Honyaku Star - Search: 世紀

世紀: 1000 Terms and Phrases

２０世紀
twentieth century

本朝世紀
Honcho Seiki
Honcho Seiki (The Chronicle of Imperial Reigns):
Honchō Seiki

ユリウス暦表世紀
Julian ephemeris century

20世紀からの変動
Changes that have occurred entering the 20th century

16世紀～幕末まで
From the 16th century to the end of the Tokugawa shogunate

9世紀初期に廃止？
It was presumed to be abrogated in the early ninth century.

- 19世紀中期。
Mid 19th century

18世紀後半の建築。
The residence was built in the late 18th century.

21世紀の規制枠組み
Regulatory Framework for the 21st Century

10世紀初頭の社会情勢
The social situation of the early tenth century

坂上老：7世紀後期の人。
SAKANOUE no Okina - lived in the late 7th century.

15世紀半ごろまで続いた。
These relations continued into the middle of the fifteenth century.

坂上是保：18世紀後半の人。
SAKANOUE no Koreyasu - lived in the late 18th century

7世紀後半に日本へ移行した。
Wakoku was changed into 'Nihon' in official use during the latter half of the seventh century.

国交の再開～20世紀前半まで
From restoration of diplomatic relations to the first half of the 20th century

12世紀前半の定朝様式に属する。
It is categorized as Jocho style from the first half of the 12th century.

坂上貞時：10世紀末の検非違使。
SAKANOUE no Sadatoki - Kebiishi (an official with judicial and police powers) at the end of the 10th century.

5世紀頃であると考えられている。
These miyakes were believed to be built around the 5th Century A.D.

17世紀後半頃の建築と推定される。
The residence is estimated to have been built in the late 17th century.

15世紀半ばからしばらく途絶えた。
Chosen Tsushinshi ceased to come to Japan for some time after around the middle of 15th century.

しかし9世紀以降は一般に広まった。
However, it spread publicly after the ninth century.

坂上時通：11世紀初め頃の検非違使。
SAKANOUE no Tokimichi - Kebiishi (an official with judicial and police powers) at the beginning of the 11th century.

この文様は紀元前1世紀頃に衰退する。
This pattern declined in the first century B.C.

2世紀末葉になると近畿式のみとなる。
In the end of the second century, only Kinki type dotaku were produced.

12世紀後半の平清盛による修築が有名。
The reconstruction by TAIRA no Kiyomori during the late 12th century is well known.

1世紀末ごろを境にして急に大型化する。
Dotaku got bigger and bigger prominently from the end of the first century.

しかし、6世紀には一般の民にも及んだ。
However, in the sixth century the clan name (family name) and the hereditary titles were also given to the common people.

法起寺三重塔は8世紀初めの建築である。
The Three-Story Pagoda of Hokki-ji Temple was built in the early eighth century.

ただしこの道路は8世紀内に廃道となる。
But this road was abandoned in the eighth century.

（実際には4世紀初めのことと思われる）
(This is, however, believed to have actually happened at around the beginning of the fourth century.)

4世紀朝鮮半島に伝わる（韓国の仏教）
The 4th century : It was transmitted to the Korean Peninsula (Korean Buddhism)

3世紀の中頃に築造されたと推定される。
It is estimated to have been constructed approximately in the middle of the third century.

20世紀を代表する家具デザイナーの一人。
One of the most influential furniture designers in the 20th century.

6世紀代に列島各地に須恵器窯が造られた。
In the sixth century, kilns for Sueki were made in various locations in Japan.

21世紀の現在でも活動が続けられている。
The activities are still continued even now in the 21st century.

広範に整備されるのは6世紀のことである。
It is in the sixth century, when the uji developed extensively.

朝鮮半島には16世紀初めにもたらされた。
Yomeigaku was introduced into the Korean Peninsula in the early 16th century.

本仏思想は12世紀頃の天台宗に見られる。
The thought of Honbutsu appeared in the Buddhist doctrine of the Tendai sect in the 12th century.

紀元後1世紀中国に伝わる（中国の仏教）
The 1st century A.D.: It was transmitted to China (Chinese Buddhism)

日本では平安初期の9世紀から作例がある。
In Japan it has been shaped since the 9th century during the Heian period.

院宮分国制は10世紀初頭から行われていた。
The ingu bunkoku-sei system existed from the early 10th century.

幕府-守護体制は15世紀中葉まで存続した。
The bakufu-Shugo system remained until around the middle of 15th century.

それぞれの銅鐸は2世紀代に盛んに創られた。
For both types, many were produced in the second century.

石上氏は宅嗣の死後、9世紀前半ころに衰退。
The Isonokami clan declined in the early ninth century after the death of Yakatsugu.

5世紀には倭の五王が中国に使者を遣わした。
In the fifth century, the five kings of Wa (yamato, ancient Japan) dispatched envoys to China.

19世紀初頭の文化年間に現在の形になった。
Rokuyo became its present form during the early nineteenth century.

9世紀に臨済録に登場する普化に因み始まる。
It began from Fuke who appeared in the Rinzai Roku (the record of Rinzai's teachings) in the ninth century.

13世紀タイに伝わる（東南アジアの仏教）
The 13th century : It was transmitted to Thailand (Southeast Asian Buddhism)

しかし、公営田制は、10世紀までに廃絶した。
However, Kueiden system was eliminated by the 10th century.

紀元前2世紀に成立して暦学の基本書とされた。
It was established in 2B.C. and is regarded as the fundamental document of calendrical calculation.

坂上晴澄：10世紀後半の紀伊国伊都郡の武士。
SAKANOUE no Haruzumi - a warrior from Ito-gun, Kii Province in the late 10th century.

18世紀に入ると幕府財政が慢性的に悪化した。
Entering the 18th the century, the finance of the bakufu became chronically deteriorated.

14世紀頃は南北朝時代 (日本)と呼ばれた。
The 14th century is called the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (in Japan).

その成立時期は、5～6世紀をさかのぼらない。
The formation period was between the fifth century and the sixth century.

鎌倉時代後期の13世紀末に成立したとされる。
It is assumed to have been completed at the end of the 13th century, the late Kamakura period.

次の阮朝も19世紀前期に律令を制定している。
The succeeding Nguyễn Dynasty also enacted its own Luli in the early 19th century.

7世紀前半チベットに伝わる（チベット仏教）
The early 7th century: It was transmitted to Tibet (Tibetan Buddhism)

日本では11世紀以降に、十王信仰が広まった。
Jyuoshinko spread in Japan in the eleventh century and after.

18世紀南シベリアに伝わる（チベット仏教）
18th century: It was transmitted to southern Siberia (Tibetan Buddhism)

10世紀には高野山で空海の入定信仰が起った。
In the tenth century Nyujoshinko, the faith in which Kukai had fallen into deep meditation, was created at Koyasan.

11世紀中葉に、王朝国家体制の変革が行われた。
In the middle era of the 11th century, the dynastic national system was reformed.

これらにより初期荘園は10世紀までに衰退した。
For this reason, shoki shoen declined until the tenth century.

（以下は一世紀前の事件であり、実名表記とする）
(The following is the description of the crime that was committed a century ago, and the real names are written)

9世紀に入ってもそうした状況は改善されなかった。
In the 9th century, the situation was not improved.

この動きは9世紀には御霊会の流行を引き起こした。
This trend led to the epidemic of the goryoe (ritual ceremony to repose of spirits of a deceased person) in the ninth century.

農家風の民家で、18世紀中頃の建築と推定される。
This private residence is built in a farmhouse style, and is estimated to date back to the mid 18th century.

11世紀後期からは、中世に移行したと考えてよい。
Japan is considered to have moved into the Medieval Ages in the latter half of the 11th century.

12世紀に入ると王朝国家のあり方に変化が生じた。
Entering the 12th century, the system of the dynastic nation-state began changing..

日系アメリカ人の歴史は19世紀末の移民に始まる。
The history of Japanese Americans starts with their immigration at the end of the 19th century.

280メートルの前方後円墳、造営は3世紀後半説）
This keyhole shaped mound is 280 meters long; while the date certain is unknown, the construction date is said to of been in the late half of the third century.]

6世紀後半になり、北部九州で装飾古墳が盛行した。
In the later half of the six century, people in the northern part of Kyusyu enthusiastically constructed soshoku kofun (decorated tombs) in northern part of Kyusyu.

ウジの組織は、5世紀末以降、史料から確認できる。
The organization of uji can be confirmed by historical materials after the end of the fifth century.

後代の20世紀には「旧国」「旧国名」とも呼んだ。
Later in the 20th century, they called it as 'old province' or 'old province name.'

1世紀ころ、北インドで成立したと推定されている。
It is estimated that this sutra was created in Northern India in the first century.

13-16世紀モンゴルに伝わる（チベット仏教）
13th to 16th centuries: It was transmitted to Mongolia (Mongolian Buddhism)

11世紀ミャンマーに伝わる（東南アジアの仏教）
The 11th century : It was transmitted to Myanmar (Southeast Asian Buddhism)

古墳時代後期、6世紀後半の築造と考えられている。
It is thought that the tumulus was constructed in the late sixth century, in the latter part of Kofun period (tumulus period).

忠平の死後、10世紀中葉に村上天皇が親政を行った。
After Tadahira's death, Emperor Murakami conducted direct Imperial rule in the middle of the 10th century.

11世紀中期までは摂関政治がある程度機能していた。
Up to the middle of the 11th century, the regency functioned to some extent.

なお、埋納時期は紀元前後と2世紀頃に集中している。
And burial of dotaku took place intensively around the beginning of the first century and in the second century.

徳丹城弘仁2年（811年）9世紀中頃志波郡徳丹城跡
Tokutan-jo Castle, 811, about mid 9th century, Shiwa gun, former site of Tokutan-jo Castle

7世紀後半頃の東北地方北部の古墳の副葬品の代表例。
It is the major burial goods for tumulus in northern Tohoku Region in the late seventh century.

