の説があり、中世以前の沿革はあまり明らかでない。
• There are divided opinions over the founding of Konbu-in Temple, and its history before the medieval times is not known in details.

• 年期売（ねんきうり・年季売・年紀売）とは、中世日本で行われた売買契約の1つ。
• Nenki-uri (whose 'ki' can be written with three different characters 年期売, 年季売 or 年紀売, all of which relate to time or duration) was a kind of contract of sale (usually of land) used during Japan's medieval period.

• 中世から見られるが、特に戦国時代 (日本)から江戸時代前期にかけて頻発した。
• Tsujigiri started in the Middle Ages, but it became quite frequent from the Sengoku period (period of Warring States) to the Edo period.

• 勧進船（かんじんぶね）は、中世に勧進を進めるために勧進聖らに乗船をさせた船。
• Kanjin bune was a boat in the middle ages on which kanjin-hijiri monks were sent to promote kanjin.

• また中世神話は、荒唐無稽な俗説として近代を通じて顧みられることが少なかった。
• Chusei Shinwa, meanwhile, was discarded as implausible superstition and scarcely paid heed to throughout the early modern times.

• 以下は、中世の記録には明確でないが、近世には制度的に確立していたものである。
• The following classification is unclear according to records from the Medieval Period, but it has been institutionally established in early modern times.

• 宇賀神（うがじん）は、日本で中世以降信仰された民間信仰の神 (神道)である。
• 'Ugajin' is a folk religion god (Shinto) worshipped since the medieval period in Japan.

• 中世の中央アジアのトルコ系言語（ジンギスカンの子供の1人のために命名された）
• a Turkic literary language of medieval central Asia (named for one of the sons of Genghis Khan)

• ラテンの文法に関する教科書が中世（4世紀め）を通して使われたローマの文法学者
• Roman grammarian whose textbook on Latin grammar was used throughout the Middle Ages (fourth century)

• 明治時代の歴史学者三浦周行らによって日本にも中世があったことが「発見」された。
• Historian Hiroyuki MIURA and so on in the Meiji period 'discovered' that medieval times also existed in Japan.

• 本項では中世日本の被差別民（ちゅうせいにほんのひさべつみん）について叙述する。
• In this section, people who were discriminated against in the medieval Japan are described.

• 惣掟（そうおきて）は、中世日本において、百姓らが自主的に定めた惣村内部の法令。
• So-okite was a statute defined independently by peasants within a soson (a community consisting of peasants' self-governing association) in medieval Japan.

• 中世には京都市街に隣接する河原が歓楽地となり、多くの芸人が集まるようになった。
• In the Medieval period, its riverside adjacent to the urban area of Kyoto City prospered as an entertainment spot and attracted many entertainers.

• また、中世初期の領主が荘園公領とその下部単位である名田を領地の単位としていた。
• In the early Medieval Ages, a unit of a landlord's territorial land was 'shoen koryo' (a private estate and a public land) and the underlying unit of 'myoden' (a rice field lot under the charge of a nominal holder).

• 軍忠状（ぐんちゅうじょう）とは、中世日本において、参陣や軍功などを証する書類。
• Gunchujo were documents that proved participation in battles and other military exploits in medieval Japan.

• 「虎口（ここう）」とよむ場合は、中世の戦場や陣地における危険な場所を意味する。
• When '虎口' is read Koko, it means a battlefield or a dangerous place in an encampment in the medieval period.

• 中世には、4人の六位蔵人のうち、行幸では3人まで着用できるなどの慣例があった。
• In the medieval period, there was a custom that three out of four Rokui no Kurodo could wear the Kikujin no ho at the Gyoko.

• しかし、荘園が衰退して公家家政が不振となった中世後期には実質は失われていった。
• In the Middle Ages when Shoen declined, however, the domestic economy run by the court nobles stagnated and the essence of the Mandokoro was gradually lost.

• 中世には興福寺の末寺となり、直接には興福寺の塔頭の一つであった一乗院に属した。
• In the Middle Ages (from the end of the twelfth century to the end of sixteenth century in Japanese history), Kiko-ji Temple became a branch temple of Kofuku-ji Temple, and more precisely, it belonged to Ichijo-in (a temple where priests from families of emperors' chief advisors lived), a sub-temple of Kofuku-ji Temple.

• 中世以降は吉田家も神階を発行しており、これを宗源宣旨（そうげんせんじ）という。
• Since medieval times, the Yoshida family also issued shinkai, and these were called sogen senji.

• 中世後期以降、愛宕の神は火伏せに霊験のある神として広く信仰されるようになった。
• Since the late middle ages, the god of Atago was widely worshipped as a god of miraculous efficacy in fire prevention.

• 実在の動物と架空の動物の寓意的で楽しい描写がある（普通イラスト入りの）中世の本
• a medieval book (usually illustrated) with allegorical and amusing descriptions of real and fabled animals

• こうして次第に平安京の本来の範囲より東に偏った中世・近世の京都の街が形作られた。
• This was how the Heian-kyo gradually shifted from the original ambit to the east, to the medieval/modern ages town of Kyoto.

• 日本における南北朝時代（なんぼくちょうじだい）とは、中世の時代区分の1つである。
• The Nanbokucho era (the period of the Northern and Southern Courts) in Japan refers to one subsection of medieval Japanese history.

• 在家役（ざいけやく）とは、中世において在家を収取単位として賦課された租税のこと。
• 'Zaike-yaku' refers to the tax and the labor that were imposed per 'zaike' in medieval Japan.

• 古代・中世の日本では無官の者を救済する施策として正式な制度として導入されていた。
• In ancient and medieval Japan, the baikan system was introduced as an official system to rescue courtiers without posts.

• しかしながら、他に中世、日本全国を勧進して廻った遊行僧である高野聖の存在もある。
• However, in the medieval period, Koya-hijiri, who were Yugyo-so (traveling monks) starting from Koya-Mountain, traveled while requesting donations around Japan, and therefore, the existence of such monks should also be taken into account.

• 中世以降の禅林（禅宗寺院）に於いても、稚児・喝食は主に男色、衆道の対象であった。
• Even at the Zen temples after the medieval period, chigo and katsujiki had been mainly considered male homosexuals.

• 中世においてはそれほど注目されなかったものの、江戸期に脚光を浴びるようになった。
• Although having not attracted much attention in the medieval period, Mumonkan came to attract attention in the Edo Period.

• 浄土宗・浄土真宗寺院の中世における伽藍配置は固定の様式があるようには見られない。
• It appears that the garan layout of the Pure Land and True Pure Land sects in the Medieval period did not have a fixed style.

• 当道座（とうどうざ）とは、中世から近世にかけて存在した男性盲人の自治的互助組織。
• Todoza was an autonomous mutual support group for the male blind that existed from the medieval period through early modern times in Japan.

• 室町時代には能楽と並び広く愛好され、中世日本音楽の代表的存在として並び称される。
• These became very popular along with nogaku (the art of Noh) in the Muromachi period and called classics of medieval Japan.

• 堺祭（さかいのまつり）は、古代・中世日本の王都・令制国郡の堺（境）で行われた祭。
• Sakai Festival (Sakai no Matsuri) is a festival that was held at corner points and boundaries in Oto (imperial capital) and Koku-gun in the governing system in the ancient and medieval period of Japan.

• 検地（けんち）とは中世から近世にかけて行われた田畑の面積と収量の調査のことである。
• The term 'Kenchi' refers to the surveys of field size and size of yield (harvest) conducted during medieval and early modern Japan.

• 中世においても、出挙は、単なる利子付き貸借にとどまらず、租税という面も持っていた。
• In the medieval Japan as well, Suiko had characteristics not only of loaning but also of land tax.

• 中世を通して、所領支配を指して知行・領知・領掌・進止などと呼ぶ慣習は続いていった。
• The custom of calling territorial control as chigyo, ryochi, ryosho, or shinshi continued throughout the medieval period.

• 河原者（かわらもの）は、河原人とも呼ばれ、中世日本の代表的な被差別民の一つである。
• Kawaramono is also referred to as Kawarabito, and they were a type of people which were discriminated against in medieval Japan.

• 以後、中世を通じての社会経済体制である荘園公領制は急速に崩壊していくこととなった。
• Later, shoen koryo sei (The System of Public Lands and Private Estate), the socioeconomic system throughout the medieval period, rapidly disintegrated.

• 長講堂領（ちょうこうどう-りょう）は、中世荘園公領制下における王家領荘園群の一つ。
• Chokodo-ryo was an Imperial family shoen (manor) under the shoen koryo sei (a system of Public lands and Private estates) during the medieval period.

• 中世の武士とは異なり、土地の所有と支配にはさほどこだわらない集団であったとされる。
• Unlike the samurai (warriors) of the Medieval (Kamakura and Muromachi) period, they are thought to have been groups of soldiers who were not particularly concerned about possessing and ruling of land.

• この修行を行った者を、古代では「穀断聖」、中世以降は「十穀聖」や「木食」と称した。
• Persons who went through kokudachi were called 'kokudachi no hijiri' (highly virtuous monk who has trained without eating grain) in the ancient period and 'jukkoku no hijiri,' or 'mokujiki' after the medieval period.

• 中世-近世以来もちいられてきた古くからの総称としては、他に日興門流、大石寺派など。
• There are also Nikkomon School, Taisekiji School, and so on, as the old generic names used in and from the medieval period and the early-modern period.

• 中世には土塀・板塀・塗込塀などが、近世には防火のため、漆喰塀・海鼠塀が用いられた。
• Mud walls, wooden fences, nurikomi-bei and so on were used in the medieval period and plastered walls and namako-kabe (a wall with flat tiles nailed down on the wall surface and jointed with plaster) were used to prevent a fire in modern times.

• その後、戦国時代地元の豪族、原田種継が城郭を再利用して中世山城の高祖城を築城した。
• Later in the Sengoku period (period of warring states), the head of a local ruling family, Tanetsugu HARADA reused the castle to construct Takasu-jo Castle as a medieval yamajiro.

• 鎌倉幕府では侍廊、室町幕府では会所 (中世)で対面儀礼を行うのが定制になっていた。
• It was ruled that the ceremony was held at Samurai-dokoro (the hall of the Board of Retainers) under the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) and at a kaisho (meeting place) under the Muromachi bakufu.

• 中世の日本においては、大和国や河内国の大寺院が造る僧坊酒が日本の酒の中心であった。
• Soboshu made in the large temples located in the Provinces of Yamato and Kawachi was the predominant kind of sake in the medieval Japan.

• 茶屋（ちゃや）は、日本において中世から近代にかけて一般的であった、休憩所の一形態。
• Chaya,' or teahouses were common from the middle ages through to recent times as a type of rest area in Japan.

• 中世（飛鳥、奈良、平安、鎌倉時代）、公家、役人、僧侶の間では威儀具として発展した。
• Uchiwa fan developed into a tool for showing person's dignity among kuge (court noble), government officers and Buddhist monks in the Medieval period (Asuka, Nara, Heian, and Kamakura periods).

• 大国守護でありながら管領や御相伴衆にならない家柄をさす中世室町時代の国持衆が語源。
• The term 'kokushu' was derived from 'kunimochishu' (one of honorary terms for local governors who were in hereditary vassalage to the Shogun) of the medieval Muromachi period, who were shugo (provincial constables) of large provinces but whose family lineage did not make them kanrei (shogunal deputy) or goshobanshu (members to escort the Shogun).

• 信濃源氏（しなのげんじ）は、中世に信濃国に土着し本拠とした源氏の氏族を指した呼称。
• Shinano Genji is a name given to the Minamoto clan who were native to and based in Shinano Province during the medieval period.

• また、中世においては清目という言葉が河原者や穢多の同義語として使われたこともある。
• In the medieval period, Kiyome was also used as a synonym for derelict or Eta (the lowest rank of a caste system in Japan.)

• 北ヨーロッパにあった中世の国で、現在のフランス北部、ベルギー、オランダ南西部の地域
• a medieval country in northern Europe that included regions now parts of northern France and Belgium and southwestern Netherlands

• ちょうど、十五世紀の書庫から出てきた本が中世のものだという証明書が証明するように。
• as does the proof that a given manuscript of the Middle Ages stems from an archive of the fifteenth century.

• その後、中世・近世を通じて、領主が百姓をはじめとする民衆に課する租税として存続した。
• Throughout the medieval period and the early-modern times, the feudal lords imposed the nengu on the populace including the peasants.

• 太閤検地の実施を通して荘園公領制・職の体系を消滅させ、これにより中世は終焉を迎えた。
• Through Taiko-kenchi (the land survey by Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI), he abolished shoen koryo sei (The System of Public Lands and Private Estates) and related posts, ending the medieval period.

• 八条院領（はちじょういん-りょう）は、中世の荘園公領制下における王家領荘園群の一つ。
• The Hachijoin-ryo was one of the groups of shoen (manor in medieval Japan) possessed by members of the imperial family under shoen koryo sei (The System of Public Lands and Private Estates) in the medieval period.

• これは中世社会が（今日的な視点で見れば）極めて非中央集権的な社会となる要因となった。
• This made medieval society extremely decentralized (from today's point of view).

• 第二に中世以来の「無縁」概念（都市をアジールとする考え）との関連性も指摘されている。
• Secondly, it is also pointed out that jishi menkyo had a connection with the concept from the medieval ages that the town was the 'asylum' (the area on which the political power could not exert its sovereignty).

• 保司（ほうし）とは日本の中世において国衙領の一種である保を管理する地方行政官である。
• Hoshi refers to officers of provincial government who administered ho, which was a type of Kokugaryo (the territories governed by a provincial government office) in medieval Japan.

• 僧録（そうろく）とは、中世以後僧侶の登録・住持の任免などの人事を統括した役職である。
• Soroku was a position that existed in Japan following the middle ages responsible for religious human affairs such as the registration and appointment of head priests

• 中世の押し板が起源であり、典型的には近世初期の書院造、数寄屋風書院において完成した。
• The origin of tokonoma is oshiita (a zashiki kazari of a thick wooden board settled at the bottom of the wall in the Medieval Period) in the Medieval period, and the tokonoma had been accomplished in the Shoin-zukuri Sukiya (a house built in the style of a tea-ceremony hut), and in Shoin-zukuri in the style of sukiya (traditional style of Japanese residential architecture building in the style of a tea-ceremony house), in the early modern period, in a quintessential way.

• 本節では中世に成立した古典の曲目のうち、現在でも頻繁に上演されているものを紹介する。
• In this chapter, we are introducing those classics completed in the Middle Ages but are still frequently presented nowadays.

• 中世都市の堺市は三方を深さ3ｍ、幅10ｍ程の濠で囲み、木戸を設けて防御に備えていた。
• The medieval city of Sakai was prepared for defense by being surrounded by a moat 3m deep and 10m wide on three sides and a wooden door.

• 『中世城郭辞典』によるとこの土塁跡に、多聞風櫓が建設されていた可能性を指摘している。
• 'Chusei Jokaku Jiten' (Dictionary of Medieval Castles) states the possibility that a tamon yagura (long guard tower) once stood on the remains of the earthen mound.

• そこで特に中世山城では虎口前面を急な坂とすることで寄せ手の勢いを削ぐ構造が採られた。
• In mountain castles built in the medieval period, a very steep approach was instead constructed before the Koguchi to slow the enemy's advance.

• 番匠（ばんしょう/ばんじょう）とは、中世日本において木造建築に関わった建築工のこと。
• Bansho (Bansho/Banjo) were builders engaged in wooden architecture in medieval Japan.

• 中世の伊佐早荘（現諫早市にほぼ相当）を領した西郷信尚が築城し、西郷氏の居城であった。
• It was built by and the home of Nobunao SAIGO, who ruled Isahaya no sho Estate (mostly corresponding to present-day Isahaya City) in the medieval period.

• 傍系であった閑院宮家出身のためか、中世以来絶えていた朝廷の儀式の復興に熱心であった。
• It could be due to the Emperor being from the Kaninnomiya family of a collateral line, but he was keen to restore the ceremonies of the Imperial Palace, which had been lost since medieval times.

• 獅子が牡丹に戯れる様を勇壮に描き、中世に流行した獅子舞を能に取入れたものといわれる。
• The mai depicts a shishi (lion) playing with peonies, and it is said that the style of shishimai (lion dance), which was played widely in the medieval period, has been incorporated in it.

• 公家層は中世後期以降、経済的実権と政治的実権を喪失しつつも、明治維新期まで存続した。
• The Kuge class existed until the Meiji restoration era, though continued losing real power in economic affairs as well as in political affairs.

• 中世ごろから、都市部で「年神（歳神）」は「年徳神（歳徳神）」と呼ばれるようになった。
• Around the middle ages, 'Toshigami (年神 or 歳神)' began being referred to as 'Toshitoku-jin (年徳神 or 歳徳神).'

• スコットランドの神学者で、中世においてとても影響力のあった（1265年−1308年）
• Scottish theologian who was very influential in the Middle Ages (1265-1308)

• 中世の間に木版画とエッチングが、そして、19世紀のはじめには、リトグラフが現われた。
• During the Middle Ages engraving and etching were added to the woodcut;

• 中世日本の経済で大きなウェイトを占めていた農業生産の元手（資本）となるのは農地である。
• Agricultural lands were the sinews (capital) of the agricultural production which carried considerable weight in the economy of medieval Japan.

• 上記の本所から転じて中世後期（室町時代）には座の支配権者も本所と呼ばれるようになった。
• Deriving from the above meaning of honjo, a person who assumed control over za (trade association) also came to be called honjo during the later medieval period (the Muromachi period).

• 堀之内（ほりのうち）は中世日本における武士・在地領主の館（たち・たて）を指す歴史用語。
• Horinouchi is historical jargon that indicates a town developed in the vicinity of the residence (called 'tachi' or 'tate') of samurai (warriors) and landholders in the medieval Japan.

• 氏族の血統が重んじられた古代・中世において、氏族の秩序は氏長者を中心に維持されてきた。
• In ancient times and during the medieval period when the blood line of a clan was highly regarded, the order within the clan was maintained mainly by the ujinochoja (head of a clan).

• 日本において中世から近世の時代に、農村部などで商品生産の発展に伴って発生した町・集落。
• It was a town or settlement developed as commodity production grew in rural communities such as a farming village from the Medieval period to early Modern period in Japan.

• 青苧座（あおそざ）とは中世後期に繊維素材である青苧を扱う商人たちで結成された座のこと。
• 'Aoso-za' refers to 'za' (the guild) of 'aoso' (Boehmeria nipononivea, a fiber material for clothing), which was established in the later middle ages of Japan.

• 中世では、たびたび武士団によって略奪される（武士の領地化）といったことが起こっている。
• In the Medieval period, it often happened that Mikuriya were pillaged by samurai troops (and converted to samurai-owned estates).

• 工法も古代・中世と余り変わらず、掘立柱を立て、茅葺で屋根や壁を葺くようなものであった。
• Having changed little since the ancient times and the early feudal period, these houses were built with hottate bashira (an earthfast post) and using thatch for the roof and walls.

• その結果、中世の今井町も隣接の八木の商業が入り込み、今井の町を形成してきたようである。
• As a result, it seems that business activities of the adjacent Yagi expanded into Imai-cho in the medieval period developing the latter into a town.

• 中世当時、夫を亡くした妻がその家督を継ぐという後家家督慣行が、武士の間に広く見られた。
• In the middle ages, the custom that a widow takes over the Household after the head passed away was widely seen.

• 中世以降は、近江国が悠紀、丹波国と備中国が交互に主基とされ、その国の中で郡を卜定した。
• After the medieval period, Omi Province took the role of the Yuki, and Tanba Province and Bitchu Province swapped the role of the Suki; they decided by fortunetelling a county within the province.

• 中世末までの日本酒の新酒の古酒に対する位置づけについては「日本酒安土桃山時代」を参照。
• Refer to the publication 'Azuchi Momoyama period Shin-shu' for the position of ancient shin-shu Japanese rice wine until mediaeval times.

• 日本酒は、こうして中世の末までにいちおう濁り酒から清酒への移行を完了したと考えられる。
• In this way, it seems that the sake had changed completely from unfiltered sake to seishu by the end of the medieval period.

• また、神事から発達した田楽・猿楽などが能など後の日本中世伝統芸能を形作る素地となった。
• In addition, Dengaku (ritual music and dancing in shrines and temples), sarugaku (form of theater popular in Japan during the 11th to 14th centuries) and so on which were developed from Shinto rituals became the base to form later Japanese medieval traditional performing arts such as Noh and so on.

• 日本には中世の16世紀頃から、朝鮮では高麗末期の14世紀頃から概念が受容されたという。
• The concept of Eight Views was accepted in medieval Japan from around the 16th century, and in Korea from around the 14th century in the late Goryeo period.

• 中世および江戸時代以前の近世において、どのような数学が行われたかは全く分かっていない。
• It is not known what kind of mathematics was practiced during the medieval period and the early-modern period before the Edo period.

• この伝承にちなんで後に多くの窯風呂が作られ、中世以降、主に公家の湯治場として知られた。
• Based on this legend, many steam baths were later built, and were known as hot spring resorts, mainly for the Court nobles after the Middle ages in Japan.

• 中世以降、伊勢神宮の神嘗祭に対する奉幣のことを特に例幣（れいへい）と呼ぶようになった。
• After the medieval ages, the hobei ritual at Kanname-sai festival held at Ise-jingu Shrine was given the special name of reihei.

• 本書は序文に聖徳太子、蘇我馬子らが著したものとあるため、中世の神道家などに尊重された。
• In the prologue of the document, it states that it was written by Prince Shotoku and SOGA no Umako, and was respected by Shintoists during the Middle Ages.

• このため、大寺社の寺社領であった荘園の中には中世後期においても存続していた事例は多い。
• As a result, there were many cases of Shoen that were the property of big temples and shrines which were able to endure even into the latter half of the medieval period.

• 天皇は中世には祇園の御輿御所近くを通る際にはその怨霊を恐れて方違を行う慣例がありった。
• In the middle ages, the Emperor was in the habit of Katachigae (a practice of approaching a destination in a different direction than going directly from one's house) for fear of onryo every time he passed through the neighborhood of Mikoshi-gosyo in Gion.

• 荼枳尼天は人を食らう夜叉、または、羅刹の一種で、中世には霊孤と同一の存在とみなされた。
• Dakiniten had been seen as a kind of yaksha (Buddhist guardian deities sometimes depicted as demonic warriors) or rakshasa (type of evil spirit), and in the middle ages, it was thought to be identical to Reiko (a creature believed to live somewhere between the human and spiritual worlds).

• 単一のデッキが帆によって推進されていて、銃があるオールが船尾と船首にある大きい中世の船
• a large medieval vessel with a single deck propelled by sails and oars with guns at stern and prow

• 当時の欧米史学では、中世は欧米特有なもので、近代へ発展するために必須な時代とされていた。
• In the history study of Europe and America in those days, the medieval times were peculiar to Europe and America and indispensable in developing into the modern age.

• 鐚銭（びたせん）とは、日本の中世後期に流通した銭貨の中で、品質が著しく劣悪なものをいう。
• Bitasen was a coin of very poor quality among those circulated during late Medieval Japan.

• 中世を通じて武器の所有は広く一般民衆にまで浸透しており、成人男性の帯刀は一般的であった。
• Throughout the medieval era, the possession of weapons prevailed in Japan with civilians customarily wearing swords.

• 佃（つくだ）は、中世日本の荘園公領制において、荘園領主や荘官・地頭らによる直営田をいう。
• Tsukuda was a rice field directly managed by lord of the manors, shokan (an officer governing manor) or jito (manager and lord of manor) in shoen koryo sei (System of Public Lands and Private Estates) in medieval Japan.

• 僧兵（そうへい）とは、日本の古代後期から中世、近世初頭にかけて存在した僧形の武者である。
• The term Sohei means samurai (warriors) with the appearance of priests who were active from the Medieval Period until the early modern ages.

• 中世期に成立していた門流の多くと、思想的潮流の相当部分を包含する新生日蓮宗が結成された。
• As a result, a new Nichiren sect was established including many schools and various thoughts which had been formed in the Kamakura period.

• 年玉の習慣は中世にまでさかのぼり、主として武士は太刀を、町人は扇を、医者は丸薬を贈った。
• The custom of Toshidama originated in the Medieval Period when samurai presented swords, merchants presented fans and doctors presented pills mainly as Toshidama.

• 近江源氏（おうみげんじ）とは、中世に近江国に土着し本拠とした源氏の流れを汲む一族の呼称。
• The name 'Omi-Genji' refers to the clan who originated from Genji (Minamoto clan) and settled in Omi Province as their home base in the Medieval period.

• 中世ごろから、穴師坐兵主神社が穴師上社、穴師大兵主神社が穴師下社と呼ばれるようになった。
• From around the Medieval period, Anashinimasu-Hyozu-jinja Shrine was called Anashi-kamisha Shrine (literally, upper Anashi-jinja Shrine), while Anashi-Daihyozu-jinja Shrine was called Anashi-shimosha Shrine (literally, lower Anashi-jinja Shrine).

• 現在の祭神はサルタヒコとされているが、中世までは巨勢姫明神という女神であるとされていた。
• The current enshrined deity was considered to be Sarutahiko, but it was said that it was a goddess called Princess Kose Myojin until the Middle Ages.

• 中世以降は特に日蓮宗・法華宗（法華神道）で重視され、法華経守護の神（護法善神）とされた。
• In medieval times, and after, it was especially valued in the Nichiren school of Buddhism and in the Hokke sect in Buddhism (Hokke Shinto), and was seen as the Hokekyo shugo no kami (Gohozenshin).

• 顔を保護するための中世のヘルメットに固定されるか、蝶番をつけられた装甲板（目切れ込みで）
• a piece of armor plate (with eye slits) fixed or hinged to a medieval helmet to protect the face

• 織田信長が新都市に楽市・楽座をおこない、最終的に豊臣秀吉によって中世の座は解体させられた。
• Nobunaga ODA launched rakuichi-rakuza (free markets and open guilds) in new cities, and Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI ultimately dismantled the za system of the medieval period.

• 逃散（ちょうさん）とは、日本の中世から近世にかけて行われた農民抵抗の手段、闘争形態である。
• Chosan was means of resistance and forms of struggle waged by farmers in Japan from the middle ages to the early modern period.

• そのため中世から近代にかけて近江商人と呼ばれる近江出身の商人が全国各地で活躍するに至った。
• Therefore, merchants from Omi, who were called 'Omi shonin' (Omi merchants) played active roles in various parts of Japan.

• 中世の鎌倉はこれよりずっと狭い地域で、前述の東・北・西の三方を山で囲まれた地域に相当する。
• Kamakura in the Medieval Period had a much smaller region equivalent to the above mentioned area surrounded by mountains on three sides, the east, north, and west.

• なお、海保嶺夫（1943年 -）は中世津軽地方の豪族安東氏を俘囚長と同様の存在としている。
• Incidentally, Mineo KAIHO (1943 -) insists that the Ando clan, the Gozoku (local ruling family) in the Tsugaru region in the Medieval period, were ranked at a position equal to a chief of the Fushu.

• 中世の被差別民や近現代日本の被差別部落の直接的な起源であるとする説が存在するが議論がある。
• There is a theory that the origin of discrimination during the medieval period, as well as those living in special hamlets in modern Japan, lies in goshiki no sen; however, this fact is often debated.

• 中世には足利氏の一族である一色氏が入封、一時期を除いて室町時代を通じて丹後一国を支配した。
• In the middle ages, the Isshiki clan (a branch of the Ashikaga clan) entered the territory, after which they governed the entire Tango Province throughout almost all of the Muromachi period.

• 中世以降の日本では末法思想を、この世の終わりとする終末論的なものであると捉えることも多い。
• Since the medieval age, Mappo shiso has often been understood in Japan as similar to eschatology, which means the end of the world.

• 牛頭天王・スサノオに対する神仏習合の信仰を祇園信仰といい、中世までには日本全国に広まった。
• The faith for Gozu Tenno and Susanoo, which is the syncretism of Shinto and Buddhism, is called Gion veneration, which had spread nationwide by the Medieval period.

• 中世日本語においては下二段・カ変・サ変活用の動詞に接尾辞「-い」が用いられるようになった。
• In Middle Japanese, a suffix '-i'started to be used for verbs with lower bigraded conjugation or with KA-row or SA-row irregular conjugation.

• 「無常」「無常観」は、中世以来長い間培ってきた日本人の美意識の特徴の一つと言ってよかろう。
• The 'mujo' and 'mujo views' could be said to be unique characteristics of the Japanese concept of beauty that has grown over many years since the medieval era.

• また中世の庶民の多様な生活を描き、記録している資料は世界に浮世絵しかないことも貴重である。
• It is also valuable that Ukiyoe is the only material in the world that depicts the varied lives of ordinary people in the Medieval period.

• 中世以降の日本における茶の服用方法には「煎じ茶」と茶葉を臼ですりつぶした「挽茶」があった。
• In Japan, after the medieval period, there were two methods to drink tea -- 'senji-cha' and 'hiki-cha' -- the latter consisting of stone-ground tea leaves.

• また中世以降は、武家が望んだ家紋とされ、足利尊氏や豊臣秀吉などもこれを天皇から賜っている。
• Also after the Middle Ages, it was the family crest that samurai families desired, and Takauji ASHIKAGA and Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI, and so on, received it from the Emperors.

• 中世になると、再び、寺院以外の天皇や征夷大将軍の御所の屋根も桧皮で葺かれることが多くなる。
• In medieval times, the roofs of buildings other than temples, such as Gosho (Imperial Palace) of emperors and Seii taishogun (literally, 'great general who subdues the barbarians') were often covered with Hiwada (bark of Japanese cypress) again.

• 座敷（ざしき）は、（中世においては）字義通り、座るために、褥（しとね）などを敷いたところ。
• Zashiki (literally, sitting mat) is the place where (in the medieval times) the floor was covered with a mat or carpet so as to, literally, sit down.