10世紀には、最後の格式となる延喜式が編纂された。
In the 10th century, the Engishiki, the last kyakushiki, was compiled.

根本は2世紀頃のインドで始まったと考えられている。
The foundation is thought to have started in India around the second century.

この絵巻の成立は、平安時代後期の12世紀頃とされる。
The set of picture scrolls is said to have been made in the late Heian period, at around 12th century.

15世紀、日本では「字引」形式の書物が発展してきた。
In the 15th century, a book in the form of 'Jibiki' developed in Japan.

兵の家の一部は11世紀に入ると軍事貴族へと成長した。
In the 11th century the tsuwamono no ie evolved into military lords.

9世紀に、摂関政治により藤原北家が最も有力となった。
By the regency politics, the Northern House of the FUJIWARA clan (one of the four Fujiwara family lines) became most influential in the ninth century.

11世紀頃から院使は、丹波氏が世襲するようになった。
After the eleventh century, the administrator was hereditarily succeeded by the Tanba clan.

19世紀中期まで銃の装塡は、主にこの方法で行われた。
Until the mid 19th century, loading a gun was done mostly by this method.

戯曲風に構成しており、12世紀初めの成立とみられる。
It is composed like a play, and is regarded to be completed in the early 12th century.

10世紀末には、浄土教にもケガレ思想の影響が見られる。
The influence of muck idea was seen in Jodo (Pure Land) sect at the end of the tenth century.

11世紀中葉に王朝国家体制が変質（後期王朝国家）した。
In the mid-11th century the dynastic nation system transformed itself (to the late dynastic nation).

8世紀前半は、律令制強化への動きが積極的に展開された。
In the first half of the eight century, the move to strengthen the Ritsuryo system became active.

南西諸島においては、12世紀ごろからグスク時代に入る。
In the small islands located southeast of the main islands of Japan, the Gusuku period started around the 12th century.

伊治城神護景雲元年（767年）9世紀初頭栗原郡伊治城跡
Iji-jo Castle, 767, beginning of 9th century, Kurihara gun, former site of Iji-jo Castle

この時期の歴史書には『扶桑略記』、『本朝世紀』がある。
History books during this period were 'Fuso Ryakki' (A Brief History of Japan), 'Honcho seiki' (Chronicle of Imperial Reigns), etc.

紀元前5世紀頃インドで仏教が開かれる（インドの仏教）
Around the 5th century B.C.: Buddhism was founded in India (Indian Buddhism)

しかし、15-16世紀になると、その様相は変わってくる。
However, the situation changed when entering fifteenth to sixteenth century.

6世紀以前は、各々の豪族が土地と民衆を直接支配していた。
Before the sixth century, each gozoku (local ruling family) directly governed the land and the people.

7世紀前半には聖徳太子らによって『天皇記』が編纂された。
In the first half of the 7th century, 'Tennoki' (a record of emperors) was compiled by Prince Shotoku as well.

北海道においては、13世紀ころからアイヌ文化が成立した。
In Hokkaido, Ainu Culture was established around the 13th century.

しかしながら19世紀には、代わりとも言える苦力が現れた。
However, in the 19th century, a coolie which could be a replacement appeared.

渡来系豪族が自らの出自を改変するのは8世紀以降であること
Influential migrant clans in ancient Japan only began voluntarily changing their places of origin from the eighth century.

胆沢城延暦21年（802年）10世紀後半頃胆沢郡胆沢城跡
Isawa-jo Castle, 802, about late 10th century, Isawa gun, former site of Isawa-jo Castle

5世紀に入ると、ヤマト王権の王は中国王朝へ朝貢を始めた。
In the fifth century, the Yamato Kingdom began paying tributes to the Chinese Court.

10世紀後期から現れ始め、藤原道長執政期を中心に頻発した。
It started to appear in the second half of the 10th century and often occurred particularly when FUJIWARA no Michinaga was an administrator.

しかし次第に沈静化していき、11世紀40年代には終息した。
However it became increasingly nominal, ending in the 1040's.

今井まちや館 - 本町筋の中央部にある18世紀初期の町家。
Imai Machiyakan: It is a machiya (a traditional townhouse) building built in the early 18th century around the middle of Honmachi-suji Street.

が、20世紀末期頃からその存在が疑問視されるようになった。
Since the end of the 20th century, however, the existence of the system has been doubted.

しかし実際には平安時代初期9世紀ごろの成立と見られている。
However, it is actually considered to have been established in the 9th century, during the early Heian period.

7世紀中期以後、ヤマト王権による蝦夷の従属化が進められた。
After the middle of the 7th century, Yamato Dynasty tried to subordinate Emishi.

この世紀の終わり頃には畿内の一部に先進的な群集墳が現れる。
Finally, at the end of the fourth century, advanced tumulus communities appeared in one area of the Kinai region (the five capital provinces surrounding the ancient capitals of Nara and Kyoto).

中国では2 - 3世紀の時代に、紹興近辺でしか出土しない。
In China, they were discovered only near Shaoxing in the second to third century.

全国的に6世紀の末までに前方後円墳が造られなくなっていた。
Through out Japan toward the end of the sixth century, construction of keyhole-shaped tomb mounds ceased.

『自家伝抄』は、16世紀初頭に成立したと見られる能の伝書。
'Jika Densho' is a noh text that is thought to have been written at the beginning of the 16th century.

10世紀の藤原純友追討に伊予の水軍を率いて活躍した橘遠保。
TACHIBANA no Toyasu that made great achievements in tracking and killing FUJIWARA no Sumitomo during the tenth century.

この見宝塔品の場面を造形化したもので７世紀末の作品である。
The work, which was created in the late seventh century, depicts the scene from Kenhotohon.

そして大嘗会自体や新嘗祭も、15世紀にはいったん中絶する。
Daijoe itself and Niinamesai (ceremonial offering by the Emperor of newly-harvested rice to the deities) were interrupted in the 15th century.

9世紀半ば（平安時代中期）から、事相の研究が盛んとなった。
The research of Jiso has been popular since the mid-ninth century (during the mid-Heian period).

操業期間は7世紀の飛鳥時代を中心とした約100年間である。
Unglazed ware was produced there for about 100 years mainly in the Asuka period of the seventh century.

本古墳は、出土した埴輪から4世紀初め頃の築造と推定される。
This tumulus is estimated from the excavated Haniwa (unglazed terra-cotta cylinders and hollow sculptures arranged on and around the kofun [the mounded tombs]) to have been constructed approximately at the beginning of the fourth century.

10世紀初頭の朱雀期になって初めて個別人身支配が放棄された。
The principle of people-based governance was finally abandoned in the Suzaku era, early 10th century.

13世紀中期ごろになると、農村社会に大きな変動が生じ始めた。
Toward the middle of the 13th century, a far-reaching change started to occur within rural society in Japan.

日本陶磁史において12世紀は、一大変動の起こった時期である。
In Japanese ceramic ware history, the 12th century was the period when a major big change occurred.

21世紀に入ってからは新たな視点からの議論が展開しつつある。
After the 21st century began, an argument from a new point of view has been developed.

5世紀ころ四道将軍の遠征によりヤマト王権に服属したとされる。
It is said that this area was brought under the control of the Yamato dynasty through the victories of Shido Shogun ('the Four Legendary Generals').

16世紀半ばの人物とされる明智定明は、内紛により殺害された。
Sadaaki AKECHI, who is considered to have lived in the middle of the 16th century, was killed in an internal conflict.

銅鐸はさらに大型化するが、3世紀になると突然造られなくなる。
After this, dotaku still got bigger but disappeared in the third century.

16世紀になると日朝関係が悪化し、貿易も衰退の一途を辿った。
In the middle of 16th century, the relationship between Korea and Japan worsened and the trade between both countries declined.

しかし、実際の古墳の築造は、畿内・西日本では7世紀前半ごろ。
However, at this current time in the early half of the seventh century, the Japanese people started 'Kofun' constructions in the Kinai region and that of western Japan.

7世紀には律令制の導入とともに中国的な天下概念が移入された。
The notion of Tenka in the Chinese style was introduced in the seventh century in association with the establishment of the Ritsuryo system.

しかし、12世紀以後も引き続き雑役免系荘園は各地で残存した。
However, Zoyakumen kei shoen still existed at various places during the twelfth century.

3世紀セイロン島（スリランカ）に伝わる（スリランカの仏教）
The 3rd century : It was transmitted to Ceylon (Sri Lankan Buddhism)

考古学的には、須恵器の出現は古墳時代中期、5世紀中頃とされる。
In the archaeological point of view, it is believed that people started to produce Sueki in the middle of the Kofun period, which is around mid-fifth century.

15世紀末頃からこのような「天下」概念に若干の変化が起こった。
This notion began to change slightly from the end of the 15th century.

9世紀後半になると縫殿寮の別所（分局）として糸所が設けられた。
In the late ninth century, Itodokoro was established as the betsudokoro (branch office) of Nuidonoryo.

つづく5世紀の半ばには、各地に巨大古墳が築造されるようになる。
There were numerous gigantic 'Kofun' (keyhole-shaped mounds) continuously built throughout Japan during the mid fifth century.

5世紀には大阪平野を中心にさらに大規模な前方後円墳が営まれた。
In the fifth century, some zenpo-koen-fun, much larger than before, were constructed mainly in the Osaka Plain.

12世紀に入ると、新しい主題を求めて趣向をこらす傾向が現れる。
In the 12th century, a tendency to elaborate to find a new subject came up.

その一族で13世紀の元寇に奮戦したことで知られる九州の松浦党。
Matsuura Party in Kyushu that belonged to the Watanabe clan and fought bravely in the war of Mongolian invasion against Japan during the thirteenth century.

賀茂社や春日社などに仏塔が建てられたのも12世紀のことであった。
It was during the 12th century when a Buddhist pagoda was constructed in Kamo-sha Shrine or Kasuga-sha Shrine.

しかし20世紀に入ると、鉄道の開通によりこれらの水運は衰退した。
In the 20th century, however, water transport via these waterways declined due to the opening of the railroad.

こうして、東北地方では12世紀には蝦夷としての独立性は失われた。
In this way, the Emishi lost their independence in the Tohoku region by the twelfth century.

19世紀頃朝鮮では勢道政治（王の外戚による政治）が行われていた。
In the 19th century, Sedo Jeongchi (monarchy of matrilineal succession) was practiced in Korea.

日本で宋銭が本格的に流通したのは12世紀後半からといわれている。
Circulation of the Sung currency in Japan began in full in the late 12th century.

これは、序文で『日本書紀』に先行する7世紀の編纂と主張している。
In the preface of this record, the writer asserts that it was edited in the 7th century, earlier than the Chronicles of Japan.

設備がととのった9世紀には良質の紙を製造し「紙屋紙」と称された。
In the ninth century when the facilities were well-furnished, it produced papers of good quality and they were called 'kamiya-gami' (kamiya paper).

朝鮮半島では、7世紀後半頃新羅王京において採用されたといわれる。
It is said that Jobosei was applied in the capital city of Silla around the late seventh century in the Korean Peninsula.

政党内閣が典型的な発展を見せたのは17世紀後半のイギリスである。
The party cabinet system witnessed a remarkable development in England in the latter half of the seventeenth century.

しかし、18世紀に入ると減産、枯渇の傾向がみられるようになった。
New Regulations on Ships and Trade (a trade restriction policy)

それに対して11世紀に導入された賦課基準が公田官物率法であった。
Under such situation, a new standard called Koden kanmotsu rippo (the law fixing the tax rate for koden) was introduced in the eleventh century.

その約50年後の2世紀初頭には、倭国王帥升が後漢へ遣使している。
About 50 years later in the early second century, Suisho, the King of Wakoku, sent an envoy to the Later Han Dynasty.

11世紀以降も、律令の一部の条文は効力を保持していたからである。
This is because part of the provisions of the Ritsuryo still remained effective after the 11th century.

これらは5世紀前後の古墳時代の情報を知るための貴重な史料である。
These are important historical materials to know information on the Kofun period (tumulus period) around the fifth century.

19世紀なかばから東アジア世界に西欧列強による脅威が迫ってきた。
East Asia had been facing threats from Western powers since the middle of the 19th century.

すでに18世紀末、仙台藩の林子平は海国兵談で海防論を説いていた。
Late in the 18th century, Shihei HAYASHI of the Sendai Domain; had already advocated the way of maritime defense in his book titled Hkikoku heidan (a discussion on the maritime nations' soldiers).

木喰の存在は、本人の没後1世紀以上の間、完全に忘れ去られていた。
Mokujiki was completely forgotten for more than a century after his death.

21世紀に至っても、チベット、日本などでは盛んに制作されている。
In the 21st century, a lot of mandala works are being produced in Tibet and Japan, and so on.

世親（4-5世紀）の『無量寿経優婆提舎願生偈（浄土論・往生論）』
'Muryoju-kyo Ubadaisha Ganshoge (Jodo-ron, Ojo-ron),' written by Seshin (4-5 A.D.).

12世紀に入る頃から、国衙は本格的に荘園拡大対策に取り組み始めた。
From the beginning of the twelfth century, kokuga began to put in serious efforts to tackle the expansion of shoen.

8世紀末に桓武天皇が皇女の朝原内親王に授与した「親王賜田」の一つ。
One of the estates ('shinno shiden') granted to Imperial Princess Asahara by Emperor Kanmu in the late eighth century.

11世紀以降の土地・民衆支配は、荘園と公領の2本の柱によっていた。
The governance of the land and people after the eleventh century consisted of the two: the shoen and koryo.

20世紀前半までは祝部土器（いわいべどき）と呼ばれることがあった。
Sueki was sometimes called 'Iwaibedoki,' which meant celebration earthenware, until the former half of the 20th century.

5世紀に朝鮮半島南部から伝わり、土師器より高級な品として扱われた。
Sueki was brought to Japan from the south of Korean Peninsula and was treated as more luxurious pottery than Haji pottery.

6世紀後半には今の奈良県高市郡近辺を勢力下においていたと思われる。
The Soga clan is thought to have ruled over an area covering present-day Takaichi-gun, Nara Prefecture by the latter half of the sixth century.

これをうけて遣隋使は遣唐使と改称され、9世紀前半まで交流が続いた。
So, in order to cope with this, the Kenzui-shi (Japanese envoy to Sui Dynasty, China), was renamed the Kento-sho (Japanese envoy to Tang Dynasty, China), and the ensuing cultural exchanges lasted until the early 9th century.

当代の遺品なし（法隆寺西院伽藍は飛鳥時代様式だが7世紀後半の再建）
Nonexistent: Saiin Garan of Horyu-ji Temple has the style of the Asuka period, but it was reconstructed in the later seventh century.

また平壌の江西（こうせい）大墓は7世紀の壁画古墳として有名である。
In addition, Kosei Taibo in Pyongyang is famous for wall paintings of the seventh century.

やがて、18世紀には農村工業として問屋制家内工業が各地に勃興した。
Before long, in the 18 century domestic industries by wholesale and subcontract systems began to appear in rural area all over the country.

多くの論者が、律令制は遅くとも10世紀末までに死滅したとしている。
Most people accept that the Ritsuryo system became extinct no later than the end of the 10th century.

物部氏を滅ぼして以降約半世紀の間、蘇我氏が大臣として権力を握った。
Following this, members of the Soga clan wielded ministerial power over the next half century.

鞘尻金具の形態などから7世紀後半でも早い時期のものと見られている。
It is assumed to have been made at an early stage of the late 7th century based on its shape.

築造時期は出土品などから古墳時代後期、7世紀初頭と考えられている。
It is estimated to be constructed in the latter Kofun period (tumulus period) or the beginning of the seventh century from its artifacts and other facts.

しかし10世紀中期頃、国衙行政は在庁官人の手で運営されるようになる。
However, in the middle of the 10th century, zaichokanjin (the local officials in Heian and Kamakura periods) started to manage kokuga (provincial government offices).

8世紀に施行された律令に初めて「出挙」の語が現れた（養老律令雑令）。
The word 'Suiko' first appeared in the Ritsuryo codes enforced in the eighth century (Yoro-ritsuryo-zoryo [a chapter in the code promulgated in the Yoro period dealing with miscellaneous materials]).

11世紀末から興福寺衆徒らによる強訴がしばしば行われるようになった。
Direct petitions were often filed by the monk-soldiers of Kofuku-ji Temple from the end of the 11th century.

葛城氏の特徴として、5世紀の大王家との継続的な婚姻関係が挙げられる。
One of the features of the Katsuraki clan is their successive marital relations with the Okimi family during the 5th century.

以後、13世紀にかけて信楽焼、丹波焼など常滑の影響を受けて開窯した。
Ever since then, kilns had been opening under the influence of Tokoname such as Shigaraki-yaki Ware or Tanba-yaki Ware until the 13th century.

8世紀前期から中期にかけての時期、国衙は安定的に営まれるようになる。
From early to middle eighth century, Kokuga was conducted in a stable manner.

16世紀当時としては非常に多い数千丁単位の数の火縄銃で武装していた。
Saikashu members were armed with thousands of matchlock guns, which was considered a huge number for that time, the 16th century.

律令制が解体する10世紀以後、次第に僧尼令の規定は形骸化していった。
After the 10th century when the ritsuryo system collapsed, the provisions of the Soniryo increasingly became nominal.

東乗鞍古墳 - 古墳時代後期（6世紀中）の築造とみられる前方後円墳。
Higashinorikura-kofun Tumulus: A keyhole-shaped mound, which is thought that was constructed in the late Kofun period (the mid-sixth century).

院宮分国と知行国は、ともに院政期（11世紀後葉以降）に急激に増加した。
Ingu bunkoku provinces and chigyo-koku provinces increased rapidly in the insei period (during the period of the government by the Retired Emperor) (in the latter half the 11th century and later).

そして、鎌倉幕府が成立した12世紀末を後期王朝国家の終期においている。
They also set the end of Dynastic polity period at the end of 12th century when the Kamakura bakufu was established.

「伴大納言」とは応天門の変にかかわった9世紀の人物伴善男をさしている。
The name 'Ban Dainagon' refers to TOMO no Yoshio during the ninth century who was involved in the Otenmon Incident.

11世紀中葉の後期王朝国家の成立以来、国衙軍制は機能停止してしまった。
After the latter dynastic nation was established in the middle of the 11th century, the kokuga forces system stopped functioning.

このため、18世紀以降、倭館交易は衰退するが、断絶することはなかった。
As a result, wakan trade had dwindled after the 18th century, although it was not terminated.

11世紀ごろから、中央政府の有力者へ田地を寄進する動きが見られ始める。
From around the eleventh century, the rice-field donation to the powerful men in the central government started.

本朝世紀（ほんちょうせいき）は、平安時代末期に編纂された歴史書である。
Honcho Seiki refers to the history book compiled during the late Heian period.

最初期の国衙は、律令制構築段階の7世紀後期に登場したと考えられている。
It is believed that the earliest type of Kokuga appeared during the development stage of the Ritsuryo system which established in the late seventh century.

近江大津宮（おうみのおおつのみや）は、7世紀後半の天智天皇が営んだ宮。
Imperial Palace Omi Otsu no Miya (近江大津宮) refers to the Imperial palace where the Emperor Tenchi lived and carried out politics in the latter half of the seventh century.

小野氏（おのうじ）は、7世紀前半から平安時代中期にかけて活躍した氏族。
Ono clan was a clan which was active from the early seventh century to the middle of the Heian period.

事実その平定ルートは、四世紀の前方後円墳の伝播地域とほぼ重なっている。
In fact, their route conquest almost overlaps regions where a number of large keyhole-shaped tomb mounds were propagated in the fourth century,.

18世紀の初めころの京都市と大坂はともに40万近い人口をかかえていた。
Early in the 18th century, the cities of Kyoto and Osaka both had populations close to 400 thousand each.