• 現在の所、道蔵の『太上秘法鎮宅霊符』が原典とされ、中世初期に伝来したものと考えられている。
• At present, 'Taijo hiho chintaku reifu' in Dozo are believed to be the original form and it is considered that they were brought over in the early Middle Ages.

• 中世以降、氏神の周辺に住み、その氏神の祭礼に参加する者全体を「氏子」と称するようになった。
• After medieval times, 'ujiko' referred to the entire people who lived in the areas surrounding a ujigami and participated in its festivals.

• いくつかの中世の伽藍にある彫刻にしても地上に出てきて一般人の目に触れられることはなかった。
• certain sculptures on medieval cathedrals are invisible to the spectator on ground level.

• 知行（ちぎょう）とは、日本の中世・近世において、領主が行使した所領支配権を意味する歴史概念。
• Chigyo is a history-related concept indicating a territory-controlling right executed by territorial lords during the medieval period and early-modern times in Japan.

• 日本では中世頃からこの慣行があり、江戸時代になって法制化され、仇討ち（あだうち）と呼ばれた。
• This practice existed in Japan from around the medieval period; it was legislated in the Edo period and was called Adauchi (revenge).

• 主に日本で、中世や近世において歴史的な背景や当時の社会情勢から生まれた町の形態の総称である。
• It was a general term for a city form developed in a historical background and social conditions during the Medieval and the Early Modern periods, mainly in Japan.

• 武家法（ぶけほう）とは、中世・近世の日本において、武士社会及び武家政権における法体系のこと。
• Bukeho refers to a set of codes enforced on samurai society and on the military government during the medieval and the early modern times in Japan.

• 顕密体制（けんみつたいせい）とは、歴史学者黒田俊雄が提唱した日本の中世宗教体制に関する学説。
• Kenmitsu taisei refers to a hypothesis about a medieval religious theory in Japan, which was proposed by Toshio KURODA, a historian.

• 中世以前の天皇の真跡の現存するものは数が少なく、国宝や重要文化財に指定されているものが多い。
• There are only a few documents in which Shinseki (original handwriting) of emperors before the Medieval Period exists, and many of them have been designated as a national treasures or important cultural properties.

• 中世以後、衣・単を略したものがよく用いられ、衣と単を重ねたものを「物具」ということもあった。
• After the Medieval period, the casual style of Kinu and Hitoe (unlined kimono) were often worn, and wearing Kinu and the Hitoe together was sometimes called 'mononogu.'

• 中世に九条家領はさらに広がり、江戸時代は家禄二千石を領し、のち三千石に加増され、明治に至る。
• The Kujo family's fiefdom continued to expand during medieval times. They held the lordship of Karoku, an area of land that yielded 2,000 koku of rice in the Edo era and 3,000 koku later on, until the Meiji era.

• 現在ではむしろ、中世後期から近世初期にかけての演能技法を知るための資料として高い価値を持つ。
• It is now highly regarded as a source of information on the noh performance techniques from the late medieval period to early modern period.

• 近世には上皇・親王及び中世同様、大臣や大将が着用し、また准大臣（儀同三司）も使用の例がある。
• In the early modern period, konoshi were worn by retired emperors and imperial princes, by ministers and generals (just as they did in the middle ages), and there are also examples of it being worn by Jun-daijin (vice ministers, Gido-sanshi ministers).

• 中世の金峯山寺は山上・山下に多くの子院をもち、多くの僧兵（吉野大衆と呼ばれた）を抱えていた。
• Kinpusen-ji Temple, in the Medieval Period, had many branch temples in both Sange and Sanjo with many armed priests (called masses of Yoshino).

• 入母屋造、檜皮葺（ひわだぶき）の和様仏堂で、中世天台仏堂の代表作として国宝に指定されている。
• The main hall is a Japanese-style Buddha hall with Irimoya-zukuri (half-hipped) roof covered with cypress bark shingles, and is designated a national treasure as a typical Tendai Buddha hall in the Medieval period.

• 惣村（そうそん）は、中世日本における百姓の自治的・地縁的結合による共同組織（村落形態）を指す。
• A soson meant a community (in the form of a village) organized through autonomous, territorial connections among peasants in medieval Japan.

• 中世以後堅田荘には「堅田三方」（後に1つ増加して「堅田四方」となる）3つの惣組織が形成された。
• After the Middle Ages on, in Katata Sho (manor), three So-soshiki (autonomous organizations of a village) called 'Katata Sanpo' (later, 'Katata Shiho' because of another organization's joinig), were formed.

• 御恩と奉公（ごおんとほうこう）とは、中世日本において、主に武士の主従関係を構成した要素・概念。
• Goon and hoko indicate factors and concepts that constituted master-servant relationships among samurai during medieval Japan.

• 特に中世に入り新興宗派である禅宗が広まると、伝統宗派の荘園に代わる財源を祠堂銭の利息に求めた。
• Especially during the early medieval period, as Zen became an emerging religious sect, monks turned to interest gained from Shidosen in place of shoen (manors in medieval Japan) which had been the financial resource for traditional religious sects.

• が、結局全国にわたって庶民段階にまで仏教が普及するのは、中世以降まで待たなければならなかった。
• However, after all, it was after the medieval period that Buddhism was spread among common people all over the country.

• 絵画ではやや細く描かれていることもあるが、記録によれば中世には束帯と同じものが用いられている。
• In drawings, it was sometimes described as a rather narrow hakama, but according to a record, it was the same as sokutai which was used in the Medieval period.

• 現在では柴辻俊六・黒田基樹『戦国遺文』武田氏編や『山梨県史』資料編中世において集成されている。
• The results of the above investigations were compiled on the part of Takeda clan in 'Sengoku ibun' compiled by Shunroku SHIBATSUJI and Motoki KURODA as well as in the list of medieval historical materials attached to 'The history of Yamanashi Prefecture.'

• 中世においては、侍従は専ら儀礼を担当することなり、天皇に側近奉仕する官としての色合いが薄れた。
• Chamberlains were primarily in charge of preparation for ceremonies in the medieval period, and their original characteristics as an emperor's close staff were gradually lost.

• 中世は鏑矢を一手（ひとて）を普通の矢と共に箙に盛り上差矢（うわざしや）とするのが作法であった。
• In the Medieval Period, including an arrow with Kaburaya combined along with regular arrows in the ebira (quiver) as uwazashiya was typical.

• 日本六古窯のひとつであり、中世より窖窯によって壺、甕、擂鉢、硯などの焼き物づくりが始められた。
• One of the 'Six Old Kilns of Japan,' where pottery including jars, pots and mortars (suribachi) have been produced using Anagama since around the end of the Middle Ages.

• 近世中期には吉見幸和によって偽書と断定されたが、中世から近世にかけて神道の最重要経典とされた。
• From the medieval period through early modern period, Gobusho had been considered the most important Buddhist scriptures until it was identified as a gisho (apocryphal book) by Yukikazu YOSHIMI in the mid modern period.

• さらに、全国規模で古代的郡・郷・荘園が解体・再編され、中世的な郡・郷・保・荘園が成立していく。
• Moreover, the ancient-style Gun, Go and Shoen (manor in medieval Japan) were dissolved or reformed, and the medieval-style Gun, Go and Shoen were established.

• 中世後期以後は、清原氏系の舟橋家の公卿が天皇の侍読を経た後に任じられる官職として知られていた。
• In and after the late medieval period, Shonagon was known as the official position appointed to the court nobles from the Funabashi family in the Kiyohara clan line, after having served as a tutor to the emperor.

• 中世には安倍氏が陰陽寮の長官である陰陽頭を世襲し、賀茂氏は次官の陰陽助としてその下風に立った。
• During the Middle Ages, the Abe clan transferred the post of Ommyo-no kami (the head of the Ommyoryo (Bureau of Yin and Yang)) by succession while the Kamo clan, who held the post of Ommyo-no suke (deputy minister of Ommyoryo), played a subservient role.

• 血液（中世医学における4つの体液の1つ）の過剰な分を減らす治療法として、かつて使われていたもの
• formerly used as a treatment to reduce excess blood (one of the four humors of medieval medicine)

• 検断沙汰（けんだんさた）とは、中世日本で使用された用語であり、刑事関係の訴訟・裁判のことである。
• 'Kendan-sata' is a term used in medieval Japan, referring to lawsuits and trials relating to criminal cases.

• 軍事貴族（ぐんじきぞく）とは、日本の古代後期から中世最初期にかけて出現した軍事専門の貴族をいう。
• The military aristocracy consisted of aristocrats specialized in military affairs who emerged in history in the late ancient period through the early medieval period.

• 荘園制(manorialism)という用語は、中世西ヨーロッパを説明する上で最もよく使用される。
• The term shoen-sei (manorialism) is most often used when explaining the medieval west Europe.

• 地下請（じげうけ）とは、中世日本の村落が、荘園・国衙領への年貢徴収を領主から請け負っていた制度。
• Jigeuke was a system in which village communities of medieval Japan undertook the task of feudal lords to collect nengu (land tax) to be paid to shoen (manor in medieval Japan) or Kokugaryo (territories governed by provincial government office).

• 四至（しいし/しし）とは、古代・中世における所領・土地の東西南北の境界を指して呼んだ呼称である。
• The term 'Shishi' (also pronounced Shiishi) referred to the northern, southern, eastern, and western boundaries of a tract of territory/land in ancient and medieval times.

• 免田（めんでん）とは、日本の古代末期から中世にかけて、国が規定の課税を徴収するのを免除する田地。
• Menden were rice fields that were exempt from the tax determined by the government during the late ancient times to the middle ages of Japan.

• 日本での馬術は弓馬の道、武芸十八般にも数えられているように、中世の武士にとって必須科目であった。
• In Japan, the bajutsu (equestrianism) had been one of the Bugei Juhappan (the eighteen important military arts) and essential for the medieval bushi (swordsmen).

• 雪見（ゆき-み）とは、中世以降の日本に見られる風俗の一つであり、降雪や雪景色を眺めて楽しむこと。
• Yukimi is one of the Japanese folkways since the medieval period, where people enjoy watching the snowing or the snowscape.

• 貝桶とは、日本の中世から江戸時代にかけて伝わる遊戯の貝合わせや貝覆いに用いる貝殻の入れ物である。
• kaioke' is a kind of bucket used to keep clamshells for 'kaiawase' (a Heian period game which involved pairing the two parts of clamshells) or 'kaioi' (an old name of kaiawase game in the Heian period, which involves pairing the two parts of clamshells) played from the Japanese medieval period to the Edo period.

• 日本六古窯のひとつであり、中世末期頃より窖窯によって壺、甕、擂鉢などの焼き物づくりが始められた。
• One of the 'Six Old Kilns of Japan,' where pottery including jars, pots and mortars (suribachi) have been produced using Anagama since around the end of the Middle Ages.

• 大津奉行（おおつぶぎょう）とは、中世以後に近江国大津（現在の滋賀県大津市）に設置されていた役職。
• Otsu-bugyo (Otsu magistrate) is a post created in Otsu domain of Omi Province (present-day Otsu City, Shiga Prefecture) in the Middle Ages.

• 神道大意（しんとうたいい）は、中世・近世において様々な神道家によって書かれた神道書の書名である。
• 'Shinto Taii' is the name of Shinto books written by various Shintoists in the middle and modern ages.

• 現在主要な観光の名所であるアルハンブラ宮殿の所在地（中世、ムーア人によって建てられた宮殿と要塞）
• site of the Alhambra (a palace and fortress built by Moors in the Middle Ages) which is now a major tourist attraction

• また、中世は身分の流動性が非常に高く、五色の賤や近世部落のような固定化された世襲階級ではなかった。
• Furthermore, during the medieval period, social status was highly mobile, and these people were not confined within fixed hereditary classes, such as the five lowly castes of the ritsuryo system and buraku (communities of discriminated people) in the early-modern times.

• 平安京と平城京の間に位置しており、古代、中世を通じて、水上交通の中継地として大きな役割を果たした。
• Ogura-ike Pond was located between Heian-Kyo and Heijo-Kyo, playing a major role as a stop over of waterway traffic from ancient times to the middle ages.

• 中世から近世初期にかけて押買・押売は、質取行為と並んで市場における悪習として取締りの対象とされた。
• From the middle ages to the beginning of the modern era, oshigai and oshiuri along with pawn taking, were regulated as unacceptable customs in markets.

• 中世日朝貿易は制限貿易であり、朝鮮王朝から図書と呼ばれる銅製印章を受けた者のみ通交が許されていた。
• The medieval Japan-Korea trade was limited trade, and only the recipients of copper seals called toso (tosho in Japanese) were allowed to have diplomatic relations with the Yi dynasty.

• 中世の給田は、荘官等へ給与する荘官給田、年貢輸送者や手工業者へ給与する職人給田に大きく分けられる。
• Kyuden in the middle ages were largely classified into Shokan kyuden given to shokan, and shokunin kyuden given to nengu couriers and handicraftsmen.

• 荒田（こうでん）とは、古代・中世において、何らかの理由をもって耕作が放棄されて荒廃した田地を指す。
• Koden (run-down field) is the term indicating fields that had been cultivated but have been abandoned for some reason during the ancient times and middle ages.

• 高質（こうじち）は、中世日本において債権が債務不履行に陥った債権者の財産を私的に差し押さえる行為。
• During the Middle Ages in Japan, a kojichi was the act of privately seizing the assets of a debtor whose credit had fallen into default.

• 土倉役（どそうやく）とは、倉役（くらやく）とも呼ばれ、中世において京都の土倉に対して行われた課税。
• Dosoyaku, also known as kurayaku, was a tax on doso (pawnbrokers and moneylenders) in Kyoto during the medieval era.

• 和歌の世界においては、鷹狩は「大鷹狩」と「小鷹狩」に分けられ、中世にいたるまで歌題の一つであった。
• In the world of Waka/Yamatouta Japanese poems, Taka-gari has been a subject divided into 'Otakagari' and 'Kotakagari' until medieval times.

• 総構えの典型は、中国の城や中世欧州の都市のように、都市全域を囲む堀と塁（城壁）にみることができる。
• A typical sogamae could be considered to be a moat and wall that encloses an entire city as can be seen in Chinese castles and medieval European cities.

• 幅50m以上の周濠が巡らされているが、中世に城砦として利用されていたため、部分的に改変されている。
• It is surrounded by a moat with a width of more than fifty meters; however, it was partly renovated in medieval times to be used as a fortress.

• 兵粮料所（ひょうろうりょうしょ）とは、中世において兵粮米を徴収するために指定された特定の所領のこと。
• Hyoro-ryosho were areas of land set aside during the medieval period and devoted to producing rations and provisions (specifically, rice) for soldiers.

• 町小路（まちこうじ）とは、中世日本京都の町衆の中心となった通りであり、そこには土倉が建ち並んでいた。
• Machi-koji Street was a street that was central to the townspeople of Kyoto in the middle ages, and was lined with doso (underground warehouses).

• 中世に入ると、寺院などに教育の主体が移り、武士や庶民の子弟が寺院などで教育を受けるようになっていく。
• During the Medieval period, education was increasingly offered in temples, and samurais as well as common people were able to send their children tom temples to receive their education.

• 年官(ねんかん)とは、日本の古代・中世前期において、皇族及び貴族が保有していた官職推薦権を指す用語。
• The term Nenkan means the right to recommend a person to an official post that was granted to Imperial families and court nobles in the ancient/early medieval period in Japan.

• 中世以降、弁才天信仰は神道と日本土着の水神である市杵島姫命（もしくは宗像三女神）や宇賀神（出自不明。
• In the middle ages, worship of Benzaiten syncretized with the Shinto and indigenous Japanese water god Ichikishimahime no Mikoto (or the Munataka Sanjojin (three goddess enshrined at Munakata-jinja Shrine) and Ugajin (unknown descent.

• -mで終わる音節と-nで終わる音節は当初区別されていたが、中世日本語の中期には両者/N/と同化した。
• At first syllables which ended with -m and ones which ended with -n were distinguished, but in the middle of Middle Japanese they were assimilated into/N/.

• 中世以降になると中央文書からは姿を消すが、代わりに地方産物として「メカブ」の名で登場するようになる。
• After the Medieval Period, the reference to 'manakashi' disappeared from archives but, instead, 'mekabu' began to be mentioned as a product of some regions.

• 中世、戦国の武将山形の織田家（後に織田信長を輩出）や仙台の伊達家が長髄彦の子孫であると言われている。
• It is said that the Oda family (which later turned out Nobunaga ODA) of Yamagata, and the Date family of Sendai, who were both busho (Japanese military commanders) during the Middle Ages and the Period of Warring Sates, were Nagasunehiko's descendants.

• 中世神話は現在ではおもに国文学方面で研究がおこなわれており、神話学などではあまりあつかわれていない。
• Medieval myths are currently being studied in the field of Japanese literature, but rarely are they studied in the research field of mythology.

• 中世社会は社会の隅々まで仏教が浸透し、呪術的な信仰が残存する反面、合理的抽象的論理が求められていた。
• In the medieval period, Buddhism permeated all levels of society and sought abstract but rational logic, although occultism remained.

• 一般に戦勝の神として信仰され、足利義満、上杉謙信、武田信玄など中世の武将たちの間で盛んに信仰された。
• Generally it is enshrined as a god of victory, and used to be believed by warlords in the Middle Age including Yoshimitsu ASHIKAGA, Kenshin UESUGI, and Shingen TAKEDA.

• 12世紀末から13世紀にかけて荘園の増加が著しくなり、荘園公領制と呼ばれる中世的な支配体制が確立した。
• The number of shoen (private estates) had increased considerably from around the end of the 12th century to the early 13th century, and a medieval control system called shoen koryo sei (a system of public lands and private estates) was established.

• これを背景として、中世中期には、北畠親房により神道的な神国思想をテーマとする『神皇正統記』が著された。
• With such a situation as a background, Chikafusa KITABATAKE wrote, in around the middle of the medieval period, 'Jinno shotoki' (records of the legitimate succession of the divine emperors) whose theme was Shinkoku-shiso (the thought considering Japan as the land of the gods) based on the Shinto religion.

• 雑役免（ぞうやくめん/ぞうえきでん）とは、中世の荘園及び国衙領において雑役納入を免除された名田を指す。
• The term 'Zoyakumen' (or Zoekiden) means myoden (rice fields named after the local land lords who developed the land in question) which were exempted from zatsueki (levies other than land tax) under the system of shoen (manor) and kokugaryo (territories governed by provincial government) during the medieval period.

• 王朝国家（おうちょうこっか）は、日本が律令制から中世国家体制へ移行する過渡期の国家体制を表す歴史概念。
• The term 'Dynastic polity' is the historical notion which refers to Japan's state regime in a transitional period during which it was in the process of transition from the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the Ritsuryo code) to the medieval national polity.

• 名主（みょうしゅ）は、日本の古代末期から中世日本にかけて、国衙領・荘園領主から名田の経営を請け負った。
• Myoshu (village headmen) were a class of people who were commissioned to manage the cultivation of farmland called myoden by lords of Kokugaryo (territories governed by provincial government office) and manors during the late Ancient period and the Middle Ages in Japan.

• クマタカの飼育自体は鎌倉時代から見られ（古今著聞集）、中世の鷹書においても「角鷹」への言及が見られる。
• Feeding of mountain hawk-eagle itself has been seen since Kamakura Period (Kokon-Chomonju (Collection of Folk-Literature)), and in the book on falconry in medieval times there is a description about the 'Kumataka (Mountain hawk-eagle).'

• 中世日本においては天皇家や伊勢神宮など、有力な神社の荘園（神領）を意味しており、後に地名として残った。
• In medieval Japan, Mikuriya indicated a manor of the Imperial family or dominant shrines, such as Ise-jingu Shrine, (a shrine estate), and this term still remains in geographic names.

• 中世越後の魚沼郡南部（南魚沼郡）には上田荘があり、鎌倉時代頃には清和源氏流新田氏一族の勢力下にあった。
• In the medieval period, Ueda-sho Manor was in the southern part of Uonuma County (present Minami-Uonuma County), and around the Kamakura Period, the area was under the control of the Nitta clan of the Seiwa-Genji (Minamoto clan) line.

• 古代から中世初期には、“城”のほかに“柵”という字も用い、“き”と呼んでいた（城柵）（→城 (き)）。
• From ancient times to the early medieval period, the character '柵' was also used in addition to '城' and pronounced 'ki' (城柵) (-> 城(ki)).

• 村松 剛『帝王後醍醐 「中世」の光と影』（中公文庫、1981年） ISBN 4-12-200828-X
• MURAMATSU, Takeshi. (1981). Teio Go-Daigo 'Chusei' no Hikari to Kage. Chuko Bunko. ISBN 4-12-200828-X.

• 中世には伊勢神道をはじめとして吉田神道などの諸派が反本地垂迹説など複雑な教理の大系をつくりあげてゆく。
• In the medieval period, various schools such as Ise Shinto and Yoshida Shinto established a complicated framework of theories such as Han honji suijaku setsu (the theory of converse origin and traces.)

• これは中世初期に日本の地域社会で庶民の間でも古代のウヂに仮託したウヂ組織が形成されたことと関係がある。
• This relates back to the fact that in early medieval times an udi (clan) organization, which assumed the form of ancient clanship, was formed by commoners in the local community in Japan.

• 自検断（じけんだん）とは、中世日本の村落（惣村・郷村など）が、自ら検断（けんだん）を実施することをいう。
• Jikendan (voluntary ruling and judging) refers to rural communities in medieval Japan such as soson (a community consisting of peasants' self-governing association) and goson (autonomous village) that conduct a kendan (trial) by themselves.

• 中世の被差別民は一般的に非人と称されたが、河原者がその中に含まれるかどうかについて、論争が行われている。
• Although those discriminated in the Medieval Period were generally called Hinin, there is controversy as to whether Kawaramono were included in Hinin.

• また、春日造の一種とみられる隅木入春日造（熊野造）は、熊野信仰の伝播により中世以降、日本全国に広まった。
• Sumigiiri kasuga-zukuri style (kumano-zukuri style) which was regarded as one type of kasuga-zukuri style, also spread throughout Japan after the medieval period due to propagation of Kumano belief.

• 職の体系（しきのたいけい）とは、日本の歴史上、中世日本における、重層的土地支配構造を指し示す用語である。
• The shiki system is the term to indicate the stratified ruling structure in medieval Japan.

• 中世日本の荘園公領制では、一つの土地に対して、複数の主体がそれぞれ各自の権利を有することが一般的だった。
• Under the shoen koryo sei (social structure of the manorial public territory system) in medieval Japan, it was common for two or more parties to have joint ownership to a piece of land.

• 即ち、中世以前の武家の主従関係は利害を共有することにより成立し、けして絶対的なものではなかったのである。
• As shown above, the relationship of master and vassal among samurai until the medieval period was based only on the common interests of both parties and was not absolute.

• 中世陰陽道研究家の小坂眞二は、現存する六壬勘文や当時の文献等を基に平安時代の六壬神課の復元を行っている。
• Mediaeval Onmyodo researcher Shinji KOSAKA restored Rikujinshinka used in the Heian period based on existent Rikuninkanmon and literature of the time.

• 延喜年間（10世紀初頭）には、醍醐天皇から勅額を下賜されたというが、以後、中世までの歴史は判然としない。
• The temple was given the imperial scroll by Emperor Daigo in the Engi era (beginning of the 10th century), but other than that, its history until the medieval period is not clear.

• 今井については、中世末期において一向宗本願寺の進出によって一転機がおとずれ、俄然頭角を現すようになった。
• In the end of medieval times, Imai reached a turning point when Ikkoshu Hongan-ji Temple branched out in this area and, thus, Imai suddenly became conspicuous.

• 虎口（こぐち）とは中世以降の城郭における出入り口のことで、「こぐち」には狭い道・狭い口という意味がある。
• Koguchi is an entrance fixed to castle walls built in the medieval period and afterward, and 'koguchi' means narrow path and narrow entrance.

• 美川 圭『白河法皇 中世をひらいた帝王』（日本放送出版協会、2003年） ISBN 4140019735
• Kei MIKAWA 'Cloistered Emperor Shirakawa – The Emperor who started Cloistered Rule' published by Japan Broadcast Publishing Association in 2003. ISBN 4140019735

• なお、中世の『古今和歌集序聞書三流抄』には、天皇が出雲国に行幸して、素戔嗚尊に出会うという逸話が見える。
• In 'Kokin Wakashu Jomonsho Sanryu-sho' (Excerpts from 'A Collection of Ancient and Modern Japanese Poetry 'and explanatory notes) in the Medieval Period, there is an anecdote that Emperor Itoku visited Izumo County and met SUSANO no Mikoto (a deity of Japanese Mythology).

• 御家人（ごけにん）は、征夷大将軍の家人である武士の身分を指す語であるが、中世と近世では意味合いが異なる。
• Gokenin is a word used to describe the samurai retainers of the shogun but its meaning differed between the middle ages and early modern period.

• この「講」が中世ごろから民間に浸透する過程で、様々な信仰集団に「講」という名称がつけられるようになった。
• While this concept of ko spread to the public in the Middle Ages, many types of faith groups used the term ko in their names.

• 所務沙汰（しょむさた）は、中世日本で使用された用語であり、所領や年貢に関する相論や訴訟・裁判のことである。
• 'Shomusata' is a term used in medieval Japan referring to disputes, suits, and trials over shoryo (territory) and nengu (land tax).

• 又中世の血族意識から起こった風俗であるので、主君のように血縁関係のない者について行われることは少なかった。
• Furthermore, since this custom arose out of the sense of blood ties in the medieval period, it was rarely carried out against someone who had no blood relationship, such as one's lord.

• 中世、近世において頻繁に利用され、比叡山の物資輸送のために港町として、坂本は交通の要所として繁栄していた。
• The roads were frequently used during the medieval and early modern period, so Sakamoto thrived as a port town for cargo shipment through Mt. Hiei and a key point for transportation.

• 検注帳（けんちゅうちょう）とは、古代・中世の日本の荘園において検注の結果を集計して取りまとめた帳簿のこと。
• Kenchucho refers to ledgers for recording the results of kenchu (land surveys) in shoen (manors) during ancient and medieval times in Japan.

• 古代末から中世にかけて作られるようになった往生伝には、その臨終の作法が定着していった跡を見ることができる。
• One can find traces of how the manners at rinju took root by reading ojoden (stories of the attainment of rebirth in the Pure Land), which started to be made from the end of the ancient period to the medieval period.

• 現存する像は中世・近世の補修がはなはだしく、当初の部分は台座、腹、指の一部など、ごく一部が残るにすぎない。
• The present statue received extensive repair during the medieval and early modern periods which kept its original parts only in the pedestal, the stomach and some parts of the fingers.

• 中世の日本では、武士の平時の居住地への防護と、戦時に険阻な山に拠る際の防護と、2つの必要から城が発達した。
• In medieval Japan, castles developed for two purposes: in order to defend the samurai residence during peace time and defend from attack by armies from around steep mountains during war time.

• 「北海道志海苔中世遺構出土銭」として国の重要文化財（考古資料）に指定され、市立函館博物館に所蔵されている。
• They were nationally designated an Important Cultural Property as 'Hokkaido Shinori Chusei Iko Shutsudosen' (lit. Coins Excavated from Medieval Remains in Shinori, Hokkaido), and are deposited at Hakodate Municipal Museum.

• しかし中世日本語期には、i音とe音の前に置かれたこれら唇化子音は、円唇化を伴わない子音と一体化していった。
• In Middle Japanese, however, those labialized consonants became unified with unlabialized consonants when put before i- and e-vowels.

• 一般的に、鎌倉時代に武士の習慣と武士道が広まるに従って定着し、中世から近世を通じて行われたと思われている。
• The practice became established as samurai customs and bushido (the code of the samurai) disseminated throughout Japanese culture during the Kamakura period and is believed to have been practiced from the middle ages until the early modern period.

• 足利学校（あしかががっこう）は、平安時代初期、もしくは鎌倉時代に創設されたと伝えられる中世の高等教育機関。
• Ashikaga School is a high educational institution of the Medieval period which some say was established in the early Heian period or the Kamakura period.

• しかしながら、これは中世以降、出雲大社の御師が全国に広めた説であり、「神無」の宛字から生まれた附会である。
• Yet in reality, Izumo Taisha Shrine onshi (priests) have been actively trying to spread this interpretation throughout the country since the medieval period, despite the fact that the term actually arose when the Chinese characters '神無' were used phonetically to replicate the sound--not the meaning--of 'kaminashi.'

• 西ヨーロッパ旧帝国内の一定の地域では、古代末期に別荘(villa)システムが確立し、中世世界へと継承された。
• In certain areas of the west European old empire, the villa system was established in the late ancient period and continued into the medieval world.

• 中世の被差別民は、一般的に非人と呼称されていたが、河原者、宿の者、散所民、声聞師（唱門師）などに分類できる。
• Generally called hinin (literally, not human beings), people discriminated against in the medieval can be classified into kawaramono (literally, people living in river side areas), shuku no mono (literally, people at shuku (inn-clustered towns along a big road)), sanjomin (literally, people at various places), or Shomonji (itinerant performers whose work encompassed both Noh performance and religious rituals) (Shomonji (lower-ranked diviners)).

• 評定始（ひょうじょうはじめ）とは、中世日本の権門において、年始にその年最初の評定を行う際に行った儀式のこと。
• Hyojohajime was a ceremony held by an influential house of medieval Japan conducted at the first consultation in the New Year.

• 荘園の一覧（しょうえんのいちらん）は、古代～中世にかけて日本全国(北海道は除く)に点在した荘園の一覧である。
• Here, shoen (manors), scattered across Japan, except Hokkaido, from ancient times to medieval times are listed.

• 中世において朝廷の権威が物理的な強制力を持つものではなかったために牓示の権威が絶対性を持つものではなかった。
• As the authority of the Imperial Court was not backed by coercive power during medieval times, the authority of boji was not absolute.

• 公事銭（くじせん）とは、中世日本において、公事の代銭納として現物（労力を含める）の代わりに納付する銭のこと。
• Kujisen was money paid in place of taxes in kind (including labor) as daisenno (paying dues in cash instead of in kind; commutation) for kuji (public duties) during Medieval Japan.