群馬県沼田市で、古墳時代後期（6世紀中頃）の棚田遺構が見つかっている。
Ancient structural remnants of Tanada in the latter part of the Kofun period (the middle of the 6th century) were discovered in Numata City, Gunma Prefecture.

12世紀に東大寺寛信が文書目録を作成した際の記録が今日も残されている。
The record of the occasion when Kanshin of Todai-ji Temple made bunsho mokuroku (catalogue of documents) in the 12th century still exists today.

西乗鞍古墳 - 古墳時代後期（6世紀前半）の築造とみられる前方後円墳。
Nishinorikura-kofun Tumulus: A keyhole-shaped mound, which is thought that was constructed in the late Kofun period (the early sixth century.)

しかし、11世紀末、覚鑁（興教大師）が高野山で秘密念仏思想を提唱した。
However, at the end of the eleventh century Kakuban (Kogyo Daishi) began to preach the thought of Himitsu Nenbutsu at Koyasan.

更に15世紀後半以後には京都のある山城国国内の御料所化にも着手している。
Furthermore, since the latter half of the fifteenth century, action was taken to make the Yamashiro Province (within Kyoto) a Goryo-sho.

6世紀中葉には、飛鳥周辺に仏教が伝わって来て、文化の高い所となってきた。
In the middle of the sixth century, Buddhism was introduced in Asuka which made Asuka become a culturally sophisticated place.

13世紀前半の承久の乱の結果、公家政権は武家政権に寄生する存在となった。
As a result of the Jokyu War during the first half of thirteenth century, the Kuge government became a parasite on the back of the military government.

12世紀後半には宮城県石巻市に水沼窯、兵庫県西脇市に緑風台窯が築かれた。
In the latter half of the 12th century, Mizunuma kilns were built in Ishimaki City, Miyagi Prefecture, and a Ryokufudai kiln was built in Nishiwaki City, Hyogo Prefecture.

このため18世紀には広州に欧米諸国の商館が設置され、広東貿易が行われた。
Thus, in the 18th century, Western trading houses were established in Guangzhou for the purpose of Cantonese trade.

このため、苗字は、12世紀以後、氏姓と同じように用いられることとなった。
Because of this a family name was used in the same way as a clan name and hereditary title after the 12th century.

1854年の日米和親条約によりおよそ2世紀にわたる日本の鎖国は解かれた。
Due to the Peace Treaty between Japan and United States in 1854, the Japanese isolation policy that had lasted for 200 years was abolished.

これらの不平等条約は半世紀にわたりその後の明治政府を悩ませることになる。
These unequal treaties troubled the Meiji Government for a half century.

5世紀の初頭、王墓クラスの大型前方後円墳が奈良盆地から河内平野に移った。
In the early fifth century large keyhole-shaped mounds appeared; these Kofun were similar in size to the Obo class (tomb of the King or Emperor) mounds, located upon the Kawachi Plain from within the regions of the Nara Basin.

6世紀の前半には、西日本の古墳に横穴式石室が盛んに造られるようになった。
In the early half of the sixth century, the people in western Japan enthusiastically constructed a horizontal stone chamber inside the Kofu mounds of western Japan.

（これには、9世紀末の寛平年間に既に廃止されていたとする見解も存在する）
(In another opinion, the nuhi system had already been abolished in the Kanpyo era at the end of the ninth century.)

日本においては、10世紀ころ、摂関政治のもとで官省符荘をもって成立した。
In Japan it was established in the form of Kanshofu sho (a shoen enjoying immunity from taxation by virtue of having official documents from both Dajokan [the Council of State] and Minbusho [the Ministry of Popular Affairs]) around the tenth century under regency.

そのうち、8世紀初頭から同中期・後期頃までが律令制の最盛期とされている。
During that period, the Ritsuryo system was at its zenith from the beginning to the middle and latter half of the 8th century.

12世紀を盛期に一時衰退するが、中世には廻国聖が諸国で納経活動を行った。
After the 12th century, which saw its heyday, the practice of copying and burying Buddhist scriptures temporarily lost momentum until Kaikoku-hijiri (literally, 'country-traveling saint') appeared in the middle ages, who traveled across the country and encouraged people to perform the practice.

遺物は無いが、石室や石棺の形式などから築造時期は6世紀末と見られている。
There is no relic left, but seen from the styles of stone chamber and the stone coffin, it is believed that the tumulus was constructed in the end of the sixth century.

10世紀後期から両者間の対立が国司苛政上訴という形で顕在化するようになる。
From the late 10th century, such contradictions became obvious in the form of Kokushi kasei joso (appeals or armed struggles against kokushi).

更にこれが10世紀には諸国の掾への任官を対象とした「道年挙」も開始された。
Furthermore, in the 10th century, a similar system called 'Donenkyo,' in which the target appointment position was Jo (a provincial governor) was introduced.

このため、10世紀前期に始まった王朝国家体制はより中世的な形態へ移行した。
The dynasty state, which started in the early 10th century, changed into a more-medieval form.

11世紀中期を画期として以前を前期王朝国家、以後を後期王朝国家と区分する。
The dynasty state before the mid-11th century is noted as the early dynasty state and the period after the mid-11th century as the later dynasty state.

紀元前2世紀後半頃40センチを超す大型銅鐸が現れ、流水文が採用されている。
Big dotaku exceeding 40 centimeters with the running water-type patterns appeared in the late second century B.C.

大宝律令（たいほうりつりょう）は、8世紀初頭に制定された日本の律令である。
Taiho Ritsuryo refers to the Japanese Ritsuryo codes established in the beginning of the eighth century.

大宰府（だざいふ）は、7世紀後半に、九州の筑前国に設置された地方行政機関。
Dazai-fu was a local administrative agency established in Chikuzen Province in the late seventh century

ルネサンス期の16世紀にヨーロッパ人は日本に到着し、極めて日本を賞賛した。
In the 16th century, during the Renaissance period, Europeans who visited Japan admired Japan very much.

10世紀頃から俘囚と移民の混雑が進み、城柵の役割が終わったものと見られる。
It is considered that the barbarians and immigrants had been increasingly intermingled since around the 10th century, which put the roles of josaku to an end.

東大寺山古墳は全長140メートルの前方後円墳で、4世紀後半頃に築造された。
Todaijiyama Tumulus is a large keyhole-shaped tomb mound whose total length is 140 meters long, and was built around the latter half of the fourth century.

朱子学は13世紀には朝鮮に伝わり朝鮮王朝の国家の統治理念として用いられる。
Neo-Confucianism was introduced to Korea in the 13th century and used as the national governing principle of Korean Dynasties.

この地域の人々は古くは熊襲、7世紀後半ごろからは隼人と呼ばれるようになる。
People in these areas were known as Kumaso in ancient times and, since the middle of the seventh century, Hayato.

その後、漢文による正史の体裁で8世紀前半に編年体で『日本書紀』が成立した。
Thereafter, the proliferation of the kanbun (literary Chinese) writing system also introduced the standard format of the official history from China, leading to the creation of the 'Nihon shoki' (Chronicles of Japan) in the first half of the eighth century.

出土品などの分析から、築造時期は古墳時代後期の6世紀中ごろとみられている。
From the analysis of the artifacts, the tumulus was believed to be constructed around mid-sixth century, the late Kofun period (tumulus period).

が、特に平安時代前期（9世紀）に大宰府管内で導入された公営の田地制度を指す。
Kueiden especially meant the public land system introduced in Dazaifu in the former Heian period (the 9th century).

しかしながら、12世紀後半から寺社知行国や武家知行国が行われるようになった。
However, from the latter half of the 12th century, the chigyo-koku provinces controlled by shrines or temples and those by samurai appeared.

これによって10世紀以降、律令国家は王朝国家(前期王朝国家）に変質を遂げた。
As a result of this, the Japanese nation under the ritsuryo codes was changed into the dynastic nation-state, or the early dynastic nation-state, from around the 10th century.

こうした歴史像に基づく記述が、21世紀初頭まで一部の辞書などに残存していた。
Such a historical image remained in some dictionaries until the beginning of the 21st century.

「やましろ」は、古くは山代と書き、7世紀に山背国という表記で国が建てられた。
'Yamashiro' was written as 山代 in ancient times, and in the 7th century, the province (kuni) was founded with the name written as 山背国.

15世紀末、こうした事態に耐えかねた朝鮮王朝は恒居倭に対し強硬姿勢に転ずる。
At the end of the fifteenth century, since the Korean Dynasty became tired of the situation, they changed their policy and started to take a harder stance towards kokyowa.

8世紀初頭から末にかけては奈良時代と呼ばれ、奈良に都城（平城京）が置かれた。
The early eighth century is called the Nara period, because the capital (Heijo-kyo capital) was placed in Nara.

6世紀には出土遺物としては見られなくなり、桂甲（けいこう）に代わられている。
By 6th century, Keiko had replaced them and Tanko made after that were not unearthed.

21世紀現在では、臨済宗、曹洞宗共にアメリカやヨーロッパに寺院を構えている。
At present in the 21st century, both the Rinzai sect and the Soto sect have temples in the United States and Europe.

日本では奈良時代（8世紀）の奈良・新薬師寺像をはじめ、数多く制作されている。
In Japan many statues such as the statue of Shin-Yakushi-ji Temple in Nara (eighth century) in the Nara period have been produced.

11世紀に入ると、田堵負名は官物・雑役が課税される名田経営を嫌うようになった。
In the eleventh century, tato fumyo became reluctant to administrate the myoden because it imposed the kanmotsu and the zoyaku as taxes on them.

8世紀後半には、その寺院に関係のある神を寺院の守護神、鎮守とするようになった。
In the late eighth century, temples recognized a deity that was related to them as their guardian deity or tutelary shrine.

「お」と「を」の間に音韻上の区別がなくなったのも11世紀末頃と考えられている。
The phonological distinction between 'o' and 'wo' was considered to have faded out around the end of the 11th century.