• 中世日朝貿易は制限貿易であり、貿易へ新規参入もしくは拡大を図る者にとって、偽使は一つの有力な選択肢であった。
• Since the Medieval Japan-Korea trade was limited trade, for those who sought to open up or expand their trade, the pseudo envoy was an effective option.

• このため国家による租税徴収体制は、律令制的な人的支配の枠組みから中世的な土地支配の枠組みへと移行していった。
• Therefore, the land tax collection system by the ancient government moved from the framework based on the rule over people under the Ritsuryo system into the one on medieval land ruling.

• その後室町時代前期にかけて『貴嶺問答』・『雑筆往来』、そして中世往来物の代表作とされる『庭訓往来』が現れた。
• Then, by the early Muromachi period, 'Kirei Mondo,' 'Zohitsu Orai' (also called 'Zappitsu Orai') and 'Teikin Orai' (a collection of letters used for family education), which is considered to be the most important work of oraimono from the medieval time, were all written.

• そして中世において寺院は聖域であるとする社会的観念があったため信長に敵対した六角義治らを恵林寺にかくまった。
• Since there was a social consensus in the Middle Ages that temples and shrines were sacred, Kaisen gave shelter to Yoshiharu ROKKAKU and others who fought against Nobunaga in Erin-ji Temple.

• 言語生成の比較的早い段階でも現れることから、音便は中世日本語の動詞および形容詞の形態に大きな影響を及ぼした。
• Appearing at comparatively early stage of language forming, euphonic changes had a great impact on figuration of verbs and adjectives of Middle Japanese.

• 安東氏（あんどうし）は、日本の中世に本州日本海側最北端の陸奥国津軽地方から出羽国秋田郡の一帯を支配した武家。
• The Ando (安東) clan was a samurai family, which ruled extensively from Tsugaru region of Mutsu Province, situated in the northernmost region on the Japan Sea side of Honshu to the Akita Country of Dewa Province, during the medieval Japan.

• 中世には身分制度や封建社会などが確立され、武具や武士に関わる所作を学ぶ事は、農工商にある者は許されなかった。
• However, in medieval times when the class system of feudal society was established, farmers, artisans, and merchants were not allowed to learn about arms and samurai postures.

• ただし後世において広く遊ばれた盤双六は中世以後に中国の盤双六を取り入れて改良されたものであると言われている。
• However, it is said that the board Sugoroku, which became widely popular afterward, was the one that had been improved by introducing Chinese board Sugoroku after the middle age.

• 古代から中世にかけては、特定の所領（公領・荘園）に属する住民が、別の所領内にある田畑を耕作することを指した。
• From ancient times to the Middle Ages, it meant inhabitants who belonged to a certain shoryo (territory) (Koryo or Shoen) but cultivated fields in other shoryo.

• 国司（こくし）は、古代から中世の日本で、地方行政単位である令制国の行政官として中央から派遣された官吏である。
• In medieval Japan, a kokushi was a government officer who was sent by the central government to administer a ryoseikoku (an area of regional administration).

• 興福寺は中世には大和一国を支配する大勢力であり、衆徒とは同寺に仕えた法体の武士で、「僧兵」とほぼ同義である。
• Kofuku-ji Temple was a powerhouse holding sway over the entire province of Yamanto in medieval times, and the word 'shuto' refers to samurai warriors dressed like Buddhist priests who served Kofuku-ji Temple and is almost synonymous with 'sohei (priest soldiers)'.

• 筒井氏の起源については必ずしも明らかではないが、大和国の土豪であり、中世には興福寺の衆徒（しゅと）であった。
• The origin of the Tsutsui clan is not perfectly clear, but it is known that they were a local clan in Yamato Province and were the shuto (monk-soldiers) of Kofuku-ji Temple in the middle ages.

• 侍（さむらい）は、古代から中世にかけての日本における官人の身分呼称、あるいはそこから発展的に生じた武士の別名。
• 'Samurai' is the positional title for officials in Japan from the ancient to middle ages, and an alternative name for 'bushi' (warrior) that was derived from the first meaning.

• 後者には異論も出されているが、この見解に従えば、中世期の支配・収取のあり方をより具体的に理解することができる。
• Opinions denying the latter were proposed, but according to the latter opinion, the state of the national control and tax-collecting systems during the medieval period could be understood more concretely.

• 今谷明は立花説の解釈に立脚しながら、信長は朝廷の権威に屈服し中世的権力関係を指向せざるをえなかったとしている。
• Akira IMATANI, supporting Tachibana's theory, presented that Nobunaga bowed down to the Imperial Court's authority because he had to keep the medieval relationship of power with the Emperor.

• その一方で国文学界が鎌倉時代以後を本来は同じ意味である「中世」という語で表現する事に対して疑問も出されている。
• On the other hand, Japanese literature also uses the term 'chusei' to refer to the time period after the Kamakura period which has the same meaning as chuko, and the appropriateness of this practice has been questioned.

• 洞窟や岩壁の隙間に造営されることもあり、中世には死者の追善的意味も加わり、路傍や墓所においても造営されている。
• Some kyozuka were built in caves or steep-sided valleys, and by the middle ages, some were constructed by the wayside or in cemeteries to pray for the dead to rest in peace, which was considered to be a good deed.

• 集会（しゅうえ/しゅえ）とは、中世日本の寺院において僧侶達が寺院内部の意思決定のため行う合議・自治機関を指す。
• Shue refers to the council or self-governing body for decision-making of the Buddhist priests in the temples in medieval Japanese temples.

• 中世日本語（ちゅうせいにほんご）とは、中古日本語と近世日本語の間に位置する、日本語の発展における一段階である。
• Middle Japanese is a stage in the development of the Japanese language located between Early Middle Japanese and Early Modern Japanese.

• 中世のように、団扇（うちわ）は僧侶、文人、隠遁者に、「扇子（せんす）は公家・貴族を中心につかわれた時代もある。
• There was a period like the Medieval period when Uchiwa fan was mainly used by Buddhist monk, literati and hermit, while 'Sensu' was mainly used by court nobles and nobles.

• 院司（いんし、いんのつかさ）は、日本の中世・古代において、太上天皇や女院の直属機関として設置された院庁の職員。
• Inshi (or In no tsukasa) is an official of In no cho (Retired Emperor's Office) set up directly under the retired emperors and nyoin (empress, empress dowager or grand empress dowager) during the ancient period to the middle ages in Japan.

• 中世神話のなかでは本地垂迹説にもとづいて記紀の神々が仏教の尊格と同一視されたり、あるいは対等に渡り合っている。
• In medieval mythology, some of the gods in Kiki (The Kojiki and Nihon Shoki) are identified as or treated as equals to the deities in Buddhism based on the theory of Honjisuijyaku (gods are a manifestation of Buddha).

• 中世公家領には自己邸宅の宅地や御願寺・氏寺の敷地及び寺社領も含まれるが、収入を得るのは自家の荘園が主であった。
• Medieval kuge-ryo (landholdings of court nobles) included the land of their own residence, properties of goganji (a temple for the Imperial Family) and uji-dera temples (which had been built for praying clan's glory) and jisha-ryo (landholdings of temples and shrines), but the main source of income was their private shoen manors.

• 中世以来、大名家の転封が無かったため、家臣団の兵農分離が不十分で、地侍の地方知行が存続し、農村に居住し続けた。
• Because there were no forced relocations of daimyo families from the middle ages onwards, there was insufficient separation of samurai and farmers amongst the ranks of vassals and as such, the fiefs of provincial samurai perpetuated and the goshi continued to live in rural villages..

• 中世以来の密教仏堂の形式を残しつつ細部には近世的特質の現われた建築で、2004年に重要文化財に指定されている。
• The building has the form of the Esoteric Buddhism hall from medieval times and the characteristics of modern times in its details; it was set down as an Important Cultural Property in 2004.

• また、かかしは田の中に立って一日中世の中を見ていることから、天下のことは何でも知っているとされるようになった。
• Standing in rice paddies all day long watching what goes on in the world, scarecrows came to be regarded as knowing everything.

• その前に、御霊信仰自体を見るのに、考えておかなければならないのは、現在と古代・中世期の霊に対する考え方である。
• Before looking into goryo shinko itself, we should know more about what people from ancient times, the middle ages, and the present thought about the spirit.

• したがって、中世の武家法の基礎となった慣習法も、純粋な固有法ではなく、律令法を媒介として成長した固有法であった。
• Thus, the common law which became the basis of medieval samurai law was not a genuine inherent law, but an inherent law which developed from ritsuryo law.

• 中世以後においては、「公家御下知違背事也」（『沙汰未練書』）と解され、漠然と天皇の命令に逆らうことと考えられる。
• In and after the Middle Ages, the Ichoku was understood as 'punishing all the violations against judgements issued by court nobles' (according to the book called 'Satamirensho'), and by people, it is ambiguously thought to have gone against an Emperor's command.

• 茶の湯が中世から近世にかけて流行普及して行き、茶のための独自の建築空間である草庵茶室が造られるようになっていく。
• In accordance with the prevalence of tea ceremony from medieval times to recent times, the tea room in the tea hut, which was the individual architecture for tea ceremony, had been built.

• 門弟は、高野聖など中世以降に広まった民間浄土教行者「念仏聖」の先駆となり、鎌倉時代の一遍にも大きな影響を与えた。
• His disciples became pioneers of 'Nenbutsu-hijiri,' such as Koya-hijiri, who as practitioners of Jodo-kyo caused it to become widespread among the people after the medieval times, and this had a great influence on Ippen during the Kamakura period.

• 中古までの連体形終止には余情・余韻が感じられたが、中世に一般化すると終止形終止の機能と変わりのないものになった。
• Until Early Middle Japanese a sentence terminated with an attributive form produced suggestiveness and a lingering feeling, but it became almost the same as a sentence terminated with an end-form after termination with an attributive form was generalized in Middle Japanese.

• 「楽市楽座は信長が安土城で始めた」という認識があるが、上記のように実際は中世の門前町や六角氏により開始されている。
• It is recognized that 'rakuichi-rakuza were begun in Azuchi by Nobunaga' but, as described above, they were actually first established by temple towns and the Rokkaku clan during the middle ages.

• ばさらとは、日本の中世、南北朝時代の社会風潮や文化的流行をあらわす言葉であり、実際に当時の流行語として用いられた。
• 'Basara' is a word which expressed the social and cultural trends during the Northern and Southern Courts period (in the Japanese medieval period), which was actually used as a vogue word at that time.

• このようにして、平安中期ごろには、富豪層による地域支配が徐々に拡がり始めていき、これが中世の萌芽へつながっていく。
• Thus, the regional rule by the rich stratum gradually extended in around the mid Heian period, which led to their prosperity in medieval Japan.

• 蝦夷と呼ばれた集団の一部は中世の蝦夷（えぞ）、すなわちアイヌにつながり、一部は日本人につながったと考えられている。
• It is thought that a part of the group called Emishi became the medieval Ezo, that is the Ainu, and that another part of them became Japanese.

• 荘園絵図を読み解くことは歴史地理学や地図学、歴史学における日本古代・中世史の研究手法の一つであり、研究主題である。
• Close analysis of the shoenezu is not only one of the researching methods but also the subject of research for the ancient and medieval history of Japan in the category of historical geography, cartography and history.

• 中世までは武士はそれぞれの領地に住んでいたが、近世になり兵農分離が行われると、城下町に集まって住むよう強制された。
• Samurai used to live in their local domains in the medieval period, but after the Sengoku period soldiers did not need to farm and were forced to live in castle towns leaving their farmlands behind.

• 貞元2年（977年）には神武天皇ゆかりのこの地に国源寺が建てられたが、中世には神武陵の所在も分からなくなっていた。
• In 977, Kokugen-ji Temple was erected in this area where is associated with Emperor Jimmu, however the location of Mausoleum of Emperor Jimmu came to be unknown in the medieval period.

• 中世武家法においては転じて、天皇・征夷大将軍の代理である訴訟機関に対して虚偽の陳述を行った者もこの罪で処せられた。
• In the Middle Ages it changed to the punishment for the similar crime by the bukeho (samurai law) to sentence the person who made a false statement to a legal institution which was an agent of the Emperor or Seii taishogun (literally, 'great general who subdues the barbarians').

• この原型は中世から近世初期にかけての軍事知識として、英仏百年戦争におけるクレシーの戦い（1346年）が著名である。
• As for an archetype, the Battle of Crécy (1346) in the Hundred Years' War between France and England is notorious as military knowledge from the medieval ages to early modern times.

• 中世には、神仏習合により、神世七代の六代目であることから、仏教における天界の最高位である天魔の垂迹であるとされた。
• Being the 6th generation of the Kaminoyonanayo, in the medieval period, Omodaru Ayakashikone came to be regarded as the suijaku (literally, trace manifestation) of evil spirit which was the highest rank in the heavens in Buddhism, from the perspective of syncretism of Shinto and Buddhism.

• 神道においては正月などの祭事に臨時に設置する歳棚などが起源とされ、常設されるようになったのは中世以降のことである。
• It is said that the origin of Shinto altars was the toshidana, a shelf set up specially for rituals such as New Year, and they became permanent structures from the Middle Ages onwards.

• 古代末に発生した武士はその武力で古代を終焉させ、中世社会で主導的役割を果たし、近世で完成された社会体制を築き上げた。
• The bushi who emerged during the late ancient times finished the ancient times by force, played a leading role in medieval society and established the social system in the early-modern times.

• 中世の代表的自治都市である堺は宣教師も「東洋のベニス」と評価する文書を残しており、織田信長に屈服するまで自治を行う。
• Sakai, a representative example of the free cities in the medieval period, was rated by missionaries in some surviving accounts as 'the Venice of the East,' and continued its autonomy until it was later forced to capitulate to Nobunaga ODA.

• 中世以後は薪炭の生産地として知られ、独自のいでたちをした大原女が京都まで薪炭を売り歩き、白川女・桂女と並び称された。
• After the middle ages, Ohara was known as a place where firewood and charcoal were produced, and Oharame (the women of Ohara), who were as highly regarded as Shirakawame (women from Kita-Shirakawa who sell flowers) and Katsurame (women from Katsura, Kyoto city), with their unique clothing would walk to Kyoto to sell this firewood and charcoal.

• 同時期には太上天皇が治天の君として政務に当たる院政が開始しており、この時期が古代から中世への画期であるとされている。
• In the same era, insei in which Daijo tenno (a retired emperor) administered the affairs of state as Chiten no kimi (the retired emperor in power) started, and it is said that in this era, ancient times ended and the medieval period started.

• 中世の武士間の主従関係は、決して片務的なものではなく、主人・従者が相互に利益を与え合う互恵的な関係で成り立っていた。
• The master-servant relationships among samurai during the medieval period were not one-sided but were established based upon mutually beneficial ones in which benefits were not only given by a master and received by his servant, but also given by a servant and received by the master.

• これに対して西ヨーロッパでは、中世末期に『往生術』として知られる文献が書かれ、臨終を迎える者のための心得が説かれた。
• On the other hand, in Western Europe, the book known as 'Ars moriendi,' written in the late medieval period, explains what a person who is going to go through rinju needs to know.

• この時期では、天守に限らず、櫓や城門、御殿、土塁、石垣などの復元、また出土した中世・戦国の城郭を再現した事例がある。
• There were cases in which castle towers, turrets, gates, palaces, earthen walls and stone walls were reconstructed or excavated citadels of the medieval and Sengoku periods were reproduced during this period.

• 中世ヨーロッパにおいてはビスケー湾などで組織的な捕鯨が行われ、鯨の舌が珍重されたほか、肉は広く沿岸民の食糧となった。
• In the medieval period of Europe, whales were hunt systematically, for example, in Bay of Biscay, and the meat was consumed as food widely by people living along the costal areas, especially whale tongue was highly valued.

• 現在でこそ飾り気の無い褐色の陶器に見られるが、中世の日本ではこのような釉薬のかかった壺は輸入に頼らざるを得なかった。
• Though it would be looked upon as plain brown earthenware nowadays, a pot that was glazed like this had to be relied upon imports in medieval Japan.

• 法的な土地所有者と現地における実際の権利関係が錯綜して安定していなかった古代・中世期にはこうした現象は多く存在した。
• This phenomenon often occurred during ancient times and the Middle Ages, when the rights of a legal land owner and an actual lord of the land were intricate and unstable.

• 旧族居付大名であるため、外城制の存在などに見られるように中世的であり、城下集住・俸禄制をとる大多数の藩とは異なった。
• Goshi (rural samurai) were considered part of the ranks of vassals because the daimyo of ancient clans believed that the goshi samurai had lived outside the castle grounds since mediaeval times and, resided in castle support towns (on a stipend) which was different to arrangements in a large number of other clans.

• 飛鳥寺（法興寺）、薬師寺、大官大寺（大安寺）と並び、飛鳥の四大寺の一に数えられた大寺院であったが、中世以降衰微した。
• It was considered one of the four great temples of Asuka along with Asuka-dera Temple (Hokko-ji Temple), Yakushi-ji Temple and Daikan-daiji Temple (Daian-ji Temple), but after the medieval era its prosperity declined.

• この石塔は、日本各地にある中世以前の石塔とは全く異なった様式をもつものであり、朝鮮半島の古代の石造物に類似している。
• This pagoda has a completely different style from other pagodas built in or before the middle ages which are seen in many regions in Japan, and it is similar to ancient stone structural objects in Chosun Peninsula.

• 古代史でも、中世でも、またしだいに程度を弱めていますが封建時代から現代への長い過渡期を通じても、個人は本来力でした。
• In ancient history, in the middle ages, and in a diminishing degree through the long transition from feudality to the present time, the individual was a power in himself;

• また、歴史学者の網野善彦は、中世日本の社会が荘園と公領から構成されていることに注目して荘園公領制という概念を提唱した。
• Also, the historian Yoshihiko AMINO advocates a concept of shoen koryo sei (The System of Public Lands and Private Estates), focusing on the fact that medieval Japanese society consisted of shoen and koryo.

• 寄人（よりうど/よりゅうど）とは、平安時代以後中世にかけて用いられた一定の人々に対する呼称であるが、複数の意味がある。
• Yoriudo (Yoryudo) was a term used during the middle ages after the Heian period for certain people, but had multiple meanings.

• 日本の中世期においては、幕府の地頭、御家人、その郎党といった正規の武士以外に地侍（土豪）、野伏、農民等も武装していた。
• In the medieval period of Japan, not only regular samurai who were jito (land steward appointed by the central military government to each of the estates [shoen] into which the countryside was divided), gokenin (an immediate vassal of the shogunate in the Kamakura and Muromachi through Edo periods) and other roto (retainers) but also jizamurai (local samurai [or dogo: local ruling family]), nobushi (unofficial warrior hidden in a forest) and farmers were armed.

• 一方、三浦正幸は、天守の起源を井楼等に求めず、中世の城郭などに建てられた恒久的な高層で大型の礎石建物であるとしている。
• On the other hand, Masayuki MIURA regards the origins of Tenshu to be permanent high-rise buildings of large scale constructed on the foundation stone in castles of the Medieval period instead of watch towers.

• 中世においては、禅宗寺院では禅宗様、密教寺院には和様（一部に大仏様を取り入れた折衷様）と宗派と建築様式の区分もあった。
• In the Medieval period, architectural styles according to the Buddhist sect were categorized such that Zenshu-yo (Zen-sect-style architecture) was used for Temples of the Zen sect and Wayo (some included Setchu-yo (mixed style between the Wayo style's basic plan and the features of the Zen sect style) adopting Great Buddha) was used for esoteric Buddhism temples.

• 中世には、正式な宣旨のかわりに、取次ぎが「直衣を着て参内すべし」という手紙（消息）で着用者に通知する方法が一般化した。
• In Medieval times it was common to tell people wearing Noshi 'come to the Palace in your Noshi costume' through a messenger instead of issuing Senshi letter (Shosoku).

• 例として、石川県寺家遺跡や高座遺跡の例（中世期）や秋田県洲崎遺跡（13世紀末）、岩手県落合遺跡（鎌倉時代）などがある。
• Examples of magemono-izutsu were found in the Jike site and the Takaza site in Ishikawa Prefecture (Medieval period), the Suzaki site in Akita Prefecture (end of the 13th century), and the Ochiai site in Iwate Prefecture (Kamakura period).

• なお、中世の朝廷衰微の時代には立太子の礼を行う予算がないために儲君が立太子をされないまま、次期天皇に即位した例も多い。
• However, during medieval times when the Imperial court's power declined, not a few Crown Princes ascended to the Imperial throne without the ceremonial Rittaishi due to lack of budget for the Rittaishi no Rei.

• 中世の『ハッティンの戦い』は重装歩兵に対し弓騎兵が執拗な攻撃をしかけ敵の戦意を喪失させる事で勝った古典的な事例である。
• 'The Battle of Hattin' in the Medieval period is a classic example of archery cavalry soldiers attacking heavily armed foot soldiers persistently so that they would not want to fight any more and they won the battle.

• 中世以降、五位蔵人は次第に名家 (公家)と呼ばれる堂上家が経る職となり六位蔵人が五位蔵人となることはなくなっていった。
• From medieval times onwards, the position of Goi no Kurodo gradually became a position occupied by Tosho-ke (hereditary court nobles) known as Meika (important families), and the practice of Rokui no Kurodo (Sixth Rank Kurodo) rising to Goi no Kurodo died out.

• 中世ごろから、比叡山の影響のもとに神仏習合が進み、弁財天を本地仏とし、「日本三大弁財天」の一つと称されるようになった。
• Beginning in the Medieval Period, Shinto and Buddhism advanced toward syncretization under the influence of Hieizan Enryaku-ji Temple, and the shrine came to be called one of the 'Three major Benzaiten in Japan' with Benzaiten as its honji-butsu (original Buddhist divine).

• その一方で、飯縄権現が授ける「飯縄法」は「愛宕法」や「ダキニ天法」などとならび中世から近世にかけては「邪法」とされた。
• Meanwhile 'Izuna Tactics' initiated by Izuna-gongen came to be regarded as an improper tactic along with 'Atago Tactics' and 'Dakini Tenpo Tactics.'

• 先に見た縁起や講式等の記述等と併せて考えるならば、中世初期にはかなり体系的な飯縄信仰像が形成されていたと考えられよう。
• Taking into consideration the descriptions including engi and Izuna-koshiki, it can be assumed that a systematic Izuna belief was already formed in the beginning of the Middle Ages.

• 中世には陰陽道や密教と結びつき、陰陽道の呪言や仏教の経典のように、唱えるだけで功得が得られると考えられるようになった。
• In the medieval period Shinto amalgamated with Onmyodo (Yin-Yang divination) and esoteric Buddhist teachings, and it was believed that by saying these words one could obtain merit similar to those obtainable from the yin-yang spell or Buddhist scriptures.

• しかし、明治の諸改革は王政復古をポリシーに掲げていたので、中世、近世のご本尊は古代の神社登録資料にも沿う形で行われた。
• However, many reforms carried out by the Meiji government, whose policy revolved around the restoration of imperial rule, conformed to the ancient records of registered Shinto shrines.

• 名田（みょうでん）は、日本の平安時代中期から中世を通じて見られる、荘園公領制における支配・収取（徴税）の基礎単位である。
• The term 'myoden' (rice field lot manage by a nominal holder) refers to a basic unit of the governance and (tax) collection in the shoen-koryo system (the system of public lands and private estates), and this existed from the mid-Heian period, throughout the Middle Ages in Japan.

• 徳政令(とくせいれい)とは、日本の中世、鎌倉時代から室町時代にかけて朝廷、幕府などが債権や債務の放棄を命じた法令である。
• The 'Tokuseirei' (ordering return of land sold and dissolution of debts) was acts by the Imperial Court and the bakufu (Japanese feudal governments headed by a shogun) during the Middle Ages in Japan, from the Kamakura period to the Muromachi period.

• だが、九十九王子を成立せしめた中世熊野詣の先達たちの影響力は近世にはすでに失われて久しく、九十九王子も既に退転していた。
• However, the influence of the pilgrims who started visiting Kujuku Oji in the Muromachi period already disappeared during the early-modern period, and even the shrines of Kujuku Oji were declining.

• 転じて近現代になると西欧中世社会を特徴づける社会経済制度であるフューダリズム（Feudalism）の訳語にも援用された。
• In the modern and present-day era, it also came to be used as a Japanese equivalent for Feudalism, the socioeconomic system characterizing medieval European society.

• 地子（じし/ちし）とは、日本の古代・中世から近世にかけて、領主が田地・畠地・山林・塩田・屋敷地などへ賦課した地代を指す。
• Jishi, also called chishi, (land taxes under the Ritsuryo system) referred to the land rent which feudal lords imposed on rice fields, fields (for fruits, vegetables, etc.), mountains and forest, salt fields, or residential areas from ancient and medieval periods to the early-modern times.

• このような状況下にあって、中世には、平地の方形居館と推定される「中野城」あるいは「中城」が恒富・出北地区に存在していた。
• This was the situation at the time, and in the Middle Ages the 'Nakano-jo Castle' or 'Naka no shiro Castle,' presumed to be a square residence on the plain, existed in the Tsunetomi and Idekita areas.

• 中世の文献では「衣冠正しき」姿というように、束帯・衣冠を厳密に分けずに、単に貴人の正装の意味でこの言葉を使うこともある。
• In literature in the medieval period, sokutai and ikan were not precisely distinguished, but the word 'ikan' may be used to simply mean formal attire of nobles as in the 'ikan tadashiki' (properly wearing ikan).

• 中世は上差矢として通常の矢と共に箙に盛って携行し、合戦の始めや味方への合図を出す際にこれを放ち、音を出して遠くに伝えた。
• In the Medieval Period, it was carried with regular arrows in ebira (quiver) as uwazashiya, and it was shot to inform someone far by its sound as a signal for the same side or for the starting a battle.

• 稚児大師図（香雪美術館蔵・鎌倉後期）などに見られるように、子供の小袖は中世の時代は体温を逃がす振りの八つ口をあけていた。
• As can be seen in the Chigo daishi zu (a late Kamakura work owned by the Kayuki Art Museum) and other such illustrations, children's kosode during Japan's medieval period was made with furi-no-yatsuguchi in the sleeves to allow body heat to dissipate.

• ヨーロッパ地域では近世から中世にかけ国家という単位が発生する過渡期的に多くの領主が貴族という形で国家に編入されていった。
• In Europe, as states were emerging as single entities during the transition from the medieval period to early modern times, many feudal lords were given positions as nobles in the state's political structure.

• 両部神道はのちの神道説の展開に大きな影響をあたえ、中世には習合神道説の主流となって、御流、三輪などの多くの分流が生じた。
• Ryobu Shinto greatly influenced the development of Shinto theologies later on, and became the mainstream of Shugo Shinto theory in medieval times, generating many branches including Goryu and Sanrin.

• 一国平均役（いっこくへいきんやく）は、日本の中世において、ある令制国内の荘園・国衙領へ一律的に賦課された租税・課役である。
• Ikkoku heikinyaku refers to land taxes and assignments evenly imposed on shoen (manor) and kokugaryo (territories governed by a provincial government office) of a particular province during the Middle Ages in Japan.

• 倭館（わかん、왜관）は、中世から近世にかけて、李氏朝鮮（朝鮮王朝）時代に朝鮮半島南部に設定された日本人居留地のことである。
• Wakan (왜관) was a foreign settlement for Japanese people established at the Southern area of Korean Peninsula from the medieval to modern period of Japan, or in the Yi Dynasty Korea period (Korean Dynasties period).

• この複雑な賤民の等級は、唐令の賤民制度の継承であるが、それは中世武家法における賤民制度とちがった律令法の特徴をなしている。
• This complex classification of senmin succeeded the senmin system of torei (codes in the Tang era), and characterizes ritsuryo law as something different from the senmin system under medieval samurai law.

• また西方では、中世中期からミラノのキリストの聖骸布、聖杯（聖杯伝説や騎士道物語を生み出す元になった）などの伝承が生まれた。
• In the west, from the mid-Middle Ages, legends such as the Holy Shroud of Milan and the Holy Grail (which became the basis of the Holy Grail Legend and romances) were born.

• 七口の関（ななくちのせき）とは、中世に地方より京都に入る7つの街道（京都七口（きょうとななくち））に設置された関所のこと。
• 'Nanakuchi no seki' refers to the checkpoints which were set on the seven roads leading to Kyoto from outlying regions (Kyoto nanakuchi, Kyoto's seven entrances) during medieval times.

• 西欧中世においては、特にその初期においてノルマン人、イスラーム教徒、マジャール人などの外民族のあいつぐ侵入に苦しめられた。
• In medieval Europe, particularly in its early days, people suffered from repeated invasion by foreigners such as the Normans, Muslims and Magyars.

• 日本中世史と日本近世史の間で、1953年から1960年代にかけて日本封建制成立論争が展開した（太閤検地論争とも呼ばれる）。
• There was a controversy between medieval history and early-modern history on the establishment of the Hoken system in Japan from 1953 through the 1960's (it is also called the controversy of Taiko-kenchi (cadastral survey instituted by Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI)).

• その石井進は1974年の『日本歴史第12 中世武士団』の中で、有名な国司軍と地方豪族軍のを行いながら、次ぎのように述べる。
• Susumu ISHI talked in 'Japanese History Volume 12, Armed Groups in the Medieval Period' published in 1974 about the famous army of the governor and local ruling families as follows:

• ただし、これらの「絵巻」「絵巻物」の語は、近世になって使われだしたもので、中世以前の記録では単に「○○絵」と呼ばれている。
• However, the words of 'emaki' and 'emakimono' came to be used only after the modern age, and according to records written before the medieval period, they were simply expressed with the ending of 'XX-e' (literally, XX's picture).

• 石造宝篋印塔のような石造美術品、特に中世期のものを見るうえで、律宗僧及びその関係の石工たちの存在に注目しなければならない。
• When looking at stone construction arts such as stone-made hokyoin-to pagodas, especially ones in the Medieval period, they should be noted as the work of monks of the Ritsu sect and related stonemasons.