12世紀以降、荘園整理に基づく荘公区分の明確化に伴い、半不輸は縮小していった。
After the twelfth century, with the clarification of official manor boundaries due to Shoen improvement, Han-fuyu (a system where Kokuga and Kyunushi shared Kanmotsu and Zoeki) gradually decreased.

13世紀中頃以降は元冦という大事件があったものの、政治体制は一応安定していた。
Its regime remained stable enough despite the Genko (Mongol Invasions of Japan) incidents in and after the middle of the 13th century.

この倭館があった場所は倭館洞としてソウルの地名となり、20世紀始めまで続いた。
The name of the place where this wakan was located later became Waegwan-dong (倭館洞) in Seoul, which remained until the early 20th century.

日本における近代的な歴史思想の導入は、19世紀後半の明治維新以降のことである。
Modern historical concepts were introduced in Japan during the Meiji Restoration or later, or during the latter half of the nineteenth century.

社会の安定と経済の成長は、都市の発展を支え、17世紀後半の元禄文化に結実した。
The stabilization of society and economical growth supported the development of urban areas, producing Genroku Culture in the latter half of 17th century.

また、中央政治においては11世紀に藤原北家が政権中枢を担う摂関政治が成立した。
In central politics, Sekkan-seiji (politics based on Sekkan - regent or a top adviser to Emperor), in which the Northern House of the Fujiwara clan played a dominant role, was established.

17世紀後半より大坂三郷(北組、南組、天満組)の町方人口の詳細が伝わっている。
Detailed demographic records from the late 17th century are available for population of townspeople in the three Osaka districts (Kitagumi, Minamigumi and Tenmagumi).

このことから、平群氏を6世紀後半の神手以降の新興在地豪族と見る説が有力である。
Based on the above fact, a theory that regards the Heguri clan to be a new powerful local clan after Kamite of the later sixth century is gaining supporters recently.

8世紀後半になると桃生城、伊治城、覚べつ城（かくべつじょう）などが設けられる。
The late 8th century saw the foundation of Mono-jo Castle, Iji-jo Castle and Kakubetsu-jo Castle.

7世紀なって日本は遣隋使を送るようになるが、これは冊封体制のもとではなかった。
In the 7th century, Japan started to send Japanese envoys to Sui Dynasty China, but this envoy was not under tributary system.

さらに11世紀後半になると天皇の衣服を生産する御服所が内蔵寮頭邸に創設された。
In the late 11th century, Ofukudokoro, an institution in charge of the production of the emperor's clothes, was established at the residence of the head of Kuraryo (Bureau of Palace Storehouses).

5世紀後半には、北部九州と畿内の古墳に横穴式石室が採用されるものが増えてきた。
In the late half of the fifth century, Kofun mounds in the northern part of Kyushu and the Kinai region increasingly adopted the horizontal stone chamber structural style.

『本朝世紀』は鳥羽上皇の命により、信西入道（藤原通憲）が編纂した歴史書である。
'Honcho seiki' is a history book compiled by Shinzei Nyudo (FUJIWARA no Michinori) under orders from Retired Emperor Toba.

上記に見た王朝国家体制のあり方に、11世紀中期頃から変質が見られるようになった。
The status of Dynastic polity explained above started to change from the mid-11th century.

一方、須恵器系統からは、能登国において珠洲焼がやはり12世紀前半にはあらわれた。
Meanwhile, Suzu-yaki Ware was derived from sueki (unglazed ware) in Noto Province in the first half of the 12th century.

12世紀の『粉河寺縁起絵巻』もまた、地方社会に生きる人びとが描かれた絵巻である。
'Kokawadera engi emaki' (a picture scroll of legends of Kokawa-dera Temple) in the 12th century also describes the common people in local society.

12世紀末葉には常滑焼の技術を受けて福井県丹生郡越前町で越前焼の生産が開始した。
After acquiring the technique from Tokoname-yaki, Echizen-yaki Ware started to be manufactured in Echizen-cho, Nyu-gun, Fukui Prefecture at the end of the 12th century.

6世紀中頃ヤマトの出雲征討に伴いヤマト王権の支配下に入っていったと想定している。
He assumes that the kingdom came under control of Yamato sovereignty along with the conquest of Izumo by Yamato in the mid sixth century.

8世紀に成立した大宝律令・養老律令では、神祇令・田令などに神田の規定が置かれた。
Under the Taiho Ritsuryo Code and Yoro Ritsuryo Code (code promulgated in the Yoro period) established in the eighth century, Shinden was stated in Jingiryo (the part of the code that dealt with all matters relating to Shinto) and Denryo (the law about providing rice fields).

5世紀に入るとヤマト王権は本拠を河内平野へ移し、中国王朝との通交を活発に行った。
Entering the fifth century, the Yamato sovereignty moved its core site to the Kawachi plain and had active relationships with the Chinese dynasty.

7世紀中ごろの大化の改新も権力集中化の動きの一つであり、一定の進展を見せている。
The Taika Reforms in around the middle of the seventh century was such a move to strengthen powers, achieving a certain level of advancement.

また、日本においても仏教の影響から7世紀後半以降に殺傷を禁ずる法令が散見される。
In addition, in Japan also, laws and ordinances to prohibit destruction of life appeared here and there after the latter half of 7th century.

政庁第3期に対応する10世紀段階の条坊遺構は鏡山案の想定域に近い範囲に存在する。
The jobo remains of the 10th century that correspond to the third period of the government exist in an area close to the area supposed by the Kagamiyama proposal.

東北地方中部・南部でも奈良時代には少なかった須恵器が9世紀には盛んに製作された。
Although Sueki was not produced very much in the middle and the south of Tohoku region in the Nara period, people started to produce it actively in the ninth century.

19世紀の中期には江戸は100万人都市となり、京都と大阪は40万人都市となった。
In the middle of 19th century, Edo became a city with a one million population and Osaka and Kyoto, having a population of 400,000, respectively.

8世紀後半以降はもっぱら北方産の獣皮と日本から繊維製品や金・水銀の交易が主目的。
After the late eighth century, the main items were fell from the northern islands and textile, gold, and mercury from Japan.

前方後円墳が造られなくなった7世紀には、方墳・円墳、八角墳などが造り続けられる。
After the keyhole-shaped mounds were no longer built, mound construction would continue from the seventh century onward; but with other forms of tumulus built shapes: the square tumulus [(方墳) 'hofun' in Japanese], circular tumulus [(円墳) 'empun' in Japanese], and octagonal tumulus [(八角墳) 'hakkakufun' in Japanese].

このいずれかが母体となって3世紀半ばまでにヤマト王権が成立したと考えられている。
Historians and other experts believed that the Yamato sovereignty's establishment was based upon either one of two parent political organizations during the middle of the third century.

三善清行がこの意見書を提出した10世紀前半、日本の土地状況は悲惨なものであった。
In the early tenth century when Kiyoyuki MIYOSHI submitted this statement, the land in Japan was in a dire condition.

日本では8世紀に制定・施行された大宝律令、養老律令に基づく諸制度が令制とされた。
In Japan, the systems based on Taiho Code and Yoro Ritsuryo Code, which were enacted and enforced in the eighth century, were regarded as Ryosei.

紀元前後頃から7世紀末頃にかけて、日本列島の政治勢力も倭もしくは倭国と自称した。
From around the beginning of the first century to the end of the seventh century, political powers in the Japanese Archipelago called themselves Wa or Wakoku.

16世紀中頃から銀山の開発および灰吹法の普及により国内の銀の産出が急増し始めた。
From the mid sixth century, the silver production in Japan increased rapidly because of silver mine development and the development of cupellation-refining skills.

9世紀には広範囲の国で、公出挙と私出挙を組み合わせた租税徴収方法が模索されていた。
In the ninth century, many provinces had examined the land tax collecting system by combining the Ku-Suiko with the Shi-Suiko.

10世紀前半、東国では寛平・延喜東国の乱、西国では承平南海賊という戦乱が発生した。
In the early 10th century, Kanbyo Engi Togoku War took place in the east, and Joheinankaizoku (rebellion by pirates in Seto inland sea) in the west.

百姓を農民の意味とした初見は、現在のところ9世紀末に編纂された『三代実録』である。
As of now, that was 'Sandaijitsuroku' (the sixth of the six classical Japanese history texts) edited in the late ninth century in which the term 'hyakusho' indicated for the first time, a person engaged in agriculture.

13世紀後半には建長寺、円覚寺をはじめとする禅寺が建てられ、鎌倉大仏が造立された。
In the latter half of the 13th century, Zen temples including Kencho-ji Temple and Engaku-ji Temple were founded and Kamakura Great Buddha was erected.

しばらく倭国は政治的に安定していたが、2世紀後半に倭国大乱と呼ばれる内乱が生じた。
For a while, Wa stayed stable politically, but a civil war called the Wakoku War broke out in the latter half of the second century.

その後、ヨーロッパ各国が次々と追随し、19世紀末には、金本位制は国際的に確立した。
Later, European countries followed one after another, and gold standard system was established globally by the end of the 19th century.

政庁第1期に対応する7世紀段階では、条坊の存在に結びつくような遺構は確認できない。
For the time of the seventh century that corresponds to the first period of the government, no remains that can be linked to the existence of jobo have been confirmed.

10世紀の宮中儀式の内容とその由来ついて詳細に知るための根本史料として重要である。
It is an important historical material that provides in detail the contents and origins about the ceremonial rites of Imperial Court.

19世紀に入ると、ヨーロッパの進んだ海軍力に対して清の水軍はほとんど無力であった。
In the nineteenth century, the Qing's navy was almost useless against advanced navies of European nations.

その後、9世紀の前期から中期にかけて、律令制を再整備しようとする動きが活発となる。
From the first half to the middle of the 9th century, momentum toward re-establishment of the Ritsuryo system accelerated.

14世紀末の応安の半済令では、土地自体を半分割して接収する権利が、守護に与えられた。
Hanzei-rei (literally, Hanzei law) issued in the Oan era in the end of 14th century provided shugo with the authority to confiscate half of the land.