• 後鳥羽院（ごとば-（の）-いん）は中世屈指にして史上有数の歌人であり、その歌作は同時代および後代に大きな影響を与えている。
• Go-Toba (no)-in was one of the greatest, most outstanding poets of the Medieval period; his poems had an enormous impact on the later periods.

• 後に中世後期になって、定家と内親王は秘かな恋愛関係にあったのだとする説があらわれ、これが能『定家』などを生む契機となった。
• Later on, there was another theory during the late Medieval period, that Teika and the Imperial Princess were in love, it created the opportunity to produce the Noh play 'Teika.'

• このほか老人が香染（丁子による茶色）の扇を使用するなどの特例が中世にあり、その一部は近世にも復古的に行われたかと思われる。
• In addition, there were special cases where the elderly used fans of kozome (dyed brown by clove) in the medieval period, and some of such cases were revived in the early-modern times.

• 神仏が同じ舞台で対等に渡り合ったりと中世における両部神道や山王神道などによる神仏習合思想を下敷きにした神話が語られている。
• Chusei Nihongi features myths built on 'Shjnbutsu Shugo Shiso' (syncretism of Shinto and Buddhism), which prevailed in medieval Japan, such as Ryobu Shinto (a fusion of Shinto and the Shingon sect of Buddhism) and Sanno Shinto (a fusion of Shinto and the Tendai sect of Buddhism), whereby Shinto deities and Buddhist gods play on a level playing field.

• 中世のイングランドでは、町という町のすべてが、ときには一度に５００人もの選手が、特定の休日にフットボールをしていたのです。
• In England in the Middle Ages, whole towns played football on certain holidays, sometimes with as many as 500 players at one time.

• 中世に入ると、貴族や寺社などの都市領主層が次第に没落し、武士が政治社会の実権を握っていく時代とする認識は古くから存在した。
• It has been long recognized that during the middle ages, the urban lord class such as the nobility and the temples and shrines had gradually declined, and the samurai class had extended their real power in the political and social spheres.

• 平安時代中期には讃岐氏や惟宗氏の世襲の傾向が見られたが、中世以降には両氏に代わって、名望の坂上氏及び中原氏の世襲となった。
• During the middle of the Heian period, Myoho hakase tended to be a hereditary post for the Sanuki and Koremune clans, but from the medieval period, both clans were replaced and it became a hereditary post for the Sakagami and Nakahara clans of high reputation.

• 新プラトン主義は、初期のキリスト教の作家の、また、後の中世、およびルネッサンス主義、イスラム哲学に関する大きな影響であった
• Neoplatonism was a major influence on early Christian writers and on later medieval and Renaissance thought and on Islamic philosophy

• 荘園公領制（しょうえんこうりょうせい）とは、日本の中世日本における、荘園と公領を土台とした、重層的土地支配構造のことである。
• The Shoen-Koryo system was a multilayered land governance structure which was grounded in shoen (manors) and lands under the control of the koryo (feudal government) in medieval times in Japan.

• 12世紀には既に荒廃していたが､付属の荘園群や地方官への推薦権（年挙）は中世まで残り、学館院別当の称号も名誉職として残った。
• Although it was already ruined by the 12th century, affiliated private estates and the chihokan (local official) recommendation (nenkyo) system remained up to the Middle Ages, and also, the title Gakkanin-betto (the chief officer of Gakkanin) also remained to indicate an honorary position.

• テルマ（埋蔵経典）の出現は、中世以来、現代に至るまで継続しており、他の宗派からは、発掘者による創作だと見なされることが多い。
• The discovery of gter-ma (hiding Buddhist sutras) has continued since the medieval period, but it is often considered as fiction by persons involved in excavation from other sects.

• 当初、中世以来の慣行に従って中宮職を付置され、中宮と称されたが、翌年、中宮職が皇后宮職に改められ、称号も皇后宮と改められた。
• In the beginning, she was placed in the Chugushiki (Office of the Consort's Household) and was called Chugu following the tradition from the Medieval Period, but in the following year, the Chugushiki was changed to Kogogushiki (Queen-consort's Household Agency) and her title also changed to Kisai no Miya (empress).

• 多くの場合名誉が国家に認定され表彰される形をとるが、中世に於ける位階や爵位等の様に特権や特別待遇がそれに附随する場合もある。
• Usually, a commendation is given to a person when his/her honor is certified by the nation, and in some cases, privileges and special treatment appertain to the commendation, like Ikai (Court rank) or peerage of the medieval period.

• 神人（じにん、じんにん）とは、古代から中世の神社において、社家に仕えて神事、社務の補助や雑役に当たった下級神職・寄人である。
• 'Jinin' and 'jinnin' are low-ranking Shinto priests and yoriudo who served families of Shinto priests who serve a shrine on the basis of hereditary in order to assist in shinji (Shinto rituals), clerical work at the shrine, and carry out chores in shrines during ancient and medieval times.

• スペインの哲学者で、中世における最も偉大なユダヤ人の学者とみられ、タルムードでユダヤ法を成文化した（1135年−1204年）
• Spanish philosopher considered the greatest Jewish scholar of the Middle Ages who codified Jewish law in the Talmud (1135-1204 )

• 中世では、その「人々」を構成するものもまた多様であったが、会所内ではその多様さから生まれた身分差を気にせず過ごすことができた。
• There were various things that structured 'people' during the medieval era, but one could spend time within Kaisho without concern for their birth.

• 寄親・寄子（よりおや・よりこ）とは、中世日本において親子に擬制して結ばれた主従関係あるいはこれに准ずる保護者・被保護者の関係。
• Yorioya-Yoriko refers to the master-servant relationship similar to the parent-child relationship created in medieval Japan or the relationship of the guardian and the protected person based on the master-servant relationship.

• 鎌倉幕府をめぐる論争としては、中世における国家という観点から、朝廷と鎌倉幕府の関係を如何にとらえるかという学術上の論争がある。
• Disputes regarding the Kamakura Bakufu include that of how to regard the relationship between the Imperial Court and the Kamakura bakufu from the standpoint of a nation state in the middle ages times.

• 刈田狼藉（かりたろうぜき、かったろうぜき）は、中世日本において土地の知行などを主張するために田の稲を刈り取った実力行使をいう。
• Karita-rozeki or Katta-rozeki (刈田狼藉) means to harvest rice crops illegally in order to claim chigyo (tenure) to land# in medieval Japan.

• 「私営田経営者」「私営田領主」という概念は、戦後第一世代の石母田正の『中世的世界の形成』により、学問的に定着された概念である。
• The concept of 'Shieiden Managers' and 'Lord of Shieiden' settled academically from 'The Formation of Medieval Period like World' by the Tadashi ISHIMODA, who was among the first generation born post-World War II.

• 古代・中世の日本において、六位以下の無官の者(散位)に対して救済及び任官、昇叙の機会を得させるために輪番で散位寮に出仕させた。
• In ancient and medieval Japan, the government made post-less courtiers (Sani) with ranks lower than Rokui (Sixth Rank) serve for Saniryo (the office controling Sani, courtier without post) in order to help and give them chances for appointments or promotions.

• 紙を揉むのは、布地の感触をだす技法で、中世に茶道の表具用の紙として揉み紙が使用され、のちにから紙にも揉み紙の技法が採用された。
• Crumpling paper is a method to produce a feel of cloth and momigami was used as paper for mounting in the tea ceremony during medieval times.

• 中世前期に律僧や時衆が庶民の仏教典礼として促進したことにはじまり、定着をみたのは、寺請制度のできた江戸時代からと言われている。
• It is said that it started when Risso (monks following Rishu) and the Jishu school promoted it as a Buddhist ritual for the common people in the early medieval period and it took hold in the Edo period when Terauke seido (the system of organizing whole temples in Japan with registration of follower families) was established.

• だが、中世において同じ念仏を唱える浄土教系宗派であった両派が混同され、更に時衆などとも一緒くたに考えられるようになっていった。
• However, during the middle ages, both of the sects which had branched from the Jodokyo and featured the chanting of the same Buddhist invocation were mixed up, and both were further confused with the Jishu sect.

• 治天の君（ちてんのきみ）は、日本の古代末期から中世において、天皇家の家督者として政務の実権を握った太上天皇又は天皇を指す用語。
• Chiten no Kimi was the word for the retired emperor or emperor who took control of politics as the head of Imperial Family from ancient times to the Medieval period.

• 日本語の古典的な文体である文語は主に平安時代までに完成したものであるが、中世以降、次第に話し言葉との乖離が大きくなっていった。
• The bungo, classic style Japanese, had completed in large part by the Heian period, but gradually became more and more different from the spoken Japanese.

• 中世になり天皇家の力が衰えると荒れ放題となる陵墓もあり、中には伝安閑陵古墳のように戦国大名の城として改造されたものまであった。
• Some of the mausoleums were left in ruins as the imperial family declined in power during the medieval period, while others, like the tumulus which is believed to the tomb of Emperor Ankan, were converted into castles of Sengoku daimyo (territorial lords in the Sengoku period).

• 京都の風物詩として著名で、「東北院職人尽歌合」や「七十一番職人歌合」など中世の職人歌合において記され、狂言・舞踏にも登場する。
• Since oharame is well known as fubutsushi (a poetic expression for certain events or things) of Kyoto, it is mentioned in works of contests of craftspeople in the medieval period such as ''Tohokuin Shokunin Zukushi Uta-awase' (Poetry Contest of Craftspeople of Tohokuin Temple)' and 'Shichiju-ichi-ban Shokunin Uta-awase' (Poetory Contest Among People of Various Occupations in Seventy-one Rounds), and it also appears in Kyogen (farce played during a Noh cycle) and dance performances.

• 預所（あずかりどころ/あずけしょ/あずがっそ/あずかりしょ）とは、中世の荘園において本所の補任を受けて在地を統括した職の体系。
• 'Azukaridokoro' (also Azukesho, Azugasso, Azukarisho) was a deputy position the medieval Shoen manor, and integrally controlled it with the official appointment of honjo (proprietor or guarantor of a manor).

• 以後、中世までの沿革はあまりはっきりしていないが、現在の本堂は棟木銘から弘安2年（1279年）の建立であることが明らかである。
• Although the history of the temple since then until the Medieval period is not so clear, it is obvious that the existing main hall was founded in 1279, according to the signature on a ridgepole.

• また、神道五部書等の中世日本紀の成立に大きな影響を与えた『大和葛城宝山記』では、葛城から豊受大神の伝承を補強する書が出てくる。
• In 'Yamatokatsuragihozan-ki' which had a great impact on establishment of Chusei Nihongi (medieval Nihongi) such as Shito Gobusho (five-volume apologia of Shinto), the document which backs up the legend of Toyouke no Okami came from Katsuragi.

• 雑務沙汰（ざつむさた/ぞうむさた）とは、中世日本で使用された用語であり、所領・年貢を除く民事関係の相論・訴訟・裁判のことである。
• Zatsumusata is a term that was used in medieval Japan, referring to civil dispute, suit, and trial except for territory and land tax.

• 中世の武家社会において、主君は家臣にとって必ずしも絶対的な存在ではなく、主君と家臣団は相互に依存・協力しあう運命共同体であった。
• In the samurai society of the medieval period, the existence and position of a lord was not necessarily guaranteed or absolute to his retainers; instead, lords and their group of retainers had a shared fate, and their relationship was one of mutual cooperation.

• 永正9年（1512年）には北条早雲が現在の鎌倉市大船に小田原城の支城である玉縄城を築くが、ここはもはや中世の鎌倉の境域ではない。
• In 1512 Soun HOJO established the Tamanawa-jo Castle in today's Ofuna, Kamakura City as a branch castle of the Odawara-jo Castle, but this area was no longer Kamakura territory during the medieval period.

• おじいさん、おばあさん、姫、公卿・皇族、職人、商人、天皇、武士と「中世的キャラクター」がこの時代（10世紀）に既に出揃っている。
• All the medieval characters of this period (the 10th century) such as grandfather, grandmother, princess, lords, nobles, craftsmen, merchants, emperors and samurai were already present in this tale.

• さらに、太平洋戦争での敗戦をもって近代と現代を区分することもある（以上の詳細→古代、中世日本、近世、近代、現代 (時代区分)）。
• Furthermore, the timing of the defeat in the Pacific War is sometimes used as the end of the modern times and the start of the contemporary period (for more information, refer to ancient times, medieval Japan, the early-modern times, modern times, or the contemporary period).

• 割符（さいふ/わっぷ）とは、中世日本において遠隔地間の金銭取引などの決済のために用いられた証紙で、日本における為替の元となった。
• Tally (saifu or wappu) was a certificate stamp used to settle money transactions between distant lands in medieval Japan, and it became the origin of currency exchange.

• 年爵（ねんしゃく）とは、日本の古代・中世前期において、治天の君及び三宮（太皇太后、皇太后、皇后）が保有していた叙位権を指す用語。
• The term Nenshaku means the right to confer a court rank on a person that was granted to chiten no kimi (the Retired Emperor in power) and sangu (the Three Empresses : Great Empress Dowager, Empress Dowager and Empress) in Japan's ancient/early medieval period.

• 国衙軍制（こくがぐんせい）とは、日本の古代末期から中世初頭にかけて（10世紀 - 12世紀）成立した国家軍事制度を指す歴史概念。
• The kokuga forces system indicates a historical concept of a national military system established in the period from around the end of ancient times to the early medieval period of Japan (the 10th century to the 12th century).

• 妖怪としては、空気の流動が農作物や漁業への被害をあたえる、人間の体内に入って病気の原因となるという、中世の信仰から生まれたもの。
• Fujin as a ghost originated from the medieval superstition that the flow of the air not only damaged agricultural products and fishing, but also got into the human body and caused disease.

• その成立に関しては中世期に盛んになった秘伝説と伝授思想の確立と、師系を重んじる禅の発想が大きな影響を与えたと見るのが通説である。
• The establishment of Geido is commonly thought to have been greatly influenced by the popularization of esoteric theories and initiation ideas in medieval times, as well as the development of Zen beliefs, according to which mentors are highly regarded.

• 中世の日本で施釉陶器の生産が遅れていたことから、中国から油壺（諸説あり）などとしてもたらされた施釉の小壺なども大切にされていた。
• Because little progress had been made in production of glazed earthenware in medieval Japan, small glazed pots brought in from China as oil pots (opinion is divided) were cherished.

• 白山神社の総本社である白山比め神社（石川県白山市）の祭神について、中世までの書物ではイザナギ・イザナミとしか書かれていなかった。
• Concerning the enshrined deity of Shirayamahime-jinja Shrine (Hakusan City, Ishikawa Prefecture), the head shrine of the Hakusa-jinja shrines, only Izanagi and Izanami were referred to in books written up to the medieval Period.

• 供御人（くごにん）とは、日本中世において、朝廷に属し天皇・皇族などに山海の特産物などの食料や各種手工芸品などを貢納した集団である。
• Kugonin was a group, during the medieval period in Japan, that belonged to the Imperial court who presented food such as special products from the mountains and the sea, and various handicraft products to the Emperor and the Imperial Family.

• 相馬御厨（そうまみくりや）は現在の茨城県取手市、守谷市、千葉県柏市、流山市、我孫子市のあたりにあった中世の荘園寄進地系荘園の一つ。
• Soma-mikuriya was one of the medieval shoen (manor in medieval Japan) holdings of the commendation type in areas that are today's Toride City and Moriya City, Ibaraki Prefecture, and Kashiwa City, Nagareyama City, and Abiko City, Chiba Prefecture.

• フューダリズム（Feudalism）とは歴史学において中世ヨーロッパ社会特有の支配形態を指した用語であり、「封建制」と訳出される。
• Feudalism is a historical term referring to the system of government unique to medieval European society, and is translated as 'Hoken System.'

• 更に中世に入ると、名田の成立や国衙や荘園領主による環境整備を伴った「浪人」導入よって荒田に対する積極的な開墾が見られるようになる。
• Furthermore, in the middle ages, the establishment of Myoden (rice field lots with a nominal holder) and the introduction of 'ronin' accompanying environmental improvement by kokuga (provincial government offices) and shoen landholders led to active development of Koden.

• 中世には山陵が荒廃して所伝を失い、元禄時代の探陵に諸説生じ慈明寺町のスイセン塚古墳（前方後円墳、墳丘長55m）があてられたりした。
• In the Medieval Ages, the mausoleum on the mountain was devastated and the records about it handed down until then lost and therefore, the search for the mausoleum during the Genroku Era produced many opinions including one asserting that the Suisenzuka tumulus (a tumulus which is a large keyhole-shaped tomb mound and is 55 meters long) in Jimyoji-cho was the mausoleum and, later on, the above mausoleum was presumed to be the actual one.

• しかしながら、中世以降は昇殿を許される家（堂上家）と昇殿を許されない家（地下家）として、家格で明確に区分されるようになり成立した。
• After the Medieval Ages, the status of Jigeke was established when court officials were clearly divided according to their family rank, and families permitted to enter the Hall were called Toshoke, and families not permitted to enter the Hall were called Jigeke.

• 中央では好古の孫にあたる橘則隆の子孫が嫡流として続き、中世にはこの系統から橘氏唯一の堂上家で、代々橘氏長者となった薄家を輩出した。
• In the middle, the descendents of TACHIBANA no Noritaka, who was Yoshifuru's grandson, succeeded as the legitimate line of the clan, and in the Middle Ages, the Susuki family, which was the only Tosho-ke (the hereditary lineage of Court nobles occupying relatively high ranks) from this lineage and succeeded uji no choja (the head of the clan) of the Tachibana clan for generations, was produced.

• 中世以降、中国では布袋になぞらえた太鼓腹の姿が弥勒仏の姿形として描かれるようになり、寺院の主要な仏堂に安置されるのが通例となった。
• Since the middle period, Miroku bodhisattva has been depicted with a paunchy appearance similar to that of Hotei in pictures and those pictures have been commonly placed in major Buddhist buildings of temples in China.

• 実は大寺院という存在が、歴史のある時期、特に平安時代・中世などに、酒造りの中心となることは世界史的に見てもめずらしいことではない。
• In fact, from the perspective of world history, Japan is not unique in that major temples play a primary role in the brewing industry during a certain historical period, especially in the Heian period or medieval times.

• 第4代院主・信円（藤原忠通の子）の頃に門跡寺院とされ、中世には一乗院と並ぶ有力な塔頭で、門主は摂関家や将軍家の子弟から迎えていた。
• It was regarded as a monzeki temple (a temple of high rank where members of imperial family and nobility enter the priesthood) in the time of the 4th Inju (the 4th chief of a temple), Shinen (a son of FUJIWARA no Tadamichi), and it was an influential tatchu along with Ichijo-in Temple in the Medieval period, with its chief priest having come from the sons of Sekkan-ke or the Shogun family.

• 中世以降、鎮守や産土神との区別が無くなってからの例としては、源氏の八幡神（八幡宮）、平氏の宗像三女神（厳島神社）などが挙げられる。
• Among post-medieval examples, in which ujigami became synonymous with chinju and ubusunagami, are the god of Hachiman (Hachiman-gu Shrine) worshipped by the Minamoto clan and the Three Goddesses of Munakata (Itsukushima-jinja Shrine) by the Taira clan.

• 中世日朝交易は、通交使節による進上と回賜、朝鮮王朝による公貿易、日朝双方の商人による私貿易の三つの形態が組み合わさったものであった。
• The medieval trade between Japan and Korea consisted of three trading styles: shinjo (courtesy visits with gifts) by trading envoys and kaishi (luxurious return gifts), the public trade by the Korean Dynasty, and private trade by Japanese and Korean merchants.

• 唯物史観の影響を受け、武士は古代支配階級である貴族や宗教勢力を排除し、中世をもたらした変革者として石母田正らによって位置づけられた。
• Influenced by the materialist concept of history, Tadashi ISHIMODA and others positioned the bushi as the reformer who pushed out the ancient governing class such as the aristocrats and religious power of influence and brought on the medieval times.

• 近年、中世の河原者の居住地と、近世の被差別民の居住地が重なる例が京都や奈良を中心に報告され、部落の起源論争の大きな焦点となっている。
• Cases have been reported mainly in Kyoto and Nara, in which the domicile of the Kawaramono in the Medieval Period coincided with those who were discriminated in modern times, while reported cases focused on the controversy of the origin of Buraku (discriminated hamlet).

• 中世後半になると、社会が不安定となり、境相論などを訴訟によらず実力によって解決（自力救済）しようとする故戦防戦が頻発するようになる。
• In the late medieval period, as the nation became unsettled, kosen bosen (offensive and defensive war) broke out frequently to resolve disputes over the boundaries of territories or the like by force (self-help) instead of by bringing them into court.

• つぎに自由貴族においても官職や位階、領地を基盤として家門形成が進み、中世盛期には下級貴族や都市の支配階級においても家門が形成された。
• In the world of noblemen, a family formation developed based on government positions, court ranks and territorial lands; during the prime of the medieval ages, families were formed among lower-ranking nobles and the ruling class in cities.

• そうした立場からは、古代から中世への過渡期に位置づけられるべき王朝国家体制期は、11世紀中期に終わったのだとする見解も出されている。
• From the above standpoint, some assert that the period of Dynastic polity, which should be regarded as the transitional period from the ancient times to the medieval age, ended in mid-11th century.

• 注釈・加点自体は現在の観点からすれば物足りない部分もあるが、中世歌学を考えるうえでの重要な資料のひとつであり、その価値はやはり高い。
• In spite of the fact that some of his annotations and guiding 'punctuation' marks do not quite suffice by today's standards, they are counted among important materials for studying medieval poetry and regarded as highly valuable.

• 中世以後、血脈相承によって代々受け継がれてきた宗門・教団の門主・管長などの最高指導者、大本山住職などを尊んで法主と呼ぶようになった。
• After medieval times, the supreme leaders such as chief priests of the sect and religious community which had been succeeded for generations by kechimyaku sojo (Transmission of the Heritage; the secret transmission from the Great Master to only one disciple) and the head priests of the grand head temple had been called hoshu as a honorific title.

• 松囃子はその様相から、人家の門前で音曲を奏し金品を貰う「門付け」や、念仏踊りや獅子舞の起源である中世芸能の「風流」の一種とも言える。
• From this aspect, it can be said that Matsubayashi is a kind of 'Kadotsuke' whereby performers play music in front of the gate of a house and are given money, or a kind of 'taste' of medieval performing arts, which is the origin of nenbutsu odori (dance while others say nenbutsu - Buddhist prayer) and shishimai Lion dance.

• 中世には武家の間でも行われ始め、一遍上人絵伝や聖衆来迎寺六道絵の描写や吾妻鏡・曾我物語の記述に鎌倉時代の有様をうかがうことができる。
• In medieval times, Taka-gari started to be practiced among warriors and we can see how it was done in the Kamakura Period from descriptions on the Ippenshonin-eden picture scroll, Rokudo-e (painting of the six realms) of Shoju-raigo-ji Temple, Azuma-kagami (history book) and Soga-monogatari military epic.

• しかし、ひとつの曲輪が制圧されると、次の曲輪が射程に入ってしまうことが多く、中世の山城の曲輪は、鉄砲を用いた戦いに向いていなかった。
• However, kuruwas of yamajiros built in the middle ages were not suitable for a gun-shooting battle, because once a kuruwa is captured by the enemy, the next kuruwa often comes within the range of the enemy's fire.

• だが、中世を通じて残ったのは浄土真宗を別にすると西山義と鎮西義の2つであり、この両義の教団を「西山派」「鎮西派」と称することとなる。
• But only Seizan-gi and Chinzei-gi remained through the Middle ages, other than Jodo Shinshu, and they were called Seizan School and Chinzei School.

• 同じく通光の子・久我通忠の玄孫の千種通相は千種前太政大臣と称せられるなど、中世において村上源氏の一族で千種姓を名乗るものは多かった。
• In the Middle Ages, many families having their origin in the Murakami-Genji called themselves Chigusa and an example is Michisuke CHIGUSA, the child of Michiteru and the greatgreat-grandchild of Michitada KOGA, who was called Chigusa Saki no Daijo-daijin (former grand minister of state).

• なお、『水鏡』・『愚管抄』・『神皇正統記』・『本朝皇胤紹運録』など、中世の史書 ・系譜類に継体の祖父として記されている、「私斐王」。
• Additionally, this grandfather of the Emperor Keita was written as 'Shi (or Oi) no Okimi' in historical books and genealogy tables during the Medieval Period; such as: 'Mizu Kagami' (Japanese historical book); 'Gukansho' ('Jottings of a Fool'; a Japanese historical book written by Jien, a Buddhist priest of the Tendi sect.); the 'Jinno Shotoki' ('Chronicles of the Authentic Lineages of the Divine Emperors'; a Japanese historical book written by Chikafusa KITABATAKE); and the 'Honcho koin jounroku' (family tree charts of emperors and imperial families in Japan).

• 在地領主（ざいちりょうしゅ）とは、中世日本の荘園公領制の下で在地（現地）において農民・漁民らを実際に支配する権限を持った領主のこと。
• A local lord (or 'Zaichi ryoshu' in Japanese) is an appropriator with the authority to control farmers and fishermen in his territory by executing authority under the Shoen koryo sei (System of Public Lands and Private Estates) in Medieval Japan.

• （中世の伝説）コーンウォールのマルク王の甥で、永遠にお互いを愛するという惚れ薬を間違えて飲んだあと、おじの花嫁（イズー）と恋に落ちた
• the nephew of the king of Cornwall who (according to legend) fell in love with his uncle's bride (Iseult) after they mistakenly drank a love potion that left them eternally in love with each other

• 通説では、中世の国家の性格として鎌倉幕府を中心とする在地領主層を基盤とする封建国家、すなわち鎌倉幕府を中心とした国家観が定着している。
• The prevailing theory is that the medieval Japan was a feudalistic nation based on manor lords centered around the Kamakura Bakufu, so the view that the state centered around the Kamakura Bakufu has become firmly established.

• 中世日本の公家社会における「家」においては経済的基盤である家領と並んで社会的基盤とも呼ぶべき家門が家の存立を支える重要な存在であった。
• In a 'family' in the court nobles' society of medieval Japan, the following two factors were important to support the existence of the family: its territory, which constituted the economic base; and the family, which could be called its social base.

• 代銭納（だいせんのう）とは、中世日本の荘園・国衙領・武家領などにおいて、公事や年貢、地子などの納入を現物に代わって貨幣で納入する制度。
• The term Daisenno means the system of paying kuji (public service), nengu (tribute), and/or jishi (land tax) in cash, instead of in kind, that was introduced in medieval Japan at the shoen (manor), kokugaryo (territories governed by provincial government office), and/or bukeryo (territories of samurai family).

• 中世の城郭では（主に山城）多数の小規模な曲輪をもつものが多く、近世の城郭（主に平城）では少数の大規模な曲輪をもつものが多いと言われる。
• It is said that most castles built during the middle ages (mainly yamajiros [mountain castles]) contain many kuruwas of small area, while those built during the early modern period (mainly hirajiros [flatland castles]) often contain a lesser number of kuruwas of larger area.

• 中世以後（初例は後三条天皇とされているが、恒例となったのは後深草天皇以後とされる）には即位灌頂と呼ばれる仏教様式の儀式も執り行われた。
• In and after medieval times, Buddhist style ceremonies called Sokui Kanjo (Buddhist ritual of accession ordination) were also held (although it is said that the first case was made at Emperor Gosanjo, it become an established custom after Emperor Gofukakusa).

• 古代末から中世に武士が台頭してくると、流鏑馬、犬追物など武士特有の文化が生まれ、合戦をテーマにした軍記物語（平家物語など）も生まれた。
• When the samurai gained power during a period from the end of the ancient times to the medieval period, a culture peculiar to samurai such as yabusame (horseback archery) and inuoumono (dog-hunting event, a skill of archery) was born, and war chronicles (The Tale of the Heike, etc.) under the theme of battle were also created.

• 建武 (日本)4年・延元2年（1337年）に再建された中世の大型仏堂の貴重な遺構で、和様建築を基調とした比較的簡素な建築意匠ではある。
• It is a valuable remnants of a large-scale Buddhist temple rebuilt in 1337, which is relatively-simple, based on the Japanese-style architecture.

• 中世以降、近世の終わりまで一般大衆の動員は工兵･兵站といった後方任務に限られており、彼らの戦闘要員としての動員は非常時にしか見られない。
• From the middle ages to the end of the early modern era, the recruitment of ordinary people was limited to the support roles of kohei (military engineering) and heitan (military logistics) and such individuals were only mobilized for battle in emergency situations.

• なお、これとは別に中世の前期の頃までは、他者に対して実力による制裁権を行使できる者を公卿クラスを含めて「武士」と言い表す呼称も存在した。
• And apart from this, until the early medieval times, those who could have the right of enforcing sanctions to others on their merits, including the kugyo (the top court officials) class, were called 'bushi.'

• ただ、中世の熊野詣を主導した天台宗系による順峯は、那智山青岸渡寺によって復興され、今日でも行われているので、完全に途絶したわけではない。
• However, junbu by a branch of the Tendai sect which led pilgrimages to Kumano Sanzan in the medieval period was revived by Seigando-ji Temple in Nachi-san Mountain; since this style is still performed today, junbu is not completely stopped.

• 中世一時的には氏長者の権威が低下する時期もあったものの、氏長者には氏爵といい、朝廷より一門に対する位階任官者推薦の特権が付与されていた。
• Although the authority of the ujinochoja sometimes temporarily declined during the medieval period, the Imperial Court granted the ujinochoja the privilege of ujinoshaku that allowed them to recommend candidates within their clans for the ikai (Court rank).

• もう1つは、中世史料を詳細に検討した結果、進止の語が土地支配を意味するのに対し、知行の語は土地からの収益処分を指すものとした見解である。
• The other is as follows; As a result of detailed investigations of historical materials concerning the medieval period, it is considered that the term of shinshi indicated land control, but that of chigyo the right of obtaining profits from land.