また仮にもっとも遅い13世紀説が正しいとすれば、当然源平の争乱の後ということになる。
Even if the later theory of the thirteenth century was correct, it was definitely after the Genpei War.

これに反発した南朝の後胤や遺臣らは、朝廷や幕府に対する反抗を15世紀半ばまで続けた。
This led to a rebellion amongst descendants and former court nobles of the Southern Court, and their resistance against the court and bakufu lasted until the mid-15th century.

13世紀には、1274年の文永の役と1281年の弘安の役の二度にわたる元寇があった。
In the thirteenth century, the Mongols invaded twice, these invasions being called the Bunei engagement of 1274 and the Koan engagement of 1281, so called from the names of the eras in which they occurred.

源頼朝が鎌倉入りしたのは、それから1世紀以上経た治承4年（1180年）のことである。
More than a century later, in 1180, MINAMOTO no Yoritomo entered Kamakura.

また、7世紀頃までの武蔵は「无射志」（むざし）と表記されていた記録も見つかっている。
Additionally, it has been found that Musashi was represented differently, as the kanji 'Muzashi,' until the seventh century.

8世紀には、地中海貿易が壊滅したことで、農村の自給自足体制が急速に確立されていった。
As the Mediterranean trade collapsed during the eighth century, the self-sufficient system in villages came to be rapidly established.

6世紀後半にはヤマト王権の国内支配が安定し、むしろ王権内部の皇位継承抗争が目立った。
In the latter half of the sixth century, domestic control by Yamato sovereignty was stable, and feuds over succession to the Imperial Throne were rather conspicuous.

19世紀末の移民によってアメリカ合衆国に渡った人々とその子孫のことを指すことが多い。
It often refers to the Japanese people who immigrated to the U.S. in the 19th century and their descendants.

とあり、6世紀の中頃、欽明朝頃には、まず渡来人を戸籍によって支配したことが窺われる。
It is presumed that around the middle of the 6th century during the Kinmei Dynasty that the toraijin (people from overseas, especially from China and Korea, who settled in early Japan and introduced Continental culture to the Japanese) were the first to be controlled with the use of family registers.

令集解（りょうのしゅうげ）は、9世紀前半（868年頃）に編纂された養老律令の注釈書。
Ryonoshuge is a commentary on the Yoro Ritsuryo Code written in the early ninth century (around 868).

16世紀の日本とスペインの間には、国家間関係が本格化する以前から人の往来が見られた。
People came and went between Japan and Spain in the 16th century before the state-to-state relations went into full swing.

12世紀はじめに片仮名まじりの和漢混淆文体で書かれたもので、源隆国編纂と伝えられる。
It was written in Japanese-Chinese mixed style with katakana in the early 12th century, and is said to be compiled by MINAMOTO no Takakuni.

帥升の後、3世紀前半に活躍した卑弥呼も魏 (三国)の国から親魏倭王の称号を授かった。
After the days of Sisho, Himiko in the early third century was also given the title of Shingi Wao (the king of Wa) by the Wei Dynasty (Three States Period).

そうした地方行政の実情を国家体制の基本方針に採用したのが、10世紀初頭だったのである。
It was early 10th century when the government adopted the actual situation of local administration as the basic policy of the nation.

そのため、11世紀中期頃から中央政府は財政収入の確保を図って現実的な政策を採り始めた。
Therefore, since around the middle of eleventh century, the central government began to adopt realistic policies in order to secure its financial revenue.

10世紀前期ごろから、人民百姓を戸籍・計帳により把握する律令制的な人別支配が崩壊した。
Around the former half of the 10th century, the rule over people under the Ritsuryo system was destructed in which people and farmers were controlled with family register and keicho (the yearly tax registers).

8世紀初年に本格的に始まった日本の律令制は、戸籍・計帳を元にして百姓・人民を把握した。
The Ritsuryo system, which officially started at the beginning of the 8th century, controlled farmers and citizens based on family registers and the yearly tax registers.

撰銭を巡る問題は、16世紀の日本に強力な中央政権が存在しなかったことにも起因していた。
Problems centered on the erizeni act were also generated partially because no strong centralized government existed in Japan during the sixteenth century.

日本では、8世紀初頭以来、律令に基づいた土地支配・租税収取が政府によって行われてきた。
In Japan, land had been controlled by the government under the ritsuryo legal codes in order to collect land taxes since the early eighth century.

8世紀に成立した大宝律令・養老律令では、僧尼令・田令などに寺田に関する規定が置かれた。
In Taiho Code and Yoro Code established in the eighth century, regulations concerning jiden fields that were specified in Soni ryo (regulations for monks and nuns) and Denryo (regulations for farmland).

7世紀後半に律令制が整備され、田地は口分田などの班田収授法の体系に組み込まれていった。
In the latter half of the seventh century when the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based upon the ritsuryo code) was established, farmland became integrated into the system of Handen Shuju ho (the law of periodic reallocations of farmland), such as kubunden (farmland given to each farmer in the Ritsuryo system).

11世紀前期には、女真族が北部九州に来襲する事変が発生した（1019年、刀伊の入寇）。
In the first stage of the 11th century, the Joshin (a people lived in eastern China and northern Korea) attacked Northern Kyushu (Toi invasion in 1019).

3世紀中ごろに機内に出現した前方後円墳とそれに伴う墓制が急速に列島各地に広まっていた。
Large keyhole-shaped tomb mounds appeared around the middle of third century and the use of this grave style spread rapidly throughout the islands of Japan.

また、5世紀には古墳周辺に馬が葬られている例があり、渡来人習俗の影響も考えられている。
Because there is an example where horses were buried around the ancient tomb built in the fifth century, it is thought to be influenced by the customs brought by the people who came from across the seas.

またこれをもとに作られたと推測される『先代旧事本紀大成経』が現れたのは17世紀である。
Further, 'Sendai kyuji honki daiseikyo,' which is presumed to be written based on 'Sendai kyuji honki,' appeared in the 17th century.

陸奥国の国府は現在の宮城県多賀城市にあり、八世紀前半から国司が派遣されるようになった。
The kokufu (provincial office) of Mutsu Province was in present Tagajo City, Miyagi Prefecture, and kokushi (provincial governors) began to be sent down in the first half of the eighth century.

10世紀中頃より国衙から課される臨時雑役の賦課の免除を受けた荘民を指して寄人と称した。
Yoriudo was used to indicated the shomin (shoen people) who were exempt from temporary zoyaku (odd-jobs task) taxed by the Kokuga (provincial government offices) from the middle of the 10th century.

14世紀に元を滅ぼした明においては、王朝を脅かす怖れのある海上勢力の禁圧策がとられた。
The Ming Dynasty that had destroyed Yuan Dynasty during the fourteenth century employed a policy to suppress the marine forces that posed a possibility to threaten the dynasty.

参考までに21世紀（2001年（平成13年）以降）に入ってからの指定物件を挙げておく。
As a reference, here follows a list of all those items designated national treasures so far in the twenty-first century (beginning in 2001).

環濠集落は朝鮮半島南部でも見られ、北九州では縄文時代晩期（前4世紀）の環濠集落がある。
Moat settlements of this time can be found in the southern area of Korean Peninsula, as well as in northern Kyushu, which dates to late Jomon period (the fourth century B.C.)

8世紀末になると遣新羅使の正式派遣は途絶えたが、新羅商人の活動はむしろ活発化している。
Around the end of eighth century, Japanese envoys to Silla were discontinued, but merchants of Silla intensified their activities.

日本では7世紀前半にまとめられた「帝紀」「旧辞」が国家による歴史書編纂の始まりである。
In Japan, the first recorded history works were the 'Teiki' (Imperial Records) and 'Kyuji' (Ancient Dicta), both compiled in the first half of the seventh century.

また、18世紀には寺社方御仕置例書が作成されて僧侶に対する刑罰規定などがまとめられた。
In the 18th century, Jishagata oshioki reisho stated the rules of punishments to be administered to Buddhist priests.

延喜の治（えんぎのち）は、平安時代中期（10世紀前期）の醍醐天皇の治世を理想視した呼称。
Engi no chi is an idealized name of the reign of Emperor Daigo during the mid-Heian period (during the first half of the 10th century).

「悪貨は良貨を駆逐する」という表現で知られる16世紀イギリスの財政家Greshamの説。
Proposed by Gresham, a financier in England in the sixteenth century, this theory is known from the expression; 'low-quality coins expel high-quality coins.'

律令制が解体を始める9世紀には、自墾地系荘園は労働力を確保できなくなり急速に姿を消した。
In the ninth century when the Ritsuryo system began to dissolve, the Jikonchi Kei Shoen were no longer able sustain a work force and quickly disappeared.

12世紀末に、「鎌倉殿」源頼朝が武士の頂点に立ち、全国に守護を置いて、鎌倉幕府を開いた。
Towards the end of the twelfth century, MINAMOTO no Yoritomo--often called 'Lord Kamakura'--having reached the pinnacle of the warrior's world, began to select and send out the shugo (governors) to all the provinces and created the Kamakura bakufu.

時代的にいえば、武士と言える存在は平安時代中期の10世紀（国風文化の成立期）に登場する。
In terms of the eras, those who are said to have been bushi appeared during the formative period of the Kokufu Bunka (Japan's original national culture) in the middle of the Heian period of the tenth century.

その後1638年以降は西洋人としてオランダのみ出島で2世紀に渡り、交易することとなった。
After 1638 only Hollanders as Europeans were permitted to trade with Japan at Dejima, Nagasaki for 200 years.

3世紀の後半から奈良盆地に王墓と見られる前代より格段に規模を増した前方後円墳が出現した。
In the latter half of the third century and onward; large keyhole-shaped mounds which were considered to be imperial mounds, were significantly scaled up from the mounds in the early 'Kofun period' and appeared in Nara Basin.

それが、6世紀の終わりには日本各地で、ほぼ時を同じくして前方後円墳が築造されなくなった。
However, it was around end of the sixth century that keyhole-shaped mound building ceased in Japan.