• 一方で、中世陰陽道研究家の小坂眞二の研究によれば、平安時代に実際に使用されていた六壬神課と『占事略决』の六壬神課には齟齬があるとされる。
• On the other hand, Mediaeval Onmyodo researcher Shinji KOSAKA asserts that there is an inconsistency between Rikujinshinka that was actually used in the Heian period and Rikujinshinka explained in 'Senji ryakketsu.'

• 平安の女性的貴族文化の時代から、中世の男性的武士社会にはいって、厚用の雁皮紙（がんぴし）が多くなり、薄様に対してこれを鳥の子紙と呼んだ。
• As the age of feminine culture of the nobility in the Heian period changed to the age of masculine society of the samurai class in the medieval times, more atsu-yo of ganpishi came to be used, called torinoko paper as opposed to usu-yo.
• As the age of feminine culture of the nobility during the Heian period changed to the age of the masculine society of the samurai class in the medieval times, more atsu-yo of ganpishi came to be used, called torinoko paper as opposed to usu-yo.

• 中世には貴族出身者はさげ尼と称して、髪を肩の辺りで削いで「尼」となることができた（勿論、授戒が受けられないために正式な尼にはなれない）。
• In medieval times, aristocratic women could become 'ama' called Sage Ama by having her hair cut around shoulders (of course they couldn't become ama formally because they could not be given the precepts of Buddhism).

• その後、能・禅・連歌・茶道・俳諧など、中世・近世以来の日本の芸術文化に影響を与え続け、今日では一般的用語としても用いられるに至っている。
• After that it continued to affect Japanese artistic culture like Noh, Zen, Renga (linked verse), Sado (tea ceremony), Haikai (amusing and playful waka) in the medieval period and later and it is also used as a general word today.

• 中世以後、次第に家格が定められると、位階に関係なく昇殿できる家柄（堂上家）と地下人のままの家柄（地下家）に厳格に分けられるようになった。
• When the family ranks were gradually defined after the middle ages, the families were clearly divided without regard to the official ranks: Toshoke, the families permitted to enter the Imperial Palace; and Jigeke, the families held the status of Jigenin.

• 撰銭（えりぜに、えりせん、せんせん）とは、日本の中世後期において、支払決済の際に、劣悪な銭貨（鐚銭・悪銭とも）を忌避・排除したことをいう。
• Erizeni (also called erisen or sensen) indicates the act of not accepting low-quality coins (called bitasen coins or akusen coins) in payments, carried out in the latter half of the medieval period in Japan.

• しかしながら、一応のところ、（原始・）古代・中世・近世・近代（・現代 (時代区分)）とする時代区分法が歴史研究では広く受け入れられている。
• However, roughly it can be said that classifying the periods into (the primitive period), ancient times, the medieval period, the early-modern times, modern times, and the contemporary period is widely accepted in the researching of history.

• 中世・近世を通じて『儀式』と称される10巻本があり、江戸時代中期に荷田春満がその内容から三代儀式の1つである『貞観儀式』であると比定した。
• Throughout the medieval and early modern period, a book called 'Gishiki' consisting of ten volumes existed and in the mid-Edo period, KADA no Azumamaro defined it, based on its content, as one of Sandai gishiki 'Jogan gishiki.'

• 佐和山城は石田三成が改築した後は「三成に過ぎたるもの…」の一つともいわれたが、直政は、中世的な古い縄張りや三成の居城であったことを嫌った。
• It was said that the castle was one of 'the too good things for Mitsunari' after the rebuilding by Mistunari ISHIDA, but Naomasa disliked its medieval nawabari (castle plan; general term for the layout of a castle and its component structures) and the fact that it had been Mitsunari's castle.

• 以前は、これで達磨宗の活動は終焉を迎えたとされていたが、近年では、中世末まで三宝寺にはその門流が伝承されていたことが知られるようになった。
• Although it was believed in the past that the activities of Daruma Sect finally ended at that time, it has become known in recent years that one of its schools had survived at Sanpo-ji Temple until the end of the medieval period.

• 中世において多くの東大寺別当を輩出したため、東大寺の根本宗ともいうべき華厳宗を継承する尊勝院とならび、東大寺の二大院家として存立していた。
• As it produced numerous Todai-ji Betto (the head priest) in medieval times, Tonan-in Temple existed as one of the 2 major sub-temples of Todai-ji Temple with Sonsho-in Temple, which followed the teachings of the Kegon Sect that was considered as the fundamental sect of Todai-ji Temple, being the other.

• 中世にはその名のとおり、夏だけ単にかさねて着たものであったが、のちに四季を通じて衣紋を保たせるために着て、通例、夏は赤、冬は白帷であった。
• It was worn over the hitoe only during summer in medieval times as the name suggests, but it was later worn throughout the seasons to wear a kimono properly not to allow it to come loose, and aka-katabira (red light hemp garment) was worn during summer while shiro-katabira (white light hemp garment) was worn during winter.

• だが、朝鮮半島においても、牛馬の解体・皮革産業に従事する被差別民「白丁」が存在し、中世ドイツでも焚書を牛馬の解体場で行うなどの例があった。
• There were discriminated people called 'Hakucho' (inferior servants) in Korean Peninsula who were engaged in slaughtering cows and horses and leather industry, and in medieval Germany, there were cases in which books were burnt in a slaughterhouse of cows and horses.

• また、原始宗教がそのまま封建社会や中世を経て、近代化されたあとも現在まで排斥されず、引き継がれる例はほとんどなく、日本独特ともなっている。
• Japan's case, in which this sort of primitive religion survived the feudal and Medieval periods and reached the modern period intact, is almost unique.

• 中世東アジアにおいて倭寇前期倭寇と呼ばれる海上勢力が猛威を奮い、朝鮮王朝は討伐・懐柔・室町幕府への鎮圧要請など、様々な対応を余儀なくされる。
• During the Middle Age, influential maritime forces called zenki-wako (early Japanese pirates) threatened East Asia, and the Korean Dynasty was obliged to take various countermeasures including the dispatch of troops, attempts to conciliate the pirates, and requests for suppression of the pirates sent to the Muromachi bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun).

• 中世の倭館交易では日本側は銅、硫黄、金を輸出したが、南方物産である赤色染料のスオウ、コショウなどのスパイス類も琉球経由などで朝鮮に転売した。
• In the Medieval Period wakan trade, Japan exported copper, sulfur, and gold, and also resold the products of the south seas like sappanwood, a red dye, and spices like pepper to Korea via the Ryukyu Islands.

• 中世の海辺の小土豪が結合して軍事力をもつようになった海上勢力を海賊衆といい、九州や瀬戸内海、紀伊半島、伊勢湾、東京湾など日本各地で見られた。
• The united small local ruling clans that held military forces on the sea were called kaizoku shu, which were seen in many places in Japan such as in Seto Inland Sea, Kii Peninsular, Ise Bay, and Tokyo Bay.

• 使節遵行（しせつじゅんぎょう）とは、中世日本において、不動産をめぐる訴訟（所領相論）に対し幕府が発した裁定を執行するための現地手続きをいう。
• Shisetsu jungyo was a on-site procedure to carry out a judgment which was handed down by the bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) on shoryo soron (litigation over real estate) in the medieval Japan.

• このような環濠集落を必要としたことは、中世未明から信奉してきた一向宗への弾圧からの自衛のために町造りの形態がそのまま残されてきたわけである。
• The background of Imai-cho being a village surrounded by a mot goes back to the days when that town was constructed for self-defense against attack by external forces cracking down on the Ikkoshu faith which the townspeople had embraced since before dawn of medieval times and that legacy with respect to the physical layout of the town remains intact today.

• その隣の南側曲輪、大手筋脇には石垣と盛土があり建物跡が推定され、「丹波国ではもっとも優れている水の手曲輪」と『中世城郭辞典』は指摘している。
• In the adjacent southern compound and beside Otesuji are a stone wall and an earthen mound that are believed to be the remains of a building which 'Chusei Jokaku Jiten' claims was 'the most excellent mizu-no-te guruwa in Tanba Province.'

• 語頭以外の/h/は平安時代中期に/w/と統合したため、中世には/a/・/o/が後に続くときには音になるが、その他の母音の前では発音されない。
• In the middle of the Heian period/h/ became unified with/w/ when not used at the beginning of words, so in the medieval period it was voiced when followed by/a/ and/o/ but not voiced before the other vowels.

• また、中世の『文肝抄』には幾つかの陰陽道祭の概要が述べられているが、陰陽道の祭儀は大・中・小法からなり、状況により使い分けていたようである。
• Additionally, some of the Onmyodo ceremonies are outlined in Bunkansho written in the Middle Ages but the religious ceremonies of Onmyodo consist of large, medium and small methods that seem to be used depending on the circumstance.

• 11世紀後半から12世紀にかけて、荘園が急速に増加するとともに、それに対応して国衙領が再編成され、荘園公領制という中世的収取体制が成立した。
• In the era from the latter half of the eleventh century to the twelfth century, the number of shoen increased rapidly, and Kokugaryo (territories governed by a provincial government office) were reorganized correspondingly, establishing the medieval tax collection system called Shoen Koryo sei (the system of public lands and private estates).

• 中世までには祇園信仰が全国に広まり、牛頭天王を祀る祇園社あるいは牛頭天王社が作られ、祭列として御霊会（あるいは天王祭）行われるようになった。
• By medieval times, the Gion-shinko Faith spread nationwide, Gion-sha Shrines or Gozu-Tennosha Shrines enshrining Gozu Tenno were built, and Goryo-e (or Tenno-sai Festival) were held as celebrations.

• なお、中世の西ヨーロッパ・中央ヨーロッパに見られたmanor（英語）、Grundherrschaft（ドイツ語）の訳語としても用いられている。
• And it is also used as the translation of manor (English) or Grundherrschaft (German) as seen in medieval Western Europe or Central Europe.

• このように中世における事例が見られるとはいえ、小辺路が参詣道として確立するのは近世になってのことであり、その呼称の初見も近世初期のことである。
• Although there were such examples in the Muromachi period, Kohechi as a pilgrimage road was established in the early-modern period, and its name 'Kohechi' appeared at the beginning of the early-modern period for the first time as well.

• また、宇陀市（旧宇陀郡室生村染田）には、中世から伝統が続く染田天神講の連歌堂があるが、やはり江戸時代に建てられもので、これも内部には何もない。
• Furthermore, there was a Rengado of Someda Tenjinko in Uda City (old Someda, Muro Village, Uda District) that continued its tradition from the medieval era, but was built during the Edo period and had nothing inside.

• しかし、結果的にこの新義律3派が議論と交流を重ねることで律宗の深化と再興が進み、中世には禅宗と律宗を合わせて「禅律」とも呼ばれて重んじられた。
• However, as a result, discussions and intercommunion among the three groups of this Shingi-ritsu promoted deepening and restored the Risshu sect, so that it was put to high value during medieval times, and called 'Zen-ritsu' combining the Zen sect and the Risshu sect.

• 平安時代の伝法灌頂の儀式の際には「十二天行道」として十二天の面をかぶり、装束を着けた人間が登場したが、中世以降は十二天屏風にとって代わられた。
• At the time of ritual of Denpo Kanjo in the Heian period, people who put on Juniten's masks and costumes appeared in the 'March of Juniten' but it was changed to Byobu of Juniten after medieval times.

• 中世には、仏教の六道のほかに天狗道があり、仏道を学んでいる為地獄に堕ちず、邪法を扱うため極楽にも行けない無間（むげん）地獄と想定、解釈された。
• In the Middle Ages there was the realm of Tengu other than the six realms of Buddhism, which was assumed and interpreted as Avici for those who were not going to fall into Hell because they had learned Buddhism but were not going to Heaven either because they had done wrong.

• 城は南の島津領寄郡伊福形荘から小野(この)を通って三須（みす）にいたる、中世までの幹線街道と大瀬川渡しを東から抑える交通の要衝に立地している。
• The castle was located on an important path for travelers on a road which met what was the main path and the Ose-gawa River crossing from the east until the Middle Ages, with the road coming from Ifukugata no sho (伊福形荘) of Yose Gori, occupied by Shimazu going to Misu via Kono.

• 中世・近世に、平地に築かれた館や館造りの陣屋等は城には含まないものの城郭構の陣屋や館、少しでも城に近づけて造られたものは、城とすることがある。
• Mansions and residences such as mansions built on flat ground during the medieval period and modern times do not include castles, but residences or mansions with towers which were built similarly to castles are regarded as castles.

• 『天満宮安楽寺草創日記』によると、大宰府でも天徳 (日本)2年（958年）3月3日に大宰大弐・小野好古が始めたとされるが、中世以降は断絶した。
• According to 'Tenmangu Anrakuji Soso Nikki' (a record of the origin of Tenmangu Anraku-ji Temple), Kyokusui no en was held by ONO no Yoshifuru, Dazai no Daini (vice-governor of Dazaifu), at Dazaifu (a local government office in earlier times in Japan) on March 3, in 958, but was discontinued after medieval times.

• スクナヒコナは「日本霊異記」の道場法師、『天神縁起』の菅原道真を媒介し中世の『小男の草子』、近世の『御伽草子』の一寸法師にまでつながっていく。
• Sukunahikona is linked to the Issunboshi of the Middle Ages in 'Kootoko no Soshi' and to the modern Issunboshi in 'Otogi Zoshi' through intermediaries of Dojohoshi in 'Nihon Ryoiki' (Miraculous Stories from the Japanese Buddhist Tradition, written in the early Heian period) and SUGAWARA no Michizane in 'Tenjin Engi' (The History of Kitano Tenjin Shrine).

• 王朝国家とは、古代律令国家がいかに中世国家へ移行したかを理解するために提示された概念であり、研究者の立場によって様々な位置づけが試みられてきた。
• As the notion of Dynastic polity was proposed in order to understand how the ancient Ritsuryo-based nation shifted to the medieval nation, varieties of views have been asserted by researchers depending on their standpoint.

• 元来仏壇といえば、須弥壇のことであったが、中世になって寺院仏堂の仏壇を「須弥壇」と呼び、家の中に仏を祀る厨子のことを「仏壇」というようになった。
• The word 'Buddhist alter' originally referred to Shumidan, but in medieval times the Buddhist alter in Buddhist temples came to be called 'Shumidan' and the zushi where Buddha was enshrined in houses came to be called the 'Buddhist alter.'

• 中世には、鎌倉時代後期から南北朝時代 (日本)までに後醍醐天皇の率いる反幕府勢力が幕府に抵抗するため、山に城を築いたことで山城の築城が始まった。
• In the Middle ages, anti-Bakufu forces led by Emperor Godaigo started to build castles on mountains by in order to resist the power of the Bakufu from the latter Kamakura period to the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (Japan).

• 日本以外に山城が多く築かれた時代には、日本の古代山城のモデルとなったと思われる三国時代 (朝鮮半島)の朝鮮、および中世の西ヨーロッパなどがある。
• Except for Japan, many castles were built on mountains in Three Kingdoms period (of Korean history), from which the castles of ancient Japan are thought to have been modeled, and in medieval western Europe.

• 鎌倉地方に存在する中世の墳墓であるやぐらには、石造五輪塔が墓標・追善供養用に納められているほか、なかには内部壁にレリーフにされたものも存在する。
• The graves called 'Yagura' from the medieval era common in the Kamakura region house Gorinto made of stone serving as tombstones and memorials, and some Gorinto are reliefs on the walls.

• 中世・近世においては建御名方神の末裔とされる諏訪氏が諏訪大社上社の大祝を務めたのに対し、洩矢神の末裔とされる守矢氏は筆頭神官である神長を務めた。
• In the medieval and early-modern period, Suwa clan regarded as a descendant of Takeminakata no kami served as Ohori (the highest rank of the saints in Shinto) of kamisha of Suwa-taisha Shrine on one hand, Moriya clan regarded as a descendant of Moriya-shin served as Jincho (head of Shinto priests) which is Shinto priest on the other.

• 京の五条堀川に集っていた祇園社（現 八坂神社）の堀川神人は中世には材木商を営み、丹波国の山間から木津川を筏流しで運んだ材木を五条堀川に貯木した。
• Horikawa jinin who belonged to Gion-sha Shrine (currently Yasaka-jinja Shrine) who gathered in Gojo Horikawa, operated a lumber business in medieval times, transporting lumber from the mountains in Tanba Province down the Kizu-gawa River in the form of rafts, to be stored in Gojo Horikawa.

• こうした古代・中世史研究の深まりとともに、農民ではなく貴族に武士のルーツを求める見方が生まれ、両者を繋ぐ概念として提起されたのが、軍事貴族である。
• A new understanding that the origin of the samurais was aristocrats instead of farmers grew as ancient and medieval studies progressed, and the concept of a military aristocracy was formed as a link between aristocrats and samurais.

• なお、中世の法慣習では、支配権を有する領主や地頭などが検断権を持つこととされていたが、支配される側の惣村が検断権を持っていた点に大きな特徴がある。
• A major feature was that the laws and customs of the medieval period specified that a lord or a Jito who had the right to rule should have the right of kendan, but the soson under control had such a right.

• おもな歌人として藤原俊成や武士出身の西行（俗名佐藤義清）があらわれ、『新古今和歌集』の新風形成に影響を与え、中世和歌の形成に大きな役割を果たした。
• Famous waka poets such as FUJIWARA no Toshinari or Saigyo (secular name Norikiyo SATO) who was originally a samurai appeared and facilitated to develop a new style in 'Shinkokin Wakashu' (New Collection of Ancient and Modern Japanese Poetry); they played a big role to develop waka during the medieval period.

• 中世になると、摂家門跡、宮門跡の制度が整えられ、とりわけ妙法院・青蓮院・三千院（天台三門跡）から法親王が、天台座主として就任することが多くなった。
• In the early Middle Ages, with the Sekke-monzeki (temples headed by regents) and miya-monzeki (temples headed by imperial princes) systems being in place, cloistered imperial princes from Myoho-in Temple, Joren-in Temple and Sanzen-in Temple (the Tendai Three Monzeki) in particular began to assume the position of Tendai-zasu frequently.

• 初期の頃は、『後三年合戦絵詞』や『一遍上人絵伝』など中世の絵巻物に見られるように、篭城戦での防御・物見のための仮設の建造物としての要素が強かった。
• In the early days, it was usually a temporary structure for defensive and watching purposes to hold a castle in wartime, as seen in medieval illustrated scrolls, such as 'Gosannen Kassen Ekotoba (A Scroll of the Late Three Years War)' and 'Ippen Shonin Eden (Pictorial Biography of the Monk Ippen).'

• 天照大神の神社として公家・寺家・武家が加持祈祷を行っていた伊勢神宮だったが、中世の戦乱の影響で領地を荒らされ、式年遷宮が行えないほど荒廃していた。
• Court nobles, families that owned and resided in temples, as well as samurai families, would make an incantation and pray at Ise-jingu Shrine which as dedicated to Amaterasu Omikami (the Sun Goddess), wars during the medieval period devastated the shrine precinct, leading to the complete destruction of the shrine, such that the deity could not be transferred to a new shrine building, which was supposed to be performed once every prescribed number of years.

• 以上に見られる武士階層内部もしくは荘園支配内部における諸矛盾は中世社会の流動化へとつながっていき、13世紀後半からの悪党活動の活発化をもたらした。
• The various contradictions within the samurai class or manor governance led to the mobility of medieval society, and resulted in the increase in akuto activities from the late thirteenth century onward.

• 吊られている梵鐘（国宝）は大仏開眼と同年の天平勝宝4年（752年）の制作で、中世以前の梵鐘としては最大のもの（高385センチ、口径271センチ）。
• The Bonsho (the bell) (National Treasure) hanging there was made in 752, the same year as the eye-opening of the Great Buddha, and is the largest Bonsho of the premedieval eras (height 385cm, diameter of the mouth 271cm).

• 中世の教会や修道院や宮殿では、十八世紀の終わりごろまで、集団によって、絵画を、同時にではなく階層によって順序をつけて、ではあるが、鑑賞されていた。
• In the churches and monasteries of the Middle Ages and at the princely courts up to the end of the eighteenth century, a collective reception of paintings did not occur simultaneously, but by graduated and hierarchized mediation.

• 中世の民衆意識においては何かしら偉業を成し遂げるためには個人的な資質だけなく、血統的な資質もなければいけないというようなことが漠然と考えられていた。
• During the medieval ages, people vaguely thought that not only personal assets but also genealogical assets were necessary in order to accomplish great deeds.

• 估価法（こかほう・沽価法）とは、古代から中世にかけての日本において、朝廷・国衙・鎌倉幕府において、市場における公定価格及び物品の換算率を定めた法律。
• Kokaho (price regulation law) is a law that stipulated the official prices and the conversion rates for goods at the market from ancient times to medieval periods under the Court, kokuga (provincial government offices) and the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun).

• 日本国における古代・中世の荘園や荘園公領制下の村落の領主である権門勢家や在地の地頭たちは、その領域 (国家)を明確にして支配の正統性を主張していた。
• In the ancient and medieval periods of Japan, shoen (manor in medieval Japan) or feudal loads of the villages under the system of public lands and private estates, such as the great and powerful or the local jito (manager and lord of manor) set bounds on their territories (states) and insisted the justice of their domination over such territories.

• こうして成立した年貢は、その後の中世・近世を通じて、支配層の主要な財源として位置づけられ、被支配層にとっては年貢を負担する義務が課され続けたのである。
• Through the medieval period and early-modern times, the nengu was the principal financial resource for the ruling class, which the ordinary population continued to bear its burden.

• 当時の文書において「当国之例」といわれるような慣習法は、このような必要に基づくものであって、それは本所法とならんで、中世の武家法の基盤の一つとなった。
• The common law called 'tokoku no rei' appearing in texts of those days, was based on such necessity, and together with honjo law, became one of the foundations of medieval samurai law.

• 院政期から中世の前半にかけての数百年間、上級貴族から中・下級の官人あるいは出家した人びとによって、説話を集めて、説話集を編むという文学行為が流行する。
• During a couple of hundred years from the Insei period until the first half of the medieval period, collecting anecdotes from high-rank court nobles, government official in the middle and low rank, or priests, and compiling those anecdotes into a collection of anecdotes became popular.

• なお、御恩と奉公による主従関係について、中世ヨーロッパに見られた封建制(feudalism)との共通点に着目して、封建的主従関係と理解する見解がある。
• By the way, concerning the master-servant relationship based on goon and hoko, there is an opinion that the relationship is interpreted the same as the feudal master-servant relationship, because when it is compared with feudalism found in Medieval Europe, there are some common points.

• イヅカ古墳（いづかやまこふん）は古墳時代前期後半の纒向型といわれるホタテ貝型の前方後円墳であるが、現在は中世以降に全て削平されたその姿は確認できない。
• The Izuka-kofun Tumulus is an escallop-shaped, large keyhole-shaped mound called Makimuku type tumulus in the latter half of the early Kofun period, but now its existence cannot be confirmed because the site was completely flattened after the Middle Ages.

• 網野善彦は、これらの「悪党」が13世紀半ばから急速な成長を見せた流通経済・資本経済の担い手であり、中世社会の新たな段階を切り開いた主体の一つと説いた。
• Yoshihiko AMINO described these 'akuto' as bearers of the distribution and capital economy, which developed rapidly from the mid-13th century, and as one of the main constituents opening the way for a new phase in medieval society.

• 一方、中世には、武士階級の最上位層（武家棟梁）が貴族化する動きを継続して見せており、近世に入ると家格の固定に伴って将軍家や大名層が武家貴族を形成した。
• On the other hand, during the medieval period, the movement to make the uppermost class of the samurai (called Buke-no-toryo: literally, the head of samurai families) join the Kizoku class continued, and entered early-modern times, as family status became fixed, the shogun family and the daimyo (Japanese feudal lord) class formed the Buke (samurai)-kizoku.

• 例えば、古代のビーナス像は、古代ギリシャ人には崇拝の対象に、中世の聖職者には、不吉な偶像としてみられていた。異なった伝統の流れにもとづいているからだ。
• An ancient statue of Venus, for example, stood in a different traditional context with the Greeks, who made it an object of veneration, than with the clerics of the Middle Ages, who viewed it as an ominous idol.

• 経済状況の変化にともなって荘園経済は相当な発展を見せたが、それでも中世後期に至るまで、荘園が全く存在しないか、不完全でしか存在しない地域が残存し続けた。
• With the change of economical situations, the shoen's economy dramatically developed, but until the late medieval period, some regions had continued to remain where shoens had not existed at all or only partially.

• 日本の学界では中国の荘園に対する理解（主に「世界史の基本原則」及び中世ヨーロッパの荘園との対比）について大きく分けると2説に分かれて論争が行われてきた。
• Concerning the understanding on Chinese shoens in Japanese academia (mainly the contrast between 'the basic principle of world history' and European shoens in medieval times), opinions have been divided roughly into two theories and disputed.

• 中世の中期（鎌倉時代中期・後期）ごろから、商品流通の活発化とそれに伴う貨幣経済の進展が次第に顕著となっていくと、地子を貨幣で納入する事例が増えていった。
• From around the middle of the medieval period (the mid or late Kamakura period), as commercial distribution became more active and the money economy accompanied with it gradually became pronounced, more and more jishi was paid in money.

• なお、絵巻物自体は中世のものと考えられているが、蒙古兵と日本騎馬武者の描写の違いなどから、後世の加筆、改竄、または編纂があったとする説も提唱されている。
• Although the pair of picture scrolls itself is thought to have been made in the Medieval period, some people argue that it was later revised, altered or edited, considering some differences between depictions of Mongolian soldiers and Japanese mounted samurai warriors.

• 中世では、長野の善光寺如来（善光寺式阿弥陀三尊）の摸刻像が盛んに造られるようになるが、この時は、観音と勢至の二菩薩は、胸前で両手を合せる姿で造形される。
• In the Medieval Period, many copies of the Zenko-ji-nyorai (Zenko-ji-shiki Amida Sanzon) in Nagano were made and the two Bosatsu, Kannon and Seishi, are shown with hands on top of each other and placed in front of their chest.

• 広義の「煎茶」とは、中世までに確立した茶道における抹茶（挽茶）に対して、近世以降中国大陸から伝わった茶葉を挽かずに用いるお茶一般に与えられる総称である。
• 'Sencha' in a broad sense, is a term for the tea that is not made into powder, and which was transmitted from China since recent times, as opposed to Macha (the powdered green tea used for ceremonies) (steamed and dried before being stone-ground) which was established before medieval times.

• 中世期、ワキが地謡の統率者（地頭）を兼ねており、その影響で、江戸時代に入ってシテ方とワキ方が分離した時期においても地謡はワキ方が担当することが多かった。
• During the Middle Ages, Nohwaki took the leadership of the Noh chorus (jiutai) and because of this influence, even during the Edo period when a pro protagonists (shitekata) and pro Nohwaki (wakikata) were separated, Noh chorus was taken up mostly by pro Nohwaki.

• 一方で、網野善彦はこうした武田氏や甲斐源氏中心の研究に対して甲斐中世史において他氏族の果たした役割を強調し、武田氏以外の氏族研究の必要性を主張している。
• Against these studies that focus on the Takeda clan and Kai-Genji, Yoshihiko Amino stressed the role which other clans played in the medieval history of Kai and asserted the necessity to study other clans.

• 中世武家社会においては、男子が成人に達して元服を行う際に特定の人物に依頼して仮親に為って貰い、当人の頭に烏帽子を被せる役を務めることが通例とされていた。
• It was customary in the samurai society during the medieval ages to have someone special become a nominal father to perform the role of placing an eboshi on a boy's head at the family's request when the boy celebrates the genpuku ceremony.

• 中世前期（平安時代～鎌倉時代）までは、民衆（百姓など）を規制する法令は、律令・公家法・本所法・武家法など支配者により定められたものしか存在していなかった。
• Before the early medieval period (from the Heian to Kamakura periods), the general public (peasants etc.) were regulated only by the laws established by rulers, such as the Ritsuryo codes, court noble law, honjo (proprietor or guarantor of manor) law, and samurai law.

• すなわち、秦漢時代までを上古（古代）、魏晋南北朝時代隋唐時代を中世、北宋以降を近世、アヘン戦争以降を近代とする四時代区分法を中心に中国史の研究を展開した。
• That is, they developed research on Chinese history focusing on the method dividing the historical ages into four, namely, ancient times up to the Qin and Han dynasties, middle ages up to the Wei and Jin periods in the Northern and Southern Dynasties, and the Sui and Tang periods, recent times from the Northern Song Dynasty and later, and modern times from the Opium War and later.

• この時代の美術は多様化し、その性格を一言で言い表わすことは困難であるが、古代・中世の美術が宗教（仏教）中心であったのに比べ、著しく世俗化の傾向が強まった。
• This period's art was so diversified as to be difficult to define its character in a word, but it could be said to become extremely popularized, compared with the art of the ancient and middle ages, which was mainly occupied with religious (Buddhist) art.

• 王の舞と同じように、これら一連の芸能を構成する一つの芸能として平安後期の畿内の祭礼・法会でヒトツモノは成立し、中世に各地に伝播していったと考えられている。
• In the late Heian period, like the king dance, as one of such a series of performance arts, Hitotsumono was established in the festivals or Buddhism gatherings in the countries near Kyoto, and in the Medieval Period, it spread to various regions.

• 加地子（かじし）は、日本の中世において、荘園領主・国衙（国司）へ納入する年貢・地子の他に、名主などの在地領主に対して納入した米（作得米）を指す租税の一形態。
• The term Kajishi (加地子) means rice (sakutokumai) delivered as a tax to a resident land-owner like myoshu (owner of rice fields) in the Japanese medieval period on top of nengu (customs)/jishi (land tax) for the lord of shoen (manor)/kokuga (provincial government officials) (kokushi (provincial governor)).

• 算用状（さんようじょう・散用状）とは、中世の荘園において、荘園領主と現地の荘官との間で交わされた個々の荘園の年貢・公事などに関する年間の収支決算報告のこと。
• Sanyojo (算用状 or 散用状) was the annual settlement of accounts for nengu (annual land tax) and kuji (miscellaneous tax) in each shoen (estate) exchanged between shoen ryoshu (the estate proprietary lord) and shokan (the estate manager) in the medieval shoen system.