半世紀に満たない短い期間であるが、美術史上は特に絵画と建築において特記される時代である。
Lasting for less than half a century, the Momoyama period is noteworthy in art history, especially in the fields of painting and architecture.

だが、10世紀に入ると丹波氏・和気氏両氏による家学化が進み、内薬司は典薬寮に統合された。
In the 10th century, I-do became almost the hereditary learning of the Tanba clan and the Wake clan, and the Naiyakushi was integrated into the Tenyakuryo.

7世紀半ばに阿倍比羅夫らが遠征し、現在の秋田や津軽地方、さらにその北方に至ったとされる。
In the middle of the seventh century, ABE no Hirafu and others made expeditions and it is believed that they reached as far as present-day Akita and Tsugaru regions or even further North.

六曜が中国から日本に伝来したのは、14世紀の鎌倉時代末期から室町時代にかけて、とされる。
It is considered to be from the end of the Kamakura period to the Muromachi period that rokuyo was introduced from China to Japan.

名田の制度は、11世紀ごろから、当時一円化して領域性を高めた荘園にも採用・吸収されていく。
In the 11th century, the myoden system was also imported and adopted to manors whose territory had been enhanced because of consolidation around that time.

この場合には、平安中期（10世紀以降）から平氏政権期まで、もしくは下限を院政期以前とする。
In this case, the term refers to the period between the mid-Heian period (during and after the 10th century) and the Taira clan's administrative period, or before the Insei period (period of cloistered imperial rule).

9世紀中葉ごろから、郡司・富豪層が運搬する進納物資を略奪する群盗海賊の横行が目立ち始めた。
Starting around the middle of the ninth century, robbers and pirates who plundered goods conveyed by the gunji or rich and powerful persons became rampant.

ちょうど、その10世紀頃に、「兵」（つわもの）と呼ばれる武人が、記録や伝承の上に姿を現す。
There were warriors called 'tsuwamono' recorded that appear in folklore around the tenth century.

11世紀後期からは太上天皇が治天の君（事実上の君主）となって政務に当たる院政が開始された。
In the latter half of the 11th century, the Cloister Government started, whereby Daijo Tenno (retired Emperor) became the Chiten no kimi (the retired emperor in power) and influenced political affairs.

寛平の治（かんぴょうのち）は、平安時代中期（9世紀後期）の宇多天皇の治世を理想視した呼称。
Kanpyo no chi is the name of the rule by Emperor Uda in the mid-Heian Period (late 9th century) which was largely regarded as ideal.

併せて、天皇支配を具現化するために律令制の導入を進め、8世紀初頭の大宝律令制定に結実した。
In addition, the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based upon the ritsuryo code) was introduced to realize control by the Emperor, producing Taiho Ritsuryo (the Taiho Code) in the early eighth century.

26歳で渡米後、半世紀をアメリカで過ごし、アメリカに骨を埋めたが、市民権は取得しなかった。
She went to the U.S. at the age of 26, and then spent more than half a century there until her death, but she never obtained U.S. citizenship.

18世紀末のフランス革命で、普通選挙が実現したが、参政権が付与されたのは男性のみであった。
Although the election held during the French Revolution in the late 18th century is considered the world's first universal suffrage election, suffrage was granted only to men.

などの理由から、ジパングと日本を結びつけたのは16世紀の宣教師の誤解であるとする説もある。
For these reasons, one theory holds that it was a misunderstanding of missionaries who reached Japan during the 16th century who connected Zipangu with Japan.

この間日本には絹織物や陶磁器などが輸出され、とくに12世紀中ごろからの宋銭がもたらされた。
During this period, silk goods and ceramics were exported to Sung, and in the middle of the 12th century, Sung currency was introduced in Japan.

16世紀中ごろの大内氏の滅亡で日明貿易は終焉を迎え、明も海禁政策をとるようになっていった。
After the destruction of the Ouchi clan in the middle of 16th century, the trade between Japan and the Ming Dynasty in China came to an end and Ming also enacted a policy to prohibit trade.

対外関係としては、4世紀以降朝鮮半島に進出し、新羅や百済を臣従させ、高句麗と激しく戦った。
Japanese external relations in this historical period, the fourth century onward, included militaristic advances upon the Korean peninsula; this resulted in the subjugation of the Silla (an ancient Korean Kingdom) and Paekche (an ancient Korean Kingdom), and furious battles with Goguryeo (an ancient Korean Kingdom).

18世紀は北半球が寒冷化した小氷期の時代でもあったため、これが飢饉に拍車をかけたのである。
The 18th century was also the onset of a little ice age causing temperatures in the northern hemisphere to drop, which worsened the famine.

永仁6年（1298年）以前の13世紀後半に二条富小路殿と押小路烏丸殿の相博が行われている。
During the late 13th century before 1298, soboku (the exchange of territory) between Nijo Tomikojidono residence and Oshikoji Karasumadono was carried out.

7世紀の東アジア情勢を考えると、倭国にとって隋との国交を開いておくことが是非必要であった。
Considering the situation in east Asia in the 7th century, it was considered extremely necessary for Japan to open diplomatic relations with Sui.

芳野監（よしのげん）は、8世紀の日本で吉野地方に設けられた特別な地方行政区分、機関である。
Yoshino Gen was a special local administration division or organization established in the Yoshino area in Japan in the eighth century.

記録上でも平安時代末期の12世紀初期を最後に姿を消し、このころに廃絶されたと考えられている。
As the last record concerning Kokugaku was written in the end of the Heian period (early 12th century), it is believed that Kokugaku were abolished around that time.

12世紀終わりに鎌倉幕府政権が樹立すると、関東の9か国が鎌倉殿の知行国関東御分国となった。
When the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) was established towards the end of the 12th century, nine provinces in the Kanto region became chigyo-koku provinces of Kamakura-dono (lord of Kamakura), or provincial territories belonged to the Kamakura bakufu.

天暦の治（てんりゃくのち）とは、平安時代中期（10世紀中期）の村上天皇の治世を理想した呼称。
Tenryaku no Chi describes the idealized political reign of the Emperor Murakami in mid-Heian period (in the mid-10th century).

これと双璧をなす傑作が、京都国立博物館所蔵で11世紀後半の『釈迦金棺出現図』（国宝）である。
'Shaka Kinkan Shutsugenzu' (Shakyamuni Rising from the Gold Coffin) (a national treasure) created in the latter half of the 11th century and possessed by the Kyoto National Museum is another masterpiece that is equal to 'Butsu Nehan-zu.'

9世紀、移配俘囚は国内の治安維持のための主要な軍事力として位置づけられていた（→国衙軍制）。
In the ninth century the emigrant Fushu were positioned as a major military force for the maintenance of security in the nation (known as the kokuga forces system).

『般若経』など大乗仏典は紀元前後から3世紀ごろの成立であり、釈迦の時代から大きく離れている。
The scriptures of Mahayana Buddhism such as 'the Wisdom Sutras' were established in the period between about the first year of the Christian era and 3rd century, and are far removed from the age of Buddha.

ベトナムにおける天下の概念は、13世紀の元寇を契機として民族意識が昂揚するとともに出現した。
In Vietnam, the notion of Tenka appeared in the 13th century when the ethnic consciousness was whipped up by the Mongol invasion.

13世紀に京都の建仁寺建立を皮切りに、鎌倉にも建長寺、円覚寺などの本格的な禅寺が建立された。
In the 13th century, with Kennin-ji Temple in Kyoto as the start, full-blown Zen temples (temples that belong to the Zen sect), such as Kencho-ji Temple and Enkaku-ji Temple, were constructed in Kamakura as well.

6世紀末には日本最初の本格的仏教寺院である法興寺（飛鳥寺）の建設が蘇我氏によって始められた。
In the end of the sixth century, the Soga clan started to construct Hoko-ji Temple (also called Asuka-dera Temple), which was the first full-scale Buddhist Temple in Japan.

当時の江戸と大坂を結ぶ東海道が、18世紀には世界で一番人通りの激しい道だったといわれている。
It is said that during the 18th century, the Tokai-do Road connecting Edo and Osaka was the busiest in the world.

17世紀後半以降にはその老中職なども大老職など例外を除いてほぼ複数制（月番制）となっている。
For example, since the latter half of the 17th century, several personnel had been took office of senior councillor (roju) (on monthly duty) except chief minister (tairo).

十六世紀初頭（戦国時代中頃）、光村の孫・及川重胤は江刺氏と戦って敗れ、光村の家系は衰退した。
During the early sixteenth century (the mid-Sengoku (Warring States) period), Mitsumura's grandson Shigetane OIKAWA fought with the Esashi clan but was defeated, and consequently the Mitsumura family line went to ruin.

十五世紀中頃（室町時代）、及川定嗣の子孫は葛西家に対して謀叛を起こしたが、光村がこれを鎮圧。
In the mid-fifteenth century (the Muromachi period), the offspring of Sadatsugu OIKAWA raised a rebellion against the KASAI clan, but Mitsumura suppressed it.

これ以降、7世紀最末期までの間、倭・倭人を代表する/統合する政治勢力は「倭国」を称し続けた。
From around that time till the very end of the seventh century, the political powers representing and consolidating Wa or Wajin continued to call themselves 'Wakoku.'

一方今の南西諸島からは、すでに7世紀の前半から使者が大和王権に「朝貢」するようになっていた。
On the other hand, the present Southwest Islands had already been dispatching envoys to the Yamato sovereignty to pay tribute since the first half of the seventh century.

古くは11世紀半ばに仁海によって書かれた『仁海僧正自筆長者次第』などがあったといわれている。
It is said that there existed 'Ningai Sojo Jihitsu Choja Shidai' (the records of the To-ji Choja (chief abbot of To-ji Temple), self-written by Ningai Sojo (the high-ranking Buddhist priest)) in the middle of the eleventh century.

真言宗（しんごんしゅう）は、空海（弘法大師）によって9世紀初頭に開かれた、日本の仏教の宗派。
The Shingon sect is a Buddhist sect of Japan that was founded by Kukai (Kobo Daishi) in the early ninth century.