• このようにして、中世末期から近世の初頭にかけて日本の海上勢力は自立した海賊衆から大名の統制に服して公権力の海上における軍事力である水軍に転化させられてゆく。
• As mentioned above, from the end of middle ages to the early modern ages, the armed forces on the sea in Japan changed from independent kaizoku shu to suigun that was put under control of daimyo and incorporated into military force of public power on the sea.

• 中世前期まで戦場での主要な戦闘法であったが、南北朝時代 (日本)頃から弓射の主体は歩兵となり、騎兵も下馬して射るようになったため、騎射戦闘は消滅していった。
• Kisha was a major fighting style on the battlefield until early medieval times, but foot soldiers came to play a major role of Yumiire since around the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (Japan) and horse soldiers also learned to shoot alighting from horses, so that the fighting style of Kisha had disappeared.

• 平安時代末期以後は中原氏流の平田家が多く任命されるようになり、途中阿倍氏など他氏が任命されることもあったものの、中世後期に入ると平田家による世襲が確立した。
• Since the end of Heian period, persons from the Hirata family of the Nakahara clan line were often appointed to this post, and in the late stages of the medieval times, this post became a hereditary post of the Hirata family, though some persons of other families such as the Abe family were appointed in the meantime.

• 鑑真和上の弟子である思託（したく）律師により宝亀2年（771年）に開創されたと伝わるが、創建の正確な時期・事情は定かでなく、以後中世までの沿革も定かでない。
• This temple is said to have been founded in 771 by Shitaku Risshi, the disciple of Ganjin Wajo, but the exact time and circumstances of its foundation, as well as its subsequent history until medieval times remain unclear.

• 例えば、大分県豊後高田市の田染荘（たしぶのしょう）では、中世前期の荘園景観が残存している全国でも珍しい地区であり、このことを核として地域振興に取り組んでいる。
• For example, in Tashibu no sho in Bungo-Takada City, Oita Prefecture, the view of shoens of the early medieval times remains unusually even across Japan and they promote regional development through this.

• 一円知行（いちえんちぎょう）とは、日本の中世で使用された用語で、荘園公領制の重層的に入り組んだ支配・権利関係の中で、ある者が一元的に土地を支配することを指す。
• Ichien Chigyo was a term used during the Japanese Middle Ages to mean that a particular individual has integrated control over lands in complicated and multi-layered relationships of dominance and rights of the Shoen Koryo (public lands and private estates) system.

• この時代は、守護大名や守護代、国人などを出自とする戦国大名が登場し、それら戦国大名勢力は中世的な支配体系を徐々に崩し、分国法を定めるなど各地で自立化を強めた。
• During this period, Sengoku daimyo (the daimyo, that is Japanese territorial lord in the Sengoku period) who came from the Shugo daimyo, Shugodai (deputy of Shugo, provincial constable), or from Kokujin (local samurai) appeared, and the power of the Sengoku daimyo destroyed the medieval control system, raising their levels of independency, for example, by establishing bunkokuho (a law that individual sengoku-daimyo enforced within their own domains).

• 歌合の句と良基の題材の解説及び判詞は、中世・近世を通じて有職故実書としても重んじられて書写・流布されたため、現在知られている物だけで80の伝本が存在している。
• These waka poems, and the subject matter selected by Yoshimoto as well as his hanshi were regarded as the important yusoku-kojitsusho (a book of courtly traditions and etiquette) during the medieval and pre-modern times and many manuscripts, at least 80 of them are known at present, were created and circulated.

• 知行国（ちぎょうこく）とは、古代・中世の日本において、有力貴族・寺社・武家が特定の令制国の知行権（国務権・吏務ともいう）を獲得し収益を得た制度、およびその国。
• Chigyo-koku indicates the provincial system and province in ancient and medieval Japan in which dominant nobles, shrines or temples acquired chigyo-ken (also called Kokumu-ken or rimu) (the right to manage the province) and obtained their revenues from there.

• 関西地方を中心に権力者、修験者、僧侶などによって古代、中世より多く作られるようになるが、近世にに至ると素朴な信仰心を背景に一般庶民がその制作に携るようになる。
• It had been often made by persons of power, ascetic Buddhist monks and priests since ancient times and medieval times around the Kansai region, and in recent times, common people produced it from the background of their pure religious devotion.

• 中世以来、四辻宮や岩倉宮などいくつもの宮家が存在したが、これらの宮家は親王の身位とともに継承されるとは限らないので世襲宮家ではあるものの、世襲親王家ではない。
• From the middle ages, there were several princely houses, including the Yotsutsujinomiya and the Iwakuranomiya, which were not the Seshu-Shinno-ke, but Seshu-Miya-ke (hereditary princely houses) because they did not always succeed to the title of Imperial Prince.

• 将軍家（しょうぐんけ）とは、日本の中世において、征夷大将軍または近衛大将に叙任された武家の棟梁が、政権を樹立する際に公家の家政制度に倣って創始したものである。
• The shogun family was a houshold system where the head of samurai, who was designated as seii taishogun (literally: 'great general who subdues the barbarians') or for the head of palace guards, generated, in the medieval times in Japan, imitating the houshold system of kuge (the court noble) when establishing his government.

• その由来については中世以来の伝統的な下人の後継や戦国時代 (日本)から江戸時代初期にかけての混乱期に人身売買によって獲得された零細民であったと考えられている。
• It is considered that the origin was successors of traditional genin since the Medieval period and reisaimin (people who lived from hand to mouth) captured by human trafficking at the time of disorder from the Sengoku period (period of warring states) to the early Edo period.

• また、中世のもう一つの歴史認識は、年中行事や有職故実などの儀礼を通じて歴史を考えるというもので、そのため、故実を伝えるための日記や各種記録文書が多数作成された。
• During the medieval period, history was also recognized through ceremonies in annual events and in Yusoku kojitsu (court and samurai rules of ceremony and etiquette), and therefore, many diaries and records were written to hand over practices from older days to later generations.

• 戦後の中世仏教史では、旧仏教である南都六宗と平安二宗（天台宗、真言宗）は対等な存在として対立的または排他的な関係のもとに併立しているとの見方が大勢を占めていた。
• After WWII, medieval Buddhism studies in Japan were led by the theory that old Buddhism, Nanto rokushu (the six sects of Buddhism which flourished in ancient Nara) and Heian nishu (the two sects of Buddhism that flourished in the Heian period: the Tendai and Shingon sects), co-existed separately and exclusively with equal power.

• また、墓標・供養塔としての五輪塔は全国各地に存在し、集落の裏山の森林内に、中世のばらばらになった五輪塔が累々と転がっていたり埋もれていたりすることも稀ではない。
• Many Gorinto serving as tombstones or memorial towers exist all over the country, and Gorinto from the medieval era are often found in pieces or buried in the woods close to villages.

• しかし、山が城をなす土地に“やましろ”の読みが対応していたうえに、山に城を造ってそれぞれの領国を守る時代が訪れたので、中世後期には、“城”は“しろ”と読まれた。
• A place where a castle was built on a mountain was called 'yamashiro,' and when the era when a castle was built on a mountain to defend territories came, '城' was pronounced 'shiro' during the latter medieval period.

• 中世以降壬生家は官務に加え修理東大寺大仏長官（または造東大寺次官）・主殿頭、のち室町時代末期に大宮家が断絶したため、壬生孝亮以降は算博士も世襲することとなった。
• From the Middle Ages onwards, the Mibu family held the positions of repair section chief of Todai-ji-Temple Great Buddha, the chief of Tonomonoryo (Palace Custodians and Supply Bureau), and also, from when the Omiya family was discontinued at the end of Muromachi period, sanhakase (a position teaching mathematics and growing mathematicians) after the era of Takasuke MIBU.

• また中世日本の説話集『宇治拾遺物語』には、ある男が一条桟敷屋で遊女と寝ているとき、賀茂の大路で馬の頭をした鬼が「諸行無常」と詠ずる光景を目撃したという話がある。
• Also, there is a story in the 'Uji Shui Monogatari' (a collection of the Tales from Uji) that when a man was sleeping with a yujo (prostitute) in Ichijo Sajiki-ya (Ichijo Sajiki Store), he witnessed an ogre with horse head chanting 'Shogyo Mujo' (all things must pass) on the Kamo Street.

• 奈良時代には中心堂宇の大仏殿（金堂）のほか、東西2つの七重塔（推定高さ約100メートル）を含む大伽藍が整備されたが、中世以降、2度の兵火で多くの建物を焼失した。
• In the Nara period, there was a large Buddhist temple including the Great Buddha Hall (Kon-do Hall) at the center and two Nanajunoto (seven-story pagodas; estimated height 100m) on the east and the west sides, but most of the buildings were burned in two fires caused by wars after the Kamakura period.

• 王朝国家体制期における中央政治機構や軍制・荘園政策・負名体制に関する研究は著しい進展を見せ、さらには王朝国家に代わる新たな古代-中世移行論が唱えられ始めてはいる。
• The study of central government organization, military systems, shoen policy, and local tax management systems during the Dynastic polity period has marked significant progress and another theory concerning the transition from the ancient times to the medieval age was proposed in lieu of the theory of Dynastic polity.

• 元々、地子は生産物地代の性格を持ち、その土地の生産物が地子として納入されていたが、中世後期ごろから貨幣経済が進展していくと、貨幣による地子の納入が増加していった。
• Originally, jishi had the characteristics of a tax payment in the form of products and the local products were brought in as jishi but jishi payment in money increased as the money economy gradually advanced from the late mid-period.

• 『占事略决』について諸説あるが、安倍家における家伝を背景として、六壬神課について簡略に解説した書籍であり、中世陰陽道の研究に必須の文献資料 (歴史学)と解される。
• Though there are various theories on 'Senji ryakketsu,' it is regarded indispensable documentary records (history) for the study of medieval Onmyodo, since it briefly explains Rikujinshinka based on the tradition of the Abe family.

• 石垣は中世においても城郭の要に一部用いられることはあったが、安土桃山時代になると、重い櫓を郭の際に建てる必要から、土塁の表面に石材を積んで強化した石垣が発達した。
• Stone walls were used at several important parts of a citadel even in the medieval period, but stone walls reinforced by stacking stones on the surface of earthen walls developed as the need arose to build heavy turrets near the citadel in the Azuchi-momoyama period.

• このため、藤白鈴木氏が全国の鈴木氏の本家筋と見られたのも東日本で鈴木姓が爆発的に広がったのも、中世日本社会で広く見られた義経人気にあやかったものとみる向きもある。
• Therefore, there is a theory presuming that the reasons why the Fujishiro Suzuki clan was deemed as the head line of the Suzuki families of all over Japan and why the family name 'Suzuki' had extended in eastern Japan at an explosive pace, is because of a booming popularity of Yoshitsune, generated in Japanese medieval society.

• そして、延暦寺などの旧仏教系寺院が、このような秩序を保ちつつ国家権力と密着し、正統な宗教としてのあり方を固めた体制が中世を通じて見られたとするのが顕密体制論である。
• The theory continues that there existed the (kenmitsu) system during the medieval periods, whereby old Buddhism temples such as Enryaku-ji Temple established their status as authentic national religion by maintaining the above-mentioned competitive order and forging a bond of relationship with the ruling class in the nation.

• 中世に入ると、狩衣が上流貴族にまで用いられはじめたため、烏帽子直衣は衰退、烏帽子直衣は院の御所に、太上天皇の許しを受けた者が参入する時に使用することが普通になった。
• In the Medieval period, Kariginu was worn by upper class court nobles, the formal headwear for court nobles and the Noshi became unpopular and it was commonly worn by people who had permission from a retired emperor to enter the retired emperor's Imperial Palace.

• その意匠を書院造りに取り入れて数寄屋造りが完成していくが、一方で中世に盛んに行なわれた隠遁者の閑居や、風雅を好む公家達の別荘としての独自の意匠も大きく影響していった。
• The Sukiya-zukuri of building was completed incorporating its design into Shoin-zukuri, and on the other hand, the original designs of the seclusion of a hermit which was popular in medieval times and of the villas of court nobles who favored tasteful elegance also had a large effect on it.

• 中世の寺院文書には集会における日程決定や参加資格、議決の方法、出席への督促と欠席者への処分などを定めた文書（これらの多くは集会で定められた）が残されているものがある。
• There are medieval temple documents which show how they decided the date, qualification for attendance and the method of decision making of a gathering, reminders as well as penalties for absentees (most of which were settled at gatherings).

• 中世日本語には上代までに一旦消えた[p]が再び現れたが、[ɸ]と並立することから[ɸ] （音素/h/としておく）とは異なる、新しく導入された音素/p/として扱われる。
• In Middle Japanese the [p] sound, which had once disappeared before Old Japanese, appeared again but as it paralleled [ɸ], it was treated as a newly-introduced phoneme/p/, independent from [ɸ] (which is referred to as a phoneme/h/).

• また『源氏物語』にも登場するが、醍醐天皇～村上天皇の治世がモデルと推測される作中世界においても「琴のこと」の奏者は少数しか登場しないなど、早くに廃れていたことが解る。
• Koto also appears in the 'Genji Monogatari' (The Tale of Genji), but it is obvious that 'Kin (琴) no Koto' became obsolete fairly early because only a small number of players of 'Kin (琴) no Koto' appear in the story, which is believed to have depicted the period ruled by the three emperors from Emperor Daigo to Emperor Murakami (the ninth and tenth centuries).

• また、中世になり武門の家が確立した後でも、それとは別に朝廷の武官に相当する職種が一応存在したが、たとえこの官職を得ても、武士身分出身でなければ武士とは認められなかった。
• And even after the military families were established in medieval times, apart from this, the post corresponding to the military officer in the Imperial Court existed, but he could not be admitted as bushi unless coming from samurai status even though he got the government post.

• 多紀連山は、平安時代末期から中世にかけて修験道行場として栄えたが、1482年（文明 (日本)14年）に大峰山（大和修験道）の僧兵の来襲により、寺院はことごとく焼失した。
• Taki mountain range prospered as the practice place of the mountaineering asceticism from the end of Heian period to the Medieval period, but in 1482, all the temples there were burned to ashes in the attack by armed priests from Mt. Omine (Yamato Shugendo [the ascetic and shamanistic practice in Mt. Omine]).

• 中世社会では、信仰の形として刀を仏にささげる行為が一般化しており、鎌倉時代には執権北条泰時が鎌倉市中の僧侶の帯刀を禁じた際に、没収した刀を高徳院に寄進すると述べている。
• In the Japanese medieval society, an offering of sword to Buddha was generally accepted as an expression of belief such that when regent Yasutoki HOJO prohibited the Buddhist monks in the city of Kamakura from wearing swords in the Kamakura period, he declared that he would contribute the confiscated swords to Kotoku-in Temple.

• これらの農地はもともと領主が百姓を使役して荒地を開墾したものであり、古代末期・中世当時、荒地を開墾した者には該当地の収穫をすべて収取する権利が認められる場合が多かった。
• Such farmland was originally cultivated by the feudal lord using peasants as a labor force, and those who cultivated wasteland were usually permitted the right to collect all the crops of the applicable ground in the end of ancient times and medieval times.

• 中世の記録である『興福寺官務牒疏』（嘉吉元年・1441年）によると、金胎寺は天武天皇の白鳳4年（675年）、役小角（役行者）の草創で、養老6年（722年）、泰澄が再興。
• According to an entry in the historical record of the medieval age, 'Kofuku-ji Temple Kanmuchoso Document,' dated 1441, Kontai-ji Temple was founded by EN no Ozunu in 675, and was reconstructed by Taicho in 722.

• もっとも江戸時代の大名の居城においても、山麓の居館と戦闘時に立て篭もる背後の山城の組み合わせという中世的様式を受け継いだ城も多く、岩国城、萩城、鹿児島城がこれにあたる。
• However, many of the Daimyo's residential castles of the Edo period inherited the medieval style, which combined the residence at the foot of the mountain and the mountain castle behind the residence to barricade themselves in case they had a battle, including Iwakuni Castle, Hagi Castle and Kagoshima Castle.

• 中世以降は、主に各地において民間で個人的に占術・呪術・祭祀を行う非官人の者を指すようになり、現代においては民間で私的祈祷や占術を行う神職の一種として定義付けられている。
• After the medieval period, Onmyoji referred mainly to non-bureaucrats who performed divination, magic, and religious services independently among the civilian population in various locations, today, they are a type of Shinto-priest who recite prayers and perform divination in the private sector.

• だが、中世以降次第に百姓の本分を農とすべきとする、実態とは必ずしも符合しない農本主義的理念が浸透・普及し、明治時代以降は、一般的に農民の事を指すと理解されるようになった。
• However, a principle of agricultural fundamentalism stating that the sphere of hyakusho should be agriculture, which did not always match the reality, was gradually passed through and spread since the medieval period, and the term was begun to be understood generally as a person engaged in agriculture.

• こうして「武士団」を「中世封建社会の担い手となる在地領主層を中核とする戦闘的権力組織で、内部構造としては、主従的な、階層関係（ヒエラルヒー）が認められるもの」と規程する。
• This type of 'bushidan' was 'a militarily ruled society that was centralized around estate owners supporting medieval feudal society, centrally formed on a master and servant hierarchical relationship.'

• 宇陀紙は、吉野ので漉かれた杉原紙（中世の武士社会に最も流通した中葉の楮紙で、本家播磨の杉原紙を各地で模造した）を源としており、江戸でも多く流通し江戸からかみに用いられた。
• Uda-gami originates from the Sugihara-gami (Sugihara paper) (a moderately thin kozo paper which was distributed mostly in the samurai society in medieval times and imitated the Sugihara-gami of the originator in the Harima Province), and was distributed greatly in Edo and used for Edo karakami.

• 「芸題」（げいだい）が詰まって「げだい」になったとする説もあるが、古代から中世にかけては絵巻物の外側に書かれた短い本題を「外題」と言っており、これが起源だとする説もある。
• One theory says that 'Geidai' (the title of the performance) was shortened into 'Gedai,' and the other theory says that 'Gedai' has its origin in the short and main title written on the outer part of the picture scroll, which was called 'Gedai' from ancient times to the medieval age.

• また、同種の神話は『平家物語』、『太平記』などにもあり、この約束の証拠に第六天魔王から貰ったのが八尺瓊勾玉であるとする。（中世においては八尺瓊勾玉は印であるとされていた）
• Similar episodes are also found in books such as 'Tale of the Heike' and 'Record of the Great Peace:' in exchange for Amaterasu's promise, Dairokuten Mao gave her Yasakani no magatama (comma-shaped jewel, one of the Three Imperial Regalias - in medieval Japan, Yasakani no magatama was considered to be a seal).

• 中世以降の日本では、預所代、国司の目代、守護代、小守護代、地頭代、或いは出征した軍勢の統括を代行する陣代などの代官職があり、さらにそれらの代官である叉代というのもあった。
• After the medieval period in Japan, there were many deputy posts like azukaridokorodai (acting deputy shoen lord; shoen was a manor), kokushi no mokudai (deputy kokuhsi; kokushi was a provincial governor mostly before the Muromachi period), shugodai (deputy shugo: shugo was a military governor), koshugodai (acting deputy military governor), jitodai (deputy jito; jito was a shoen steward), and jindai whose function was to preside troops on a campaign as a deputy, and furthermore, there existed a deputy post of these deputies called matadai (literally, 'double deputy').

• 寺社勢力（じしゃせいりょく）とは日本中世において、武家政権・朝廷とともに権力を三分した、大寺院・神社（当時は神仏習合のために一体）による軍事・行政・経済・文化パワーである。
• Jisha seiryoku is a term describing the military, governmental, economical and cultural power of temples and shrines (at that time considered equivalent because of syncretism of Shinto and Buddhism), which shared power with the military government and Imperial Court during the Japanese middle ages.

• 分国とは中世における一国単位の知行を指す語であり、知行国に始まる概念であるが、室町時代中期以降に守護大名や国人一揆による一国単位の領国化が進み、分国支配が形成されていった。
• Bunkoku is a term for lordship (chigyo) over one county in the middle ages and was originated from chigyo-koku, which developed into the control of one county by shugo daimyo or kokujin.

• よって、古代の賎民と中世以降の被差別民、さらに近代以降被差別部落と呼ばれるようになった江戸時代の被差別民共同体との歴史的連続性はなく、性質の異なる起源を有したと考えられる。
• Therefore, it can be concluded that the ancient lowly persons and those discriminated after the medieval period as well as communities of discriminated people during the Edo period which came to be called burakumin (people come from or live in special hamlets) in the modern period and after were not connected historically and had different origins.

• 地子銭の納入は決して多くはなく、一部の都市（京）などにとどまっていたが、中世末期の戦国時代 (日本)ごろになると、農村部でも銭貨による地子納入の事例が見られるようになった。
• The payment of jishisen was not much in any sense and it was limited to some big cities (imperial capital) but cases of jishi payment in coins became common even in rural areas in the Sengoku Period (Period of Warring States) in the end of the medieval period (Japan).

• 城が中世の臨時的な軍事基地から恒久的な統治拠点になると、城下町や家臣団防備の目的で従来の城の機能的構成部分（内郭）から、さらにもう一重外側に防御線が設けられることがあった。
• When the castle changed from a medieval period temporary military base to a permanent base of rulership, a defense line was often established outside the functional component (uchiguruwa (the central portion of a castle compound)) of the conventional castle to defend the castle town and vassals.

• 悪党（あくとう）とは、一般的に社会の秩序を乱す者ないし悪事をなす集団などを意味する用語であるが、日本の歴史においては中世に既存支配体系へ対抗した者・階層を悪党と呼んでいる。
• 'Akuto' generally refers to a person who disturbs the order of society, or a group of people who commit wrongdoing, but in Japanese history, it refers to a person or class rebelling against the existing system in the middle ages.

• 中世を舞台にした大河ドラマでしばしば庶民の女性が着物の上にプリーツスカートのような物を着用しているが、これは「しびらだつ物」「裳袴」と言われる物で、裳と起源は同じ物とされる。
• We often watch women of commonalty appear in the periodical drama situated in the medieval ages wear costumes that looks like pleated skirts on a kimono, it is called 'Shibiradatsumono' or 'Mobakama' and it is said that its origin is the same as for mo.

• 悪党概念は、1930年代に中村直勝によって提起され（『荘園の研究』 1939）、戦後になると石母田正（『中世的社会の形成』 1946）らによってその姿が明らかにされていった。
• The concept of akuto was presented by Naokatsu NAKAMURA in the 1930s ('Shoen no Kenkyu' (Studies of Shoen) 1939), and its aspects were revealed by Tadashi ISHIMODA ('Chuseiteki Shakai no Keisei' (Formation of Medieval Society) 1946) and others after the war.

• 慈円の認識が古代から中世の一般的な認識であったのかはわからないが、この叙述によれば、やはり怨霊というものは非業の死、恨みによって生まれるものと考えられていたということになる。
• We are not certain whether Jien's view was shared among people in ancient times and during the middle ages, but according to what he wrote, people then definitely thought that when someone died an unnatural death or died with a grudge, they became onryo.

• たいていは、実際のところ、彼らは、中世にキリスト教道徳に付加されたものを切捨て、宗派ごとに、その性格と性癖に見合った新しい付加物で埋め合わせることで、満足してしまったのです。
• For the most part, indeed, they have contented themselves with cutting off the additions which had been made to it in the middle ages, each sect supplying the place by fresh additions, adapted to its own character and tendencies.

• 負所（おっしょ）とは、中世の荘園において、本来は国衙に納めるべき雑役（場合によっては官物の一部を含む）を免除を受け、その分を自己に収めることが出来る荘園領主及びその土地を指す。
• The term 'Ossho' means the lords of Shoen (manor in medieval Japan) were exempted from and allowed to collect Zatsueki (a kind tax under the Ritsuryo system) (sometimes inclusive of the portion of Kanmotsu (tribute goods -supposed to be paid to Kokuga (provincial government offices) as well as the land of such Shoen.

• 更に院政期において公家社会が再編される中で官職昇進次第や極位極官が出自によって決定される傾向が強まっていくと、古代からの貴族諸氏は一門に分化して中世的な「家」へと変質していく。
• Furthermore, as the aristocratic society was restructured during the cloistered government, promotion path to official positions and the final achievable position/rank became determined more by birth, and the aristocratic clans from the ancient times differentiated into each mon and transformed into the 'Ie (family, house)' of the middle ages.

• 中世においては、橋や道路の修理・整備から官寺（鐘や仏像、写経をふくむ）の建設や修造など、本来は朝廷（国家）や国衙（地方行政機関）がおこなうべき公共事業も、勧進によってなされた。
• In the middle ages, kanjin was a source of funds for public works ranging from the construction and maintenance of bridges and roads to the building and repair of kanji (state-sponsored temples) (including temple bells, Buddhist statues and handwritten sutra), although the Chotei (Imperial Court) or kokuga (provincial government) should have done so.

• すなわち、狐（夜干）に乗るダキニ天の像というのは、（大元のインドには存在せず）胎蔵曼荼羅や正当な密教経典・儀記には記されない姿であり、中世の日本などで生み出された姿・像である。
• In other words, an image of Dakiniten riding a fox (which has not existed in India) has not been depicted in Taizo Mandala (Womb Realm Mandala) or the orthodox scriptures or ritual manuals of Esoteric Buddhism and was created in medieval Japan and the like.

• 寛永文化の中心は京都であったとされ、中世以来の伝統を引き継ぐ町衆勢力と後水尾天皇を中心とする朝廷勢力が、封建制を強化する江戸幕府に対抗する形で古典文芸・文化の興隆を生み出した。
• The center of Kanei-bunka was Kyoto, and people of merchant class who inherited the tradition of medieval times and those of Imperial Court who gathered around the Emperor Gomizunoo created classical Japanese arts/culture against the Edo bakufu, which strived to strengthen the feudal system.

• 伊達の名は陸奥国伊達郡（現福島県・中通り北部…伊達市 (福島県)、伊達郡、一部は福島市）に由来し、この地名は古代には「いだて」または「いだち」、中世以降は「いだて」と呼ばれた。
• The family name, DATE, was derived from the county name ''Date' in Mutsu Province (present-day, the northern area of Nakadori, Fukushima Prefecture [specifically, the area covers Date City of Date County plus a part of Fukushima City]), but the county was originally called 'Idate' or 'Idachi' in ancient times and changed to 'Idate' in the Medieval Period.

• 通常青白い地に、ベルのような形をした縞模様があり、格子模様のある紫またはえび茶色の垂れ下がった花のある、中世にハンセン病患者によって持ち歩かれたユーラシアのチェッカード・リリー
• Eurasian checkered lily with pendant flowers usually veined and checkered with purple or maroon on a pale ground and shaped like the bells carried by lepers in medieval times

• その動きは早くは中世から見られるが、一般には江戸時代中期後期以後の儒教や国学 (学問)や復古神道に伴うものを指し、狭義には明治新政府により出された神仏分離令（正式には神仏判然令。
• The earliest movement had already appeared in the Medieval Period, but the Shinbutsu-bunri usually refers to the separation carried out in accordance with the advancement of Confucianism, Kokugaku (the study of Japanese classical literature), and the Fukko-shinto (Reactionary Shintoism) which occurred in and after the mid or late Edo period.In a more limited sense, it refers to the separation carried out throughout the country according to the ordinance issued by the new Meiji government, called Shinbutsu Bunri-rei (officially named Shinbutsu Hanzen-rei, which means the Edict for Separation of Shinto and Buddhism), which was a general term representing a series of official notices issued between April 5, 1868 and December 1, 1868, such as the edict of the Daijokan (Grand Council of State), the notification of the Jingikan (Department of Worship), and the notification of the Daijokan.

• 新制そのものの最古は天暦元年（947年）とされているが、中世における新制の基本的要素である「神社仏寺」「過差停止」「公事催勤」の3つの項目が揃った法令としては最初のものであった。
• While the oldest shinsei is considered to have been issued in 947, Chohogannenrei is the first law which contains all of the three fundamental elements of shinsei in the Middle Ages: '(Shinto) shrines and (Buddhist) temples,' 'kasateishi (prohibition of the luxury beyond one's means or position)' and 'strict enforcement of government affairs.'

• これにより、土地に対して重層的にあった中世的な中間権利である様々な職が否定され、耕作者は直接領主に納税することとなり、農村にいた中間搾取者としての武士はほぼ一掃されることとなった。
• As a result, the legitimacy of the positions of a great many medieval-period middleman tax collectors and the like were repudiated, since now cultivators were paying taxes directly to their local lords; at the agricultural village level, Hideyoshi's survey had eliminated nearly all the extortionist middleman warriors who lived off others' effort in one clean sweep.

• なお、本来の意味で用いる漢文の読み下し及び日本の古代の用例には漢音と呉音の混交した 'ひゃくせい'、日本の中世以降の用例には呉音の 'ひゃくしょう' の読みを当てるのが慣例である。
• Note that it is common to pronounce the term as 'hyakusei,' which is a mixture of the Han reading of Chinese characters and the Wu reading, in the case of a Japanese reading of a Chinese passage or a use in ancient Japanese that is used in the original meaning, or 'hyakusho,' which is the Wu reading, in a case of a use in Japanese in or after the medieval period.

• 中世末の複雑な支配権の並存する体制に不満を持つ村々に国人・土豪が真宗に改宗することで加わり、「一向一揆」と呼ばれる一郡や一国の一向宗徒が一つに団結した一揆が各地で起こるようになる。
• Kokujin (village heads) and Dogo (powerful families) converted to Shinshu and joined the village people who were discontent with the system with complicated and multiple lordship in the end of the middle ages, and uprising called 'Ikko-Ikki' were staged throughout the nation by united Ikko Shu followers from the whole county or province.

• 中世以来本来の姿を失っていた八神殿の復興は祭政一致の具体的な実現への動きであり、滞っていた宣教の分野においても教説をただ説くだけでなく、実際に行うことが必要であるとの考えであった。
• The restoration of Hasshinden, which had been lost since the middle ages was a concrete movement towards achieving the unity of religion and state, and the movement was based on the idea that it was necessary not only to preach, but to do something concrete as well in the area of religious promotion activities that had been sluggish.

• 例えば京都では同族集団の結合が薄れ、地縁意識が起こると共に、中世には伏見稲荷大社、上御霊神社、賀茂神社、北野天満宮などの有力な神社を中心に産土神を基にした産子区域の観念が発達した。
• In Kyoto, for example, as ties amongst a kin group were loosening and replaced by a sense of growing territorial connection, the idea of an Ubuko Area as the basis of Ubusunagami spread centering on Fushimi Inari-taisha Shrine, Kamigoryo-jinja Shrine, Kamo-jinja Shrine, Kitano-tenmangu Shrine.

• ヨーロッパにおける荘園制(Manorialism or Seigneurialism)は、中世の西ヨーロッパ農村及び中央ヨーロッパの一部農村に見られた経済・社会構造を指す用語である。
• Manorialism or Seigneurialism in Europe is the word which refers to the economical and social structure as seen in the villages in west European villages or some villages in central Europe in medieval times.

• 延暦寺は、配下においていた八坂神社が京の鴨川の東側に大きな境内（領地）を持っていたこと、興福寺は大和国一国の荘園のほとんどを領して中世を通してその経済力で京に大きな支配力を及ぼした。
• The Enryaku-ji Temple owned a large keidai (land) on the east side of the Kamo-gawa River in Kyoto through Yasaka-jinja Shrine that was under the control of Enryaku-ji Temple, and Kofuku-ji Temple owned most of the shoen (manor in medieval Japan) in Yamato Province; they had a large influence on Kyoto through their economic power throughout the middle ages.

• 11世紀中期から12世紀・13世紀初頭にかけて、荘園公領制の成立や院政・武家政治の登場などに対応した中世国家体制が漸進的に構築されていったため、この時期に王朝国家体制は終期を迎えた。
• As the medieval national polity, which corresponded to the establishment of shoen koryo sei (the system of public lands and private estates) and the advent of cloister government/samurai government, was progressively built up during the period from the mid-11th century to the 12th century/early 13th century, the period of dynastic polity ended around that time.

• 給田（きゅうでん）・給畠（きゅうはく）・給田畠（きゅうでんぱく）は、日本の中世において、荘園領主や国衙が、荘官、地頭、年貢運輸者・手工業者などに対して給与した田地または田畠地をいう。
• Kyuden, Kyuhaku and Kyudenpaku were rice paddies and fields that were granted to shokan (an officer governing shoen manor), jito (estate steward), nengu (land tax) couriers and handicraftsmen by shoen holders and the Kokuga (provincial government offices) during the middle ages in Japan.

• 良源は、第18代天台座主（てんだいざす、天台宗の最高の位）であり、実在の人物であるが、中世以来、独特の信仰を集め、21世紀に至るまで「厄除け大師」などとして、民間の信仰を集めている。
• Although Ryogen was the 18th Tendai-zasu (the supreme position in the Tendai Sect) and a real-life person, he has been the target of folk belief since the medieval period and even in the 21st century, he is worshipped as 'Yakuyoke Daishi' (Calamity Dispelling Master).

• 上記の仏教と神道、道教などの異なるタブー観が、中世に習合し、山岳の寺院、修験道などを中心として、鎌倉時代ごろに今の女人禁制、女人結界のベースとなる観念が成立したものと考えられている。
• It is thought that different views on the taboos of Buddhism, Shinto and Taoism as above were syncretized in medieval times, and that the basic idea of present Nyonin Kinsei and Nyonin Kekkai was established led by mountain temples and Shugen-do around the Kamakura period.

• 中古日本語から中世日本語への変化の過程で、/i/ と /wi/の統合、/e/ と /ye/ と /we/ の統合、/o/ と /wo/ の統合が起こったため、ワ行は下記の通りとなる。
• As/i/ was unified with/wi/,/e/ and/ye/ with/we/, and/o/ with/wo/ in the process of transition from Early Middle Japanese to Middle Japanese, WA-row sounds were as follows:

• 中世の国家体制については、一般的には天皇・公家の後退と武家の伸張によって特徴付けられるが、公家と武家が両々相俟って国家を維持したとする権門体制論も提出されているなど学説も多様である。
• As for the system of the country during the Medieval period, it is generally characterized as the regression of the Emperor and Kuge and extension of Buke (samurai families), but the theories are various, like the kenmon taisei theory, a theory that suggests Kuge and Buke both kept the country together, is presented.

• 「勧修寺」の寺名とともに、今日では「かじゅうじ」と読むのが一般的だが、中世日本の書籍等では「くわんしゆし」との平仮名表記も散見され、「かんじゅじ」とも読まれていたことがうかがわれる。
• Today, the characters of the family name are generally read, in the same way as those of the temple by the same name, as 'Kajuji,' but the hiragana (today read as 'kuwanshiyushi') occasionally found in medieval books suggests that they were also read as 'Kanjuji.'

• 日本中世の荘園における荘園領主とは、いわゆる「権門勢家」のことを指し、貴族や寺社が想定される場合が多いが、武門の棟梁であった鎌倉殿も関東御領などの広大な荘園を有した荘園領主であった。
• Although Shoen-ryoshu of the medieval period in Japan indicates the so-called 'kenmon-seike' (the great and powerful families) and is often inferential to nobles, temples and shrines, Kamakura-dono (the lord of Kamkura), as the head of samurai warrior families, was also a Shoen-ryoshu who owned vast manors.

• 奈良時代のいわゆる南都六宗（華厳宗、法相宗、律宗、三論宗、成実宗、倶舎宗）は「宗派」というよりは「学派」に近いもので、日本仏教で「宗派」という概念が確立したのは中世以後のことである。
• In the Nara Period, the so-called 'Nanto Rokushu' (Six sects of Buddhism: Kegon, Hosso, Tutsu, Sanron, Jojitsu and Kusha) were more like 'school sects' rather than 'religious sects;' the concept of 'religious sects' was established after the medieval period.

• 当寺は寛平年間（889 – 897）の創建と伝え、元は筒井氏の本拠地である大和国添下郡筒井（現・大和郡山市）に所在したというが、創建の正確な経緯や中世以前の歴史については定かでない。
• It is said that this temple was founded during the Kanpyo era (889-897) and originally located in Tsutsui, Sofunoshimo County, Yamato Province (today's Yamatokoriyama City), which was the Tsutsui clan's base, but the precise details of the foundation and its pre-medieval history have not been confirmed.

• 加えて、有能な人材を民間から登用する際、一時的に足軽として藩に在籍させ、その後昇進させる等の、ステップとしての一面もあり、中世の無頼の輩は、近世では下級公務員的性格へと変化していった。
• In addition, the status also had the aspect of serving as a career stepping stone such as when capable individuals who were appointed from among ordinary citizens were temporarily be enrolled with the domain as ashigaru before their subsequent promotion, and what were once gangs of villains during the middle ages took on the identity of low-level public servants.

• 近年、中世国家の東西境界周辺の得宗被官である、西の千竈氏と東の安東氏の比較検討研究が進み、ともに中央部の武士団に比べて所領面積が広大であり、国家の境界外に及んでいる点が指摘されている。
• Recent years, comparative studies on the Chikama clan in the West and the Ando clan in the East, both of which were Tokuso's bureaucrats taking charge of the respective peripheral border in the east and in the west of the medieval nation, have developed and it is revealed that both of them had a huge extension of the territory compared with the samurai groups in the center, and their territories were even reaching outside the national territory.

• 日本の文化も単純にひとくくりにできるものではなく、様々な要素を含んでおり、古代から中世にいたっては中国を中心としたアジアの近隣諸国、そして明治以降の近～現代では欧米からの影響を受けた。
• The Japanese culture cannot be bracketed simply because it contains various elements, the Japanese culture in a period from ancient times to the medieval period was affected by neighboring countries in Asia around China, and in the period from early modern times to modern times after the Meiji period was affected by western countries.

• 中世以降、工業・商業が盛んになってくると、稲荷神は農業神から工業神・商業神・屋敷神など福徳開運の万能の神ともされるようになり、農村だけでなく町家や武家にも盛んに勧請されるようになった。
• During the middle ages, when commerce and industry became more prosperous, the god Inari, who had initially been the agriculture god, became the god of all the mighty, merging the gods of commerce, industry, and residence, and was believed to bring happiness and fortunes to people; new Inari-jinja Shrines were built one after another by transferring the god Inari from a Inari-jinja Shrine not only in farming villages but also in the communities of traders and samurai.

• 中世期の武士・在地領主は、ある者は国衙から郡司職・郷司職・保司職としての地位・権利を認められ、ある者は荘園領主（本家・本所）から荘官職に任じられ、またある者は幕府から地頭職を付与された。
• Samurai and landlord in the medieval Japan took charge of the territorial management and ruling by assuming various posts and powers such as Gunji shiki (local headships), Goshi shiki (sub district headships) and Hoshi shiki (executive officer of an Imperial demesne) granted by Kokuga (provincial government office), and Shokan shiki (officer entrusted with local management of the private estate) granted by the lord of a private estate (family head or guarantor of manor), as well as Jito shiki (manager and lord of a private estate) granted by the bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun).

• 三重塔の建立時期、及び寺の建立経緯については、『聖徳太子伝私記』（仁治3年・1242年、顕真著）という中世の記録に引用されている「法起寺三重塔露盤銘」という史料がよりどころとなっている。
• When the three-story pagoda was established and how the temple was constructed are shown in a historical material called 'Hokki-ji Sanjuno Robanmei' (the description carved on the base of the pagoda finial of Hokki-ji Temple) which was cited in a medieval document titled 'Shotoku Taishi denshiki' (the Private Recollections of the Life of Prince Shotoku) (written by Kenshin in 1242.

• 中世期の特徴は、土地の支配権および収益権をめぐって、中央貴族や有力寺社、在地領主・地頭・名主など様々な主体が入り組みながら重層的な権利関係を形成している点にあった（これを職の体系という）。
• A feature of the medieval period was that, concerning land-controlling rights and tax-collecting rights, persons in various social statuses, such as nobles in Kyoto, powerful temples and shrines, local ryoshu, jito and nanushi, were related with each other and formed multi-tiered right oriented relationships (this structure called shiki-no-taikei (literally, a job system)).

• 当時、国衙領からの租税収取を確保するために、国内が古代的な郡・郷から中世的な郡・郷・保という単位に再編成されていたが、これを管轄する郡司・郷司・保司に任命されたのも、主に在庁官人であった。
• At that time in Japan, to ensure the tax collection from the kokuga region, ancient units such as gun and go were reorganized into medieval units such as gun, go, and ho, and zaichokanjin were mainly appointed as gunshi, goshi, and hoshi who supervised these units.

• 武士論研究には「在地領主論」と「職能論」という2つの流れがあることは述べたが、職能、特にその技能（弓馬）に着目すれば、律令制下の軍制から中世武士までの連続性がかなり明らかになってきている。
• While the study of samurai had two schools of theory, the 'local lord' and 'function,' it was apparent from the continuous characteristics seen from the military system under the Ritsuryo system to medieval bushi by examining the function and especially techniques (cavalry and archery).

• 中世に入り「南無阿弥陀仏」の念仏に複雑な節がつけられ、当初は鉦だけであったが、それに太鼓が加わったお囃子となり、六斎日におこなれるようになったことから、「六斎念仏」と呼ばれるようになった。
• In the medieval times, a complicated rendition of the phrase 'Namu Amidabutsu' (prayer for Amida Buddha) was created, accompanied at first only by a gong, which, with the addition of a Japanese drum, developed into ohayashi (Japanese-style band music) and was performed on Rokusai-nichi (the Sabbath/six days per month), thus called 'Rokusai Nenbutsu.'

• 直衣での参内は天皇との私的なつながりを持つことを意味し、外戚や侍読等には優先的に許されるのが本来であったが（『禁秘抄』）、中世には基準が曖昧化して、公卿である程度年数を経たものが許された。
• Wearing Noshi meant a close relationship to the Emperor, originally Noshi was allowed for maternal relatives or a lecturer in the Imperial Household to wear, ('Kinpisho'), in the Medieval period there was no strict rules as to who were allowed to wear Noshi, most of the court nobles who held their position for a few years could wear Noshi.

• また、『西宮記』によると節会などの重い儀式には「摺唐衣」もしくは「海浦唐衣」とよばれる波の文様を摺った（描き絵の代用品も多い）ものと、赤い目染裳が用いられ、そのしきたりは中世まで継続した。
• According to 'Saiguki' (exemplary book on Heian rituals), the ones dyed with a wave pattern (many were substituted by drawing) called 'suri-karaginu' (dyed karaginu) or 'kaibu-karaginu' (ocean pattern karaginu), and red mezome-mo (tie-dye clothes) were used for important ceremonies such as Sechi-e (seasonal court banquets), and this practice continued until the medieval period.

• 中世の朝廷は朝儀に関する有職故実を家学化して、公家の諸家がそれを家職として分掌することで維持され、万が一断絶に至った場合にはそうした家を養子縁組によって再興・継続させる方針が採られていった。
• The court of the middle ages was maintained by establishing Yusokukojitu (precedent cases and stories about court protocol) of Chogi as a Kagaku and the various aristocratic families became in charge of it as Kashoku and if the family had no successor, such families were reestablished by taking members in by adoption.

• 国人領主制（こくじんりょうしゅせい）とは、中世後期の日本（南北朝時代 (日本)・室町時代・戦国時代 (日本)）の体制を、直接農民層を支配していた国人領主の動向から把握すべきであるとする考え。
• Kokujin-ryoshu sei was a thesis concerning the structure of Japan during the late medieval period (the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (Japan), the Muromachi period, and the Sengoku period - period of warring states) -- accordingly, the structure should be comprehended through research of movement of kokujin-ryoshu (local samurai lords) who directly ruled the farmers.

• 受胎告知（3月25日）を新年とする暦は、ルーマニア, Dobruja 生まれの僧侶、ディオニュシウス・エクシグウス により西暦525年に導入され、中世ヨーロッパの多くの地域で用いられていた。
• A calendar which had its new year on the Annunciation (March 25th) was introduced in 525 by a monk Dionusius Exigus who was born in Dobruja in Rumania, and this calendar was used in many areas in medieval Europe.

• ただし、その権限は自らの政治力に依存するところが大きく、中世に入り公家政権の政治力が低下し、領家職に武家が進出するようになると、直務支配が貫徹された一部を除いては次第に「不知行」化していく。
• However, their authority to collect taxes depended largely on their own political power, so when the power of the Kuge (court noble) Government decreased and samurai families made advances into ryoke-shiki (proprietorships), their influence weakened and with the exception of a few cases of maintaining all of their rights, the nobles were unable to control their land and stop it from falling into fuchigyo (losing land property).

• 忠行・保憲は晴明に天文道、保憲の子光栄に暦道を伝え、平安末期から中世の陰陽道は天文道・暦道を完全に取り込むとともに、天文道の阿倍氏と暦道の賀茂氏が二大宗家として独占的に支配するようになった。
• Tadayuki and Yasunori taught Seimei Tenmondo and Koei, Yasunori's son, Rekido, which led Ommyodo to completely encompass Tenmondo and Rekido from the end of the Heian period through the Middle Ages, allowing the Abe and Kamo clans to dominate the world of Ommyodo as the two Soke (originators).

• 12月2日_(旧暦)には四宮の親王宣下が行われて「朝仁親王」の名が与えられ、翌3年（1683年）2月9日_(旧暦)には中世以来断絶していた立太子式が行われて朝仁親王が正式に皇太子に立てられた。
• On December 30, an imperial proclamation to nominate Shinomiya was issued, renaming him Imperial Prince Asahito, who was officially invested in crown princedom in the ceremony of investiture of the Crown Prince next year, on March 7, 1683, the first such rite after a long interval since the (Japanese) Medieval Age.

• 日本の剣術と世界各国の剣術・刀術を比較すると、刃長60cm以上の刀を両手で持ち、互いに盾を用いずに戦うという形式は珍しく、中世にドイツでツーハンデッドソードによる剣術があげられるくらいである。
• This type of swordplay, in which both parties fight, without shields, holding swords of over 60cm in length with both hands, is seldom seen in countries other than Japan, with the exception of the swordplay called Two-handed swords in the medieval age of Germany.

• 坂上行松（坂上行増）を祖とする平野氏（長寶寺寺記、末吉氏家譜）から末吉家をはじめとする平野七名家が登場し、宗家の平野庄の坂上氏を支え、代々「民部」を称し、堺市と並ぶ中世の自治都市の平野を担った。
• Hirano Shichimyo-ke (seven branch families of Hirano clan) including the Sueyoshi clan, were generated from the Hirano clan founded by SAKANOUE no Yukimatsu (according to the record of Choho-ji Temple, the genealogy of the Sueyoshi clan) then they supported the head famiy Sakanoue clan which operated Hirano Sho, successively referred to themselves as 'Minbu', and were in charge of operatting Hirano, an autonomous city in the medieval period which was a match for Sakai City.

• 皇族の子孫は数代経た後に皇籍から離脱するのが律令以来の通例であったが、中世以後、伏見宮や閑院宮の様に皇統維持のために、何代経ても親王位につくことのできる家系（世襲親王家）を創出していったのである。
• Although there was a custom for the descants of the Imperial Family to make demotion from nobility to subject from the government based on the ritsuryo legal codes, after the Medieval Period, the Imperial Family line (the hereditary Imperial Family) was established, such as Fushiminomiya and Kaninnomiya for the Imperial succession, in order for them to succeed to the throne after many generations.

• 中世の経済的利益は座・問丸・株仲間によって独占され既得権化していたが、戦国大名はこれを排除して絶対的な領主権の確立を目指すとともに、税の減免を通して新興商工業者を育成し経済の活性化を図ったのである。
• Economic benefits in Japan during the middle ages were monopolized by za (guilds), toimaru (specialized wholesale merchants) and kabunakama (trade associations) but Sengoku daimyo abolished these and, as well as attempting to establish absolute feudal rights, aimed to stimulate the economy by fostering emerging merchants and tradesmen via the reduction and exemption of taxes.

• 中世の荘園公領制では、本家-領家-開発領主-荘官-地頭らの関係に見られるように、土地や百姓に対する支配関係、また土地からの収益に関する権利関係が重層的に絡み合っており、著しく複雑な様相を呈していた。
• As seen in relationships among honke (head family), ryoke (lord of the manor), kaihatsu-ryoshu (local notable who developed the land), shokan (officer governing shoen), and jito (manager and lord of manor), dominance relationships involving lands and farmers and also relationships involving rights such as land and profit were related to each other in multiple ways; therefore, the Shoen Koryo system of the Middle Ages was extremely complicated.

• 会所（かいしょ）とは、文字通り解釈すれば、なんらかの会、催し物、寄合・会合が行われるところであるが、日本の中世期に発展して、ある特定の区画、さらには独立した建物が「会所」と名づけられることもあった。
• Kaisho, interpreted literally, was some sort of place where a meeting, exhibition, Yoriai (debate), or association was held, but developed in the medieval era in Japan where certain divisions, or even independent buildings were named 'kaisho.'

• 中世の土地売買には今日の売却に相当する永代売、元金をもって買い戻す本銭返、そして年期売があったが、売主である本主の権限が最も色濃く残された年期売が農民層を中心として広く行われていたと考えられている。
• Medieval methods for selling land included the permanent sale, which corresponds to land sales today, the honsengaeshi, under which those with capital could buy back the sold land, and finally the nenki-uri, but it is thought that the nenki-uri, under which the seller had the most pronounced authority and power, became the most widely used contract, especially among farmers.

• 中世に入ると、宋学の影響によって四書が重視されるようになると、明経道において新たに「明経道四書」を制定し、また足利学校でもこれに対抗して学校点と呼ばれる乎古登点を定めて学術における特権維持を図った。
• In the medieval period when Shisho (the Four Books of Confucianism) became valued under the influence of the Sung Study (Neo-Confucian), 'Myogyodo shisho' was newly established in Myogyodo, and in defiance of this, okototen called Gakkoten was set up to maintain the prerogative in learning in the Ashikaga School.

• そして武士は京の貴族から生まれた、つまり騎馬と弓箭を中心とした武芸が、奈良・平安時代を通じて、支配階級である都の貴族とその周辺に面々と受け継がれ、それが中世の武士に引き継がれたと言うことを強調した。
• In addition, he stressed that bushi originated from aristocrats in Kyo (Kyoto), and martial arts that centered mostly around cavalry and archery passed down through aristocrats of the ruling class and their surrounding members during the Nara and Heian periods down to the medieval bushi.

• だが、中世後期には地縁の紐帯を強める儀式に変質するとともに周辺地域の題目講との連携や所属する寺院が属する本寺及び門流の行事・事業を支援するなど、宗派全体の信仰・経済両面から支える組織となっていった。
• However, in the late medieval period it was transformed into a ceremony to tighten important connection of a regional community, and at the same time it was changed into a systematic organization to support the whole sect both in religion and economy such as facilitating to connect with daimokuko of peripheral regions and assisting rites and festivals and other activities not only of the main temple but also monryu (school of a sect) of the temples to which followers belong.

• その起源は、中世末期ごろの御伽草子の一種『浄瑠璃十二段草子』（『浄瑠璃物語』。浄瑠璃御前と牛若丸の情話に薬師如来など霊験譚をまじえたもの）を語って神仏の功徳を説いた芸能者にあるとするのが通説である。
• Joruri's origin is generally believed to be an artist who preached the blessing of deities and Buddha by narrating 'Joruri Junidan Soshi' ('Joruri Monogatari,' which is the combination of a love story between Joruri-gozen and Ushiwakamaru and the tale of the miraculous efficacy of Amida-nyorai), a kind of Otogi Zoshi (a collection of fair tales) compiled at the end of the medieval age.

• むしろ古代ローマ帝国は例外的で、古代・中世世界における他の地域の多くの帝国、王国における皇帝や国王、貴族や行政官、騎士などの地位は、厳密な血縁関係を軸とした排他的な継承によって独占的に占有されてきた。
• The Roman Empire was rather exceptional; often in other regions, empires and kingdoms of the ancient and medieval world the status of an emperor, king, aristocrat, administrative official, or knight was strictly passed on through a blood line.

• 中世後期に入ると、下記（世阿弥『風姿花伝』別紙口伝）に代表されるように「家学」そのものの継承を優先として血縁者ではなくても教えに忠実な門人が継ぐ場合でも結果的には「家学」は守られるという考え方も生じた。
• In the late medieval period an idea came about that 'kagaku' was consequently upheld even when it was inherited, not by relatives, but by pupils who were committed to the doctrine with a view to giving priority to the inheritance of 'kagaku' itself, as represented as follows ('Fushikaden' [The Flowering Spirit] Besshi Kuden [a separate secret teaching] written by Zeami).

• また、中世に日本から伝播した唐辛子を用い、野菜・水産物・一部の畜産物などを漬ける各種キムチのうち、白菜のキムチについては、日本の白菜の漬物と似ていることもあり、日本国内でも恒常的に大量に販売されている。
• Furthermore, of various kimchi pickles of vegetables, sea food, and livestock products, made using red peppers brought from Japan during the medieval period, a significant amount of kimchi pickles of Chinese cabbage are always sold in Japan as well, because they resemble pickles of napa cabbage in Japan.

• 明治時代になると近代国家に脱皮するためには中世封建制社会の身分制度を破棄することは避けて通れないと考えられ、政府により江戸時代の身分制度が廃止され四民平等（しみんびょうどう）の政策が採られることになった。
• In the Meiji period, it was considered that Japan would not be able to develop into a modern nation unless it broke away from its class system based in the medieval feudal society: therefore the government abolished the class system from the Edo period and enacted the policy of shimin byodo (the equality of four classes).

• 日本の合戦は中世の弓や近世の鉄砲などといった遠距離兵器が主体であり、中距離での戦いは槍などで闘ったあと、短刀や鎧通しで頸動脈を切るための組み打ちで終結するため、日本刀は槍の補助として使われる事が多かった。
• Battles in Japan had mainly long-distance weapons including bows in the middle age and guns in the modern age, and as for a middle-distance fight, after fighting with Yari (spears), they ended up wrestling to cut the carotid artery by Tanto (short sword) or Yoroidoshi (knife going through armor), so Japanese swords were usually used as assistance for Yari.

• しかし中世には上皇のほか、摂家は任大臣以後、一般の清華家（摂家につぐ名門の公家。近衛大将を経て大臣になる）では任大将以後、大臣家（清華家より下の公家で、近衛大将を経ず大臣になる）では任大臣以後に使用した。
• However, it came to be worn by others during the middle ages, including by sekke (regents and advisers) after being appointed daijin, as well as by ordinary seigake (court nobles ranking below sekke, who became Konoe no Daisho (Major Captain of the Palace Guards) before being made daijin) after being appointed taisho (general), and by daijinke (nobles ranked seigake who became Konoe no Daisho before being made daijinke) after their appointment to that status.

• こうして地方官としての郡司は有名無実化していくが、中世に於いても、郡司を輩出した地方豪族の系統を引く武士が「郡司」を名乗っている例も散見できる他、一部の地区では職の体系の一つとして細々と生き残っていった。
• Gunji as local officials became in name only, however, there appeared some cases that samurai inherited from Gozoku who had produced Gunji took 'Gunji' as their name, and also in some area, Gunji survived meagerly as one of the Shiki system (stratified land ruling structure).

• 中世熊野詣において京の院や貴族たちが熊野に赴いた際のように、九十九王子を順拝し参詣の道を歩く行為それ自体に信仰上の意義が見出す立場からは、これらの高野・熊野を結ぶ道は単に最短経路という以上のものでしかない。
• Like the imperial family and nobles of Kyoto in the Muromachi period visited Kumano, people in the Edo period visited Kujuku Oji (a series of shrines which were established from the 12th century to the 13th century by the Kumano Shugen priests) and walked the pilgrimage roads, however, for the people who appreciated the religious significance of such visiting and walking, the roads connecting Koya and Kumano were just the shortest routes for their purpose.

• そこで中世の七口の関について比定する研究も行われたが、実態として7つ以上の関所が存在したのは確実で、かつ現存記録でさえ七口に該当する場所がまちまちである以上、7つを特定することには意義はないとする見解もある。
• Therefore, studies to extrapolate the Nanakuchi no seki in the medieval times was conducted, but it is certain that more than seven checkpoints existed in reality, and even existing records have different points corresponding to the Nanakuchi, which lead to an opinion that it makes no sense to identify the seven checkpoints.

• 前近代の後宮制度の充実ぶりにも関わらず、中世以後に皇統断絶の危機が何度も生じたのはこうした事情がある）状態にあったが、世襲親王家が断絶した場合には天皇が実子を養子として送り込む事で子孫の安泰を図る事も行われた。
• This was the reason why there were many crisis of discontinuity of Imperial succession after the Medieval Period, even though the system of the Inner Palace in premodern time was well established.) there were even examples of an Emperor allowing his child to be adopted into the hereditary Imperial Family to secure the succession of descendants, if there was a crisis of the discontinuity of the family.

• 12世紀は中世の社会経済体制である荘園公領制がようやく確立した時期であるが、12世紀後半に見られた悪党の用例はいずれも荘園・国衙領における支配体制または支配イデオロギーを外部から侵した者を指して用いられていた。
• The 12th century was a time when shoen koryo sei (The System of Public Lands and Private Estates), the medieval socioeconomic system, finally established, and the examples of akuto in the late 12th century all referred to those who infringed upon the system or ideology of dominance in shoen (manor in medieval Japan) and kokugaryo (territories governed by provincial government office).

• なお、かつて伊藤真乗が再興した、一住坊常宝院は、戦時下、先代住職の後継が出征し戦死したため後住なく、戦後まもなく廃寺となり、中世以来 継がれた法灯は青梅市最古の古刹、塩船観音に吸収された（昭和27年 1952）。
• Incidentally, in 一住坊常宝院, which had once been restored by Shinjo ITO, there was no priest to succeed after the successor to the former chief priest went to war, so that the temple was abolished after the war, 一住坊常宝院, which had been passed down since the medieval period, was absorbed into Shiofune Kannon, the oldest temple in Ome City (1952).

• ワイン製造時の副産物酒石酸水素カリウム（英：cream of tartar）と名前が似ているが、こちらは中世の西アジアで酒石酸水素カリウムがタルタルと呼ばれていたことに由来するため、タルタルソースとは関係がない。
• The name resembles to potassium bitartrate (cream of tartar in English), by-product of winemaking, but this is derived from the fact that potassium bitartrate was called tartar in medieval West Asia, and has nothing to do with tartar sauce.

• 中世以後、技能・芸能を家業とする特定の家の間で、それぞれの家が持つ技能・芸能の世界とその背景に存在する専門性・普遍性・伝承性・権威性などの価値感を「道」に擬えて、家と道（技能・芸能）の関係が説かれるようになった。
• Since the Medieval Period among the specific families which had skills and performing arts as their family businesses, people preached the relationships between the family and the professional skill or performing art as their 'Michi (way)' by comparing each family's world of the skill or performing art and the values of the back grounds like specialty, universality, tradition, authority and others.

• 近年、歴史学者の網野善彦が中世社会、近世社会における百姓身分に属する者たちが農民、山民、漁民、職人、商人などの広範な生業の従事者であったことを明らかにし、 '百姓＝農民' と一概にまとめた従来の歴史観に対し批判を行った。
• In recent years, historian Yoshihiko AMINO revealed that people who belonged to the hyakusho rank in the medieval and modern societies engaged in a wide range of vocations including peasants, mountain people, fishing people, craftsmen, and merchants, and criticized the conventional historical view of 'hyakusho = peasants' to collectively refer to them.

• しかしながら、神祇官に常設の神殿が無いことは問題とされ、当面の間の祭祀を行う「仮」神殿の造営が決定され、明治2年（1869年）12月に仮神殿は完成し、中世の廃絶以来白川・吉田両家で奉斎されていた八神殿の霊代が奉献された。
• However, it was considered to be a problem that no permanent shrine was available in Jingikan, so it was decided that a 'temporary' shrine should be constructed to enable religious services to be conducted for a while; the construction of this temporary shrine was completed in December of 1869, and the mitamashiro (an object that was worshiped in place of the spirit of the dead) of the Hasshinden, which had been kept by the Shirakawa and Yoshida families since the Hasshinden was abolished in medieval times, was enshrined there.

• 「祇園精舎の鐘の声」ではじまる軍記物語『平家物語』、吉田兼好の随筆『徒然草』、「ゆく河の流れは絶えずして、しかも、もとの水にあらず」ではじまる鴨長明の『方丈記』など、仏教的無常観をぬきに日本の中世文学を語ることはできない。
• Medieval Japanese Classic Literature such as the 'Tale of Heike' that begins with 'the voice of bells of Jetavana Vihara,' 'Tsurezure gusa' (Essays in Idleness) written by Kenko YOSHIDA, 'Hojoki' (An Account of My Hut) of KAMO no Chomei that begins with 'no water is present when the flowing river stops running,' cannot be told without the Mujo view of Buddhism.

• 中世では通常、平屋で板葺き切妻屋根に土壁の家屋が建てられ、江戸初期には、建ちの低い2階（厨子二階〈つしにかい〉）を備え、袖卯建（そでうだつ）を上げた家屋が標準化し、瓦葺き、漆喰塗籠めの壁を持つ町屋は1600年代末に現れる。
• In the medieval period, merchant houses were usually one-storied with a gabled shingle-roof and clay walls, whereas, in the early Edo period, those with low-ceilinged second floor (tsushi nikai or loft) and sodeudatsu (extensions of the gable parapet walls that fill the trapezoidal space between the overhanging eaves of the main roof and the pent roof) became standard and houses with tile roofs and stucco walls appeared in the end of the 1600s.

• 検断とは統治すること・裁判することを意味する言葉であり、中世日本では治安行政と刑事司法とが未分化だったため、統治することが裁判を行うことと密接につながっていたのである（日葡辞書によると、検断は統治・裁判を行う役職、とある）。
• 'Kendan' is a word which means both to govern and judge; since public safety administration and criminal justice were undifferentiated in medieval Japan, the concept of governing was closely associated with the concept of judging (according to a Japanese - Portuguese dictionary, 'kendan' is a role which governs and judges).

• その結果、遺跡はとくに鎌倉時代から室町時代にかけての関東武士の中世城館の様相を考察する考古資料としてきわめて重要であるとして、1984年（昭和59年）12月6日、「川越館跡」（かわごえやかたあと）の名称で国の史跡に指定された。
• As a result, the ruins are considered extremely important as historical data providing a picture of the medieval castles and buildings of the Kanto warriors particularly from the Kamakura period to the Muromachi period, and on December 6, 1984, the site was designated a site of national historical importance under the name 'Kawagoe-yakata ruins.'

• 源頼朝の死後、将軍の輔弼制度として北条氏による執政制度も創設され、たとえ頼朝の血統が絶えても鎌倉幕府体制は永続するように制度整備がなされ、その裏打ちとして御成敗式目という初の武家法が制定され、その後の中世社会の基本法典となった。
• After MINAMOTO no Yoritomo died, an administrative system was created by the Hojo clan to fill the role of Shogunal advisor to the Imperial Court; they also arranged the system so that even if Yoritomo's bloodline died out, the Kamakura bakufu system could continue, and to serve as the bakufu's legal basis created the Goseibei Shikimoku (Formulary of Adjudications), the first set of laws governing the warrior class, which was to became the legal foundation of medieval society in Japan.

• 中世には「山科荘」（やましなのしょう）という荘園があり、これを代々保持していた公家の一流は後に山科家と名乗っていたが、戦国時代_(日本)を代表する教養人として知られた山科言継の代の1548年に室町幕府によってこれを奪われている。
• During the Middle Ages there was a Shoen, or a manor named 'Yamashina no sho,' which had been owned by a noble family for generations, later named Yamashina family, but Muromachi bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) in 1548 deprived it from Tokitsugu YAMASHINA known as a richly cultured person representing the Sengoku period (Japan).

• 中世における家門とは、家督を有する当主とその管領（管理）のもとにある家業・家職・家記（日記）・家屋・寺院・道具及びその共有者である当主夫婦・親子を中心とした親族集団を指し、家門そのものも家督とともに継承される性質のものであった。
• The term for family in the Medieval Age referred to a kinship group that was mainly composed of the family head who owned the family estate and the family business, trade, record (diary), their house, temple and tools under his reign (control), as well as his wife and children, who were the joint owners; the family itself, as well as the family estate, was succeeded to the descendents.

• 下地中分（したじちゅうぶん）とは、日本の中世日本に使用された用語で、荘園公領制下の重層的に入り組んだ支配・権利関係の中で、それぞれの主体が一元的に土地を支配すること（一円知行）を目的にして行われた、土地の分割を指し示す用語である。
• Shitaji chubun is a term which was used in medieval Japan and it means the division of the land implemented, under the situation where the ruling system of or rights to the land were entangled in a multi-layered way under shoen koryo sei (the system of public lands and private estates), with the aim of achieving the unified land ruling system (Ichien chigyo).

• 中世以降、禅林を中心に水墨画など中国宋 (王朝)・元 (王朝)の絵画が受容され、日本でも水墨画や漢画（狩野派など）が制作されるようになると、これに対して濃彩を特色とした伝統的な描法・様式で描かれた絵画を大和絵と称するようになった。
• After medieval times when the paintings of Sung and Yuan such as ink-wash paintings were accepted mainly by the temples of the Zen sect and ink-wash paintings and pictures of Han (by Kano School, and so on) were produced, the paintings in the traditional style with characteristically dark colors were called Yamato-e.

• このため、中世・近世においては陰陽師という呼称は、もはや陰陽寮の官僚ではなく、もっぱら民間で私的依頼を受けて加持祈祷や占いなどを行う非官人の民間陰陽師を指すようになり、各地の民衆信仰や民俗儀礼と融合してそれぞれ独自の変遷を遂げた。
• In the Middle and early modern ages, the term onmyoji consequently no longer meant bureaucrats in Onmyoryo, but came to mean non-government civilian worker onmyoji performing kaji kito (removing bad spirits by offering prayers) or divinations personally requested by common people in the private sectors and their onmyodo went through unique transitions being blended in with popular faith and ethnic rituals in various regions.

• 歴史家アンリ・ピレンヌは、イスラム圏への征服活動が、ヨーロッパ中世経済の著しい農村化をもたらし、また多様な農奴階級が支える地域権力ヒエラルキーという伝統的な封建様式を引き起こしたとする説を展開している（ただし異論も少なからずある）。
• The historian Henri Pirenne presented the argument that the conquest activities of the Islamic world caused the significant villagization of the economy in medieval Europe and the traditional feudal system which was the local power hierarchy supported by the class of serfs (however, many people have different opinions).

• 中世期の石塔は、それまでのもろい凝灰岩から硬質の花崗岩や安山岩の利用といった材質の変化、また関東に入った大蔵系石工の活躍、技術の進歩、大陸から入った禅宗を含む鎌倉新仏教の台頭などによって、複雑な形を持った新たな形式が数多く登場した。
• There appeared various new, elaborately shaped types of pagodas in the medieval period, chiefly because the quality of the materials in use had changed; hard stones such as granite and Anzangan rock (andesite) were substituted for a fragile stone called tuff (volcanic tuff); a mason of the Okura group entered the Kanto region and actively worked; the technologies advanced; and the Kamakura New Buddhism (new schools of Japanese Buddhism founded during the Kamakura period), including the Zen sect from the continent, evolved.

• 般若寺の位置する奈良市街北方地域は、中世には当時「非人」と呼ばれて差別された病者・貧者などの住む地域であり、般若寺の近くには「北山十八間戸」（きたやまじゅうはちけんと、国の史跡）というハンセン病などの不治の病の人を収容する施設もあった。
• The northern region of Nara City where Hannya-ji Temple is was the area where the sick and the poor lived who were called 'hinin' (one group comprising the lowest rank of Japan's Edo-period caste system) and discriminated during the medieval period, and near Hannya-ji Temple, there was an institution called 'Kitayama Ju Hachi Kento' (national historic site) that accommodated patients of incurable illnesses such as the Hansen's disease.

• 中世にも町屋 (商家)などと共に建てられており、近世、鉄砲の伝来の影響により城郭にも防火・防弾のために漆喰大壁の技術が用いられ、30cm以上の分厚い壁を多用したことで安土桃山時代後期から江戸期前後の櫓や天守などの防御施設は土蔵造りとなった。
• They were also built in the Middle Ages together with tradesmen's houses (merchant's houses), and in modern times, with the arrival of firearms, lime plaster stud wall techniques were also used on castles for fire-proofing and bullet-proofing, and mud walls over 30 centimeters thick as Dozo-zukuri style were extensively used on defensive structures such as guard towers and turrets keep from the late Azuchi-Momoyama period to around the Edo period.

• 明治政府は新政府樹立の基本精神である祭政一致の実現と、開国以来の治安問題(浦上四番崩れなど)に発展していたキリスト教流入の防御のため、律令制の崩壊以降衰えていた神祇官を復興させ、中世以来混沌とした様相を見せていた神道の組織整備をおこなった。
• In order to realize 'saisei icchi,' which was the basic spirit of the Meiji Government, and to prevent an influx of Christianity which, since the opening up of the country, had created public order problems (such as the Urakami Yoban Kuzure crackdown on Christians), the new government restored the Jingikan, which had been in decline since the collapse of the Ritsuryo system and reorganized Shinto, which had been in a state of chaos since the Medieval Period.

• 神楽は本来は旧暦の11月に行われる行事と考えられていたとみられ、古代・中世の宮中に鎮座していた園韓神社の神楽は11月に行われ、また毎年11月13日_(旧暦)に伊勢神宮外宮の御師が一口頭大夫邸にて神楽（寄合神楽・奉納神楽）も11月に行われていた。
• Kagura is believed to have originally been considered an event to be held in November of old lunar calendar, with kagura held at Sonokarakamino-yashiro Shrine, which was enshrined in the imperial court in ancient and medieval Japan, performed in November, and kagura (which included a Yoriai [meeting] kagura and Hono [dedication] kagura) conducted by geku onshi (low-ranking Shinto priests) of Ise-jingu Shrine every November 13 (according to the old lunar calendar) at the residence of the priest that led the kagura also performed in November.

• 日本では異民族の侵入が少なかったことや山地が国土の大半を占めることなどから、大陸に見られるような城壁都市は一部を除いて発展せず、野戦用の防御施設として作られた「城柵」や武士の居館を堀や櫓で防備した「館（やかた、たて、たち）」が、中世には山城へと発展した。
• Unlike in Continental Asai, walled towns did not develop in Japan with only a few exceptions partly because different races seldom invaded Japan and partly because most of the land is covered with mountains; 'Josaku' (official defense sites) constructed as military defense facilities and 'Yakata', or worriers' residences armed with moats and wooden framed stages, developed into mountain castles during the Middle Ages.

• 「職能」起源論では、武士とみなされる社会階層は源氏、平氏などの発生期には武芸を家業とする諸大夫、侍身分のエリート騎馬戦士に限定されていたとし、その後、中世を通じて「狭義の武士」との主従関係を通じて「広義の武士」とみなされる階層が室町時代以降拡大していった。
• According to the theory on the origin of bushi by 'samurai function,' the social class considered as bushi was limited to shodaibu or elite cavalry warriors coming from samurai status, whose family business was military art, during the period when the Minamoto clan and the Taira clan emerged; and later, through the medieval times, the class of 'bushi in a broad sense' came to have the master-subordinate relationship with 'bushi in a narrow sense' and expanded after the Muromachi period.

• 小槻氏は中世より太政官の諸記録を司り、五位の官務（左大史上首）を世襲したため官務家と呼ばれたが、平安時代末に小槻長業の子の小槻広房と弟の隆職がその職を争い、五位の官務は隆職の子孫（壬生家）、算博士は広房の子孫（大宮家）が世襲することとなり、二流に分裂した。
• The Ozuki family administered the records of Imperial Japanese Council of State from the Middle Ages, and was, due to its inherited position of fifth rank (sadaishi joshu), known as the family of administrative service; when OZUKI no Hirofusa, the son of 小槻長業, and OZUKI no Takamoto, Hirofusa's younger brother, fought over the position, the family was divided into two streams with the position of fifth rank going Takamoto and his descendents (the Mibu family) and the post of sanhakase (a position teaching mathematics and looking after mathematicians) going to Hirofusa and his descendants (the Omiya family).

• 中世では、feria（平日）は一週間の指定された日の接頭序数と共に使われて、そのため、『secunda feria』は月曜日を意味したが、日曜日、土曜日はいつもドミニクスおよびサッバトゥムの名前で呼ばれ、そのためferiaは通常の平日を意味するようになった
• in the middle ages feria was used with a prefixed ordinal number to designate the day of the week, so `secunda feria' meant Monday, but Sunday and Saturday were always called by their names, Dominicus and Sabbatum, and so feria came to mean an ordinary weekday

• そのため、中世の公家社会においては日記の家に限らず、その家に相伝された家記は「知識的基盤」として、「経済的基盤」である家領とともに家産の主要部分とされ、その家の後継者（嫡男）に充てられた譲状・置文などによってその重要性や取り扱いについて記されるようになった。
• For that reason, not only 'houses with diaries' but all of aristocratic society during the medieval period depended on these diaries which each successive generation inherited as the 'foundations of knowledge,' and took the diaries to be the principal source for determining house territory and property, which was each family's 'economic base'; eventually the importance of these diaries as well as instructions on how to handle diary-related matters came to be recorded in such documents as the letter of transfer and the last will and testament given to each successor (the eldest son and heir) of each such family.

• それまでの新制は、従来から行われてきた法令の性格を残した「新しい禁制」としての新制に留まっていたのに対し、長保元年令は中世における新制公布の最大の動機である天人相関説に由来する攘災と政治再建のための「徳政」の推進という理念に基づいて定められた最初のものであった。
• While shinsei before Chohogannenrei were no more than a 'new ban' which retained characteristics of the former laws, Chohogannenrei was the first to be established based on the idea of promotion of 'virtuous rule' for eradicating disaster and rehabilitating politics, originating from tenjin sokansetsu (one of ancient Chinese views of the world and political thought, the theory that there is close relationship between human action or political affairs, personnel affairs, and natural phenomenon), which was the main motivation for issuing shinsei in the medieval period.

• また価値観の転換や中世史の研究の進歩で、足利尊氏の功績を評価したり、楠木正成は「悪党」としての性格が研究されるようになり、後醍醐天皇の建武の新政は宋学の影響で中華皇帝的な天皇独裁を目指す革新的なものであるなど、南北朝時代に関しても新たな認識がなされるようになった。
• Also, with changes in values and progress in medieval history research, new views regarding the Nanbokucho period such as re-evaluating the achievements of Takauji ASHIKAGA, researching aspects of Masanori KUSUNOKI as an 'Akuto' (rebel), and establishing that Emperor Godaigo's Kenmu Restoration was influenced by Sung-period neo-Cunfucianism and was revolutionary because he aimed for a dictatorship, like a Chinese emperor, have come forth.

• したがって、今日、一般的に伝えられる、鼻が高く（長く）赤ら顔、山伏の装束に身を包み、一本歯の高下駄を履き、葉団扇を持って自在に空を飛び悪巧みをするといった性質は、中世以降に解釈されるようになったもので、本来まったく性質の異なったものが習合された俗信であるとされる。
• Therefore, the characteristics that have generally been passed on till today--a long nose and red face, wearing the attire of a Yamabushi monk, and wearing wooden clogs with single support, flying freely in the sky with a leaf fan and having evil design--have been interpreted since the middle ages, and it is considered to be the superstitious blending of originally quite different characteristics.

• 検断とは、統治すること・裁判することを意味する用語であり、中世日本では治安行政と刑事司法、さらに軍事までもが未分化だったため、領地・村落内の内政、外交を行い、統治することが裁判を行うことと密接につながっていた（日葡辞書によると、検断は統治・裁判を行う役職、とある）。
• The kendan is the term to mean to rule and to hold a trial, and addressing domestic policies, diplomacies, and governing territories and rural communities were closely connected to holding a trial because security, government, and criminal justice, even the military, were not separated in medieval Japan (according to 'Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam:' Japanese-Portuguese dictionary, published 1603 - 1604), kendan was described as a post to rule and hold a trial).

• 一般にこの説は中世歌学特有の伝説の類として否定されているが、文献学的に言えば内親王に関する資料があまりにも少ないがために、これを積極的に肯定することも、或いは否定することもできないというのが実情である（定家が内親王より十三歳年下であるというのが否定説の唯一の根拠）。
• Generally this theory is denied as typical theory of the Medieval poem association, however, in fact it is hard to agree or not since philologically there were not enough historical records on the Imperial Princess. (The only reason to deny this theory was that Teika was thirteen years younger than the Imperial Princess.)

• 実際に日本中世において正統と見なされた宗教は、平安時代以来密教を基軸に統合された顕密の仏教であり、旧仏教八宗は併立していたのではなく、密教に見ることが出来る鎮魂呪術的信仰という共通の基盤の上に密教の絶対的・普遍的真実性を前提とした競合的な秩序を形成していたものである。
• The kenmitsu taisei theory claims that the authentic religion in medieval Japan, in fact, was kenmitsu Buddhism, which had been integrated under the umbrella of Esoteric Buddhism after the Heian period, and eight old Buddhism sects did not co-exist but formed a competitive order built on the absolute and universal truth of Esoteric Buddhism while sharing as the common foundation the characteristics peculiar to Esoteric Buddhism: prayers for peace of souls and ritualistic faith.

• 中世初期（平安時代後期～鎌倉時代中期）までの荘園公領制においては、郡司、郷司、保司などの資格を持つ公領領主、公領領主ともしばしば重複する荘官、一部の有力な名主百姓（むしろ初期においては彼らこそが正式な百姓身分保持者）が管理する「名田」（みょう）がモザイク状に混在していた。
• Under shoen koryo sei (The System of Public Lands and Private Estates) in the early medieval period (from the late Heian period to the mid-Kamakura period), the 'myo' (rice-field lot under the charge of a nominal holder), which was managed by a lord of public land qualified as Gunji (a local government official), Goji (a local government official under the Ritsuryo system) or Hoji (an officer governing public land), shokan (an officer governing a shoen (manor)) often overlapped that of a lord of public land or some powerful myoshu (owner of rice fields) who was concurrently a peasant (they instead officially held peasant status in the early age) was mixed in a mosaic-like manner.

• 中世において成立した収取体制においては、雑役系の公事・夫役は名田を収取単位として租税の賦課が行われていたが、名田が十分に確立されていない地域や供御人・神人など荘園・公領の支配体系に属しない人々（主に非農業民）から公事・夫役を収取するために在家を単位として賦課したのである。
• Under the tax collection system established in the Medieval period taxes relating to public duties and labor services, which were kinds of zoyaku (odd-jobs tasks), were assessed for myoden (rice field lots) as a collection unit; on the other hand, taxes relating to public duties and labor services were collected in regions where myoden had not sufficiently established or from people who did not belong to the ruling system of shoen (manor) and koryo (mainly non-cultivators) (mostly non-farmer), such as kugonin (groups of producer-merchants) or jinin (shrine dependents) by assessing for zaike as a collection unit.

• それによると「神道にあらず儒道にあらず仏道にあらず、神儒仏三道融和の道念にして、中古以降専ら武門に於て其著しきを見る。鉄太郎（鉄舟）これを名付けて武士道と云ふ」とあり、少なくとも山岡鉄舟の認識では、中世より存在したが、自分が名付けるまでは「武士道」とは呼ばれていなかったとしている。
• According to this, 'it is not Shinto, not Confucianism, not Buddhism, but the concept which mixes these three and since ancient and medieval times it has excelled only in military art; Tetsutaro (Tesshu YAMAOKA) called it bushido' and at least from the viewpoint of Tesshu YAMAOKA, it had existed since the medieval times but he said that it was not called 'bushido' until he named it.

• これは小作制度というよりも中世荘園制度のインドへの導入に近く、従来は古代には収穫物の6分の1、デリー・スルタン朝時代以後でも収穫物の3分の1の徴収であったものが定額かつ高額な地税を現金による納付となり、なおかつ徴収実務は領主・地主に任されていたために、農民は農奴に近い状況に置かれた。
• This was the introduction of India to medieval manorialism rather than the tenancy system and traditionally one-sixth of harvests in ancient times and one-third of them after the Dehli Sultanate period were levied, but the taxes on land were paid with fixed and expensive amounts of cash money and the lords and landowners undertook tax collection work and thus the farmers were put in a situation which was similar to that of serfs.

• 源氏物語に耽溺したために自身が不幸になったとする思想は1060年ころ著された更級日記の中にすでに現れているが、具体的な行動としては『宝物集』などに現れており、治承（1177年から1180年）・文治（1185年から1189年）のころに始まったとされており、中世には実際に何度か行われている。
• His thought that an indulgence in the Tale of Genji made him unhappy had already appeared in Sarashina Nikki (Sarashina Diary), written around 1060; his concrete actions are recognized in 'Hobutsushu' (A Collection of Treasures) and the Genji Kuyo, which is thought to have been started between 1177 and 1180 and between 1185 and 1189, was actually held several times in medieval times.

• 中世の巫女舞に関する多くの史料が残されている備前国（岡山県）の吉備津神社の例では、1342年（康永元年/興国3年）作成の『一宮社法』によれば、一宮（吉備津神社）には12名の巫女からなる「神子座」があり、一宮の行事以外でも村々の招きに応じて神楽を舞い、逆に村々の巫女が一宮で舞う事があった。
• Many historical documents about mikomai in the medieval period have been kept at Kibitsu-jinja Shrine in Bizen Province (Okayama Prefecture), and according to one documents named 'Ichinomiyasha ho' written in 1342, Ichinomiya (i.e. Kibitsu-jinja Shrine) retained 'mikoza' (literally, 'a group of miko') composed of twelve shrine maidens, some of whom were dispatched to offer Kagura at local shrines upon request, while Ichinomiya also received shrine maidens from local shrines to dance Kagura at Ichinomiya.

• 平安時代の源氏物語に見られるような、貴族階級による願掛けを中心とした神社参詣がその初期形態ではないかとされ、その後仏教の末法思想の流行により、後白河法皇の熊野三山詣でなど浄土信仰を背景とした極楽往生を願う巡礼へと変化し、中世に入ると、戦乱や貧困の中で一般階級による巡礼も行なわれるようになった。
• As depicted in the Tale of Genji set in the Heian period, the initial form was thought to be the shrine visits that the nobility made, which further transformed into Junrei to wish for a peaceful death through Jodo Shinko (belief of a pure land after death) such as the Kumano Sanzan (three shrines in Kumano) visits of the Cloistered Emperor Goshirakawa due to the spread of pessimism in a decadent age, and in the middle ages, Junrei were done by the ordinary public during the age of war and poverty.

• ただし、公家社会において政所及びこれを構成する家司の制度が解体された中世後期に入ると、公家の家臣層も諸大夫と青侍を中心とする家僕に再編成されることになるが、諸大夫を持てない中下層公家では青侍のみで家僕が構成されて公家家政を運営するようになり、青侍と家僕が同義語として扱われる場合もあった（『教言卿記』など）。
• In the late Medieval period, with the mandokoro (Administrative Office) and Ie no tsukasa (house steward) system that constituted mandokoro being broken up by the court, those of the court nobles at the level of vassals were to be reassigned to retainers, mainly including shodaibu and Aozamurai; however, the court nobles at the lower and middle levels who could not have vassals at shodaibu rank had only Aozamurai constituting their vassals and managing their households, whereas Aozamurai and vassals were treated as synonyms in some cases (according to 'Noritoki Kyo ki' [The Diary of Noritoki YAMASHINA]).

• 荘園制の崩壊や統一政権の樹立によって寺院の自治機能が解体され、集会も近世期には寺院内の評議機関の1つに過ぎなくなるが、こうした寺院における集会と中世・近世における合議制による意思決定機能を有した「○○衆」と呼ばれる組織や惣村や都市などに見られる自治など、前近代の日本における自治制度の成立と結びつける考え方もある。
• The demise of the shoen system (manorialism) and the establishment of a unified authority collapsed the autonomy function of the temples and during the early-modern times shue became just a council institution in the temples, but the autonomy as seen in the shue in such temples, in the organization called 'XXX shu' which had the decision making function by the council system, in the soson (a community consisting of peasants' self-governing association) and in the city during the medieval and the modern period, which, some thought, were linked with the formation of the system of autonomy during the early-modern times in Japan.

• 戦後の歴史学において、悪党は封建領主のなかで位置づけられていたが、網野善彦、佐藤進一らが社会的基盤を農業以外に置く手工業民や芸能民などに着目した中世史像を提示すると、悪党の存在もそれらと関連付けて論じられるようになり、20世紀末からは海津一朗らによって元寇や徳政令等の社会変動における悪党の位置づけが試みられている。
• In historical science after the war, akuto was positioned among feudal lords, but when Yoshihiko AMINO, Shinichi SATO, etc. introduced a picture of medieval history focused on craftsmen and entertainers whose social foundations were not agricultural, akuto was discussed in connection with them, and from the end of the 20th century, Ichiro KAIZU and others were attempting to position akuto in the context of social change such as genko and Tokuseirei (ordering return of land sold and dissolution of debts).

• 簡単にいえば、武官は「官人として武装しており、律令官制の中で訓練を受けた常勤の公務員的存在」であるのに対して、武士は「10世紀に成立した新式の武芸を家芸とし、武装を朝廷や国府から公認された「下級貴族」、「下級官人」、「有力者の家人中世の家人」からなる人々」であって、律令官制の訓練機構で律令制式の武芸を身につけた者ではなかった。
• Simply speaking, military officers were 'government officials (espcially one of low to medium rank) who were armed and a full-time government [public] employee-like officials trained under the Ritsuryo-system,' while the bushi were 'the people who consisted of a 'lower ranking nobles,' 'lower ranking government officials' and 'people from powerful or medieval families' who regarded the new military art established during the 10th century as their iegei and were officially authorized to be armed by the Imperial Court or kokufu (provincial office)' and they did not acquire the military art of the Ritsuryo-system style in the training institution of the organization of the government according to the Ritsuryo codes.

• これが中世期から近世期にかけて、さまざまな芸が体系化され伝授の形式を整えてゆくにつれて、単に芸能、技芸の体系というにとどまらず、それをめぐる思想や哲学的背景、さらに修行や日常生活の場においてこうした形而上的な問題をいかに生かし、みずからの芸を高めてゆくかという問題が含められてゆくようになって成立したのが、芸道という観念である。
• When various arts became systematized from the middle ages to the early modern period, it started to take on more meanings, not simply meaning system of performing arts and techniques, but also including ideas and philosophical backgrounds of arts, and the issue of how these metaphysical problems could be used in ascetic practice and daily life to heighten one's own art, leading to the establishment of the concept of geido.

• 治承・建久の2度の新制の制定に大臣・摂関として関わった九条兼実（道長の6代目の子孫）は｢長保以後代々制符｣が制符（新制）策定の基本であるべきであると度々主張（『玉葉』治承2年4月23日・6月5日条）しており、長保から200年経た後世においても長保元年令が新制の出発点になるとする考え方が公家社会に広く存在し、中世公家法に対して強い影響を与えたことが分かる。
• Kanezane KUJO (the sixth generation descendant of Michinaga), who was involved in the establishment of shinsei in Jisho and Kenkyu eras as a minister and Sekkan (regents and advisers), often insisted that it was fundamental for the establishment of seifu (an official code of new laws issued by Daijokan, Great Council of State) or shinsei to 'follow the example of Choho' (articles dated April 23 and June 5, 1178 of 'Gyokuyo') and it follows that even two hundred years after the Choho era it was widely believed in the court noble society that Chohogannenrei should be a starting point for shinsei and that kugeho (laws issued by the imperial court) in the medieval period was greatly influenced by such a belief.

• また、没後かなり早い段階から“鳥が話す言葉を理解できた”、“母は信田の森に棲む「葛葉」という白狐だった”、“両性具有者だった”など、その超人ぶりと特異性をあまりにも誇張した数多くの伝説が残っており、古事談・大鏡・宇治拾遺物語・古今著聞集・今昔物語集・體源抄・日本紀略・権記・平家物語・大江山絵詞・元亨釈書・源平盛衰記・発心集・北条九代記・私聚百因縁集、歌舞伎や文楽の題目信田妻・蘆屋道満大内鑑、仮名草子安倍清明物語、はては近年の夢枕獏による小説や岡野玲子による漫画、数多くの映画化・ドラマ化やゲームのキャラクターなど、中世から近世・現代に至るまであまたの著作の題材として取り上げられている。
• From a time not long after his death, there have been numerous legends about Seimei over-exaggerating his distinctiveness that 'he understood the language birds spoke,' 'his mother was a white fox named 'Kuzu no ha (Kuzu Leaf) living in the woods in Shinoda,' and 'he was an androgyny' and, in addition, Seimei has been the subject of countless literary works including Kojidan, Okagami, Uji shuin monogatari, Kokonchomonju, Konjaku monogatari shu, Taigensho, Nihongiryaku, Gonki, Heika monogatari (the Tale of the Taira clan), Oeyama ekotoba, Genko shakusho, Genpei seisuiki, Hosshinshu, Hojo kudaiki (Records of nine generations of the Hojo clan) and Shishuhyakuinnenshu, the topic for kabuki or bunraku such as Shinodazuma, Ashiya Doman ouchi kagami and Kanazoshi Abe no Seimei monogatari, the main character of the novels written by YUMEMAKURA Baku, comics created by OKANO Reiko, many movies and TV shows as well as computer games over the period from the Middle Ages to modern times and today.