奈良県当麻寺金堂本尊の弥勒仏坐像は7世紀後半にさかのぼる作で、日本最古の塑像と言われている。
The seated statue of Miroku Buddha, which is the principal image of Buddha at Kondo (main hall) of Taima-dera Temple in Nara, was produced in the late 7th century and is believed to be the oldest earthen image in Japan.

また、10世紀後期には国衙職員と郡司が雑色人（ぞうしきにん）と一体的に呼ばれるようになっいる。
In addition, officials in kokuga (provincial government offices) and Gunji began to be collectively called Zoshikinin (lower-level functionaries in the provincial government) in the latter half the 10th century.

成立は、平安時代の後半、12世紀末頃、後白河天皇のもとで製作された絵巻の一つと考えられている。
It is thought to be one of the picture scrolls manufactured under Emperor Goshirakawa around the end of the 12th century, the late Heian period.

『今昔物語集』は12世紀初頭の成立といわれるが、呼ばれ方は「兵（つわもの）」「豪の者」である。
The 'Konjaku Monogatari Shu' (The Tale of Times Now Past) is said to have been written in the early twelfth century, but it was called 'Tsuwamono' (written as 兵) or 'rich person.'

並行して室町幕府は地方政権化しそれにより15世紀中期からの国内統治は幕府・守護体制とよばれる。
In parallel with this, the Muromachi bakufu adopted the local government system, and the administration of the nation after the mid 15th century was called the Bakufu-Shugo System.

11世紀半ば、陸奥国には安倍氏 (奥州)、出羽国には出羽清原氏という強力な豪族が存在していた。
During the middle of the eleventh century, two powerful families existed in the area; the Abe clan (Oshu [Mutsu province]) ruled Mutsu Province, and the Dewa Kiyohara clan ruled Dewa Province.

しかし、薄家も山科言継の子で薄家に養子入りした薄諸光（以継）の死により16世紀後半に断絶した。
However, the Susuki family also died out in the latter 16th century with the death of Moromitsu SUSUKI (Yukitsugu) who was Tokitsugu YAMASHINA's son and the Susuki family's adoptive son.

唐末期（8世紀末）には、大土地所有が拡大していき、呼応するように徐々に均田制が崩壊していった。
Towards the end of the Tang era (towards end of the eighth century), persons owning large land areas increased, gradually destroying the equal field system.

6世紀末、400年ぶりに中国を統一した隋の登場は、東アジア諸国の政治権力の集中化をもたらした。
Towards the end of the sixth century, the Sui Dynasty unified China in 400 years, centralizing political powers in east Asian nations.

屯倉の経営は、古墳の発達と関係しており、概観すると5世紀を境に前期屯倉と後期屯倉に分けられる。
The management method of Miyake progressed along with the development of tumulus, and its history is generally divided into earlier and later periods around the 5th Century A.D.

16世紀末、日本の豊臣政権による朝鮮出兵（文禄・慶長の役）が行われ、日朝、日明関係が断絶した。
In the end of 16th century, the Toyotomi government of Japan dispatched troops to Korea (the Bunroku-Keicho War), breaking off the relationship between Ming Dynasty and Japan, as well as the one between Korea and Japan.

4世紀の倭の朝鮮半島進出は、広開土王碑・七支刀など、全く別の同時代史料によって論じられている。
The militaristic advance into the Korean peninsula by Wa (also pronounced 'Yamato' in Japanese: ancient Japan) in the fourth century is treated in completely different historical materials of the same historical period such as: Gwanggaeto Stele (Gwanggaeto Stele was built in '411' by King Jangsu of Goguryeo Jian, Jinling Province, China) and the Seven-Branched Sword (Nanatsusaya no Tachi in 'Nihon shoki').

11世紀中期頃から荘園の増加が著しくなり、従来、国衙が支配していた公田が次第に減少していった。
From the middle of eleventh century, a number of Shoen (manor in medieval Japan) increased remarkably, and subsequently Koden (territories administered directly by a ruler) which was originally controlled by Kokuga decreased gradually.

8世紀半ばに両税法が施行され、土地を所有する個人への課税率がそれまでと比較して低率に抑えられた
In the middle of the eighth century, Ryozeiho (taxation law in enforcement in China until Ming Dynasty) was enacted and the rate of taxation on individuals owned the lands was reduced to a lower level than before.

五世紀代の皇位継承争いにおいて軍事的な活躍を見せ、雄略朝には最高執政官を輩出するようになった。
In the fifth century, the Mononobe clan showed great military performance in the conflict over succession of imperial throne and produced the chief administrator in the era of the Emperor Yuraku.

平氏政権の崩壊後も鎌倉幕府は民間貿易を認め、13世紀の南宋が滅亡する直前まで日宋貿易は続いた。
After the collapse of the Taira clan government, the Kamakura Bakufu approved trade with Sung by ordinary citizens and trade between Japan and Sung continued just before the Southern Sung Dynasty was overthrown in the 13th century.

もっとも早いのは10世紀に書かれた『西宮記』で、天智天皇10年の「12月に帝位に即く」とある。
The earliest document was 'Saikyuki' (exemplary book on Heian rituals) written in the 10th century, and it says that Emperor Tenchi 'was enthroned in December' in the 10th year of Emperor Tenchi.

11世紀に入ると、官司請負制が成立し、中央官司の業務が特定の氏族によって担われるようになった。
In the eleventh century, the government office contract system was established and central government official jobs were held by certain clans.

この時期と前後して4世紀半ば（350年頃）からヤマト王権（倭国）は朝鮮半島との交易を開始した。
Around this time, in the middle of the fourth century (around 350), the Yamato Kingdom (Wakoku) began trading with the Korean Peninsula.

インドに現存する卒塔婆としては、3世紀にアショーカ王によって建立されたサンチの塔が有名である。
The stupa that still exists in today's India is the well-known Sanchi Stupa, which was built in the third century by King Ashoka.

日本各地に仏像を残した遊行僧としては、木喰より1世紀ほど前の時代に活動した円空がよく知られる。
Enku who worked actively about a century before Mokujiki's time is well-known as a 'yugyo-so' who also left Buddhist statues all over Japan.

そこで10世紀前期頃から中央政府は、軍事警察権を国司に委任するという現実的な政策を採用し始めた。
In order to cope with such situations, the central government started to adopt from the early 10th century a realistic policy, meaning the delegation of military and police authorities to kokushi.

だが、平安時代に入ると律令制度の崩壊とともに国学も衰退し、11世紀に入る頃までにはほぼ消滅した。
In association with the collapse of the Ritsuryo system in the Heian period, Kokugaku also declined and ceased to exist by the beginning of the 11th century.

9世紀後半から見られた里倉負名（りそうふみょう）体制は出挙を富豪の輩に請け負わせる手法であった。
The riso-fumyo system (a percentage/unit of the yearly land tax yield taken in by the manager of an estate), which appeared after the latter half of the ninth century, awarded the wealthy class a contract for suiko (government loans, often seed rice, made to peasants in Japan from the seventh through twelfth centuries).

十世紀始めの「延喜式」には全国の牧が定められているが、牧は信濃国、上野国、武蔵国に集中している。
The 'Engishiki' (an ancient book of codes and procedures on national rites and prayers) during the early tenth century designated maki around Japan, but maki was concentrated around Shinano, Kozuke, and Musashi provinces.

一方、津軽を領した下国家は15世紀半ば頃、東の八戸市方面から勢力を伸ばしてきた南部氏に追われた。
On the other hand, the Shimonokuni family, which ruled Tsugaru Province, was forced out by the Nanbu clan, which was proceeding from the eastern area, to expand its influence.

つまり、わずか半世紀の間に涼州と雍州の領域がほぼ入れ替わるという珍妙な現象が起こったこととなる。
That is, it resulted in a strange phenomenon that the area called Liang Zhou and the one called Yong Zhou had nearly been exchanged each other in only half a century.

嵯峨や松尾などの桂川流域を支配していた秦氏が、6世紀頃に桂川に堰堤を築いたとされる（葛野大堰）。
The Kadono Oi (weirs) located on the river, are believed to have been built by the Hata clan around the sixth century, who ruled the riverside of the Katsura-gawa River such as Saga and Matsuo.

7世紀に令制国として丹波国が成立したときは、丹波郡（後の中郡）がその中心地であったと考えられる。
Tanba-gun (later Naka-gun) is believed to have been the center of the kingdom when, in the seventh century, Tamba Province was established as one of the provinces administered by the Ryo-sei.

9世紀に蝦夷に対する朝廷（関西）からの征服活動は、現在の岩手県と秋田県のそれぞれ中部で停止した。
The conquest of the Emishi carried out by the Imperial Court (Kansai) in the ninth century was discontinued in what is now the area of the mid-Iwate and Akita prefectures.

この動きは13世紀後半の元寇によって加速し、幕府の対応策は徳政令発布や得宗専制という形で現れた。
This move was accelerated due to the Mongol invasion attempts against Japan, and the measures taken by the bakufu against this move appeared in the forms of Tokuseirei (ordering the return of land sold and the dissolution of debts) and the tyranny of the patrimonial head of the main branch of the Hojo clan.

15世紀に「だて」という読み方が畿内で登場し、江戸時代を通じて「いだて」と「だて」が混用された。
In the 15th century, a reading of 'Date' was first introduced in the Kinai region, and since then, both 'Idate' and 'Date' were used to refer to the same kanji characters throughout the Edo Period.

しかし、江戸では家持層が早くから不在となる場合が多く、17世紀末には町の名主は姿を消してしまう。
However, most people of the homeowner class were absent from the town at an early stage and finally Nanushi of a town had disappeared at the end of the seventeenth century in Edo.

古くは『十七条憲法』のような例があり、現代の例では20世紀末葉に現れた『万歳三唱令』などがある。
In ancient times there were examples such as 'the Seventeen-Article Constitution,' and in modern time there is the example such as 'three banzais (cheers) decree' which appeared at the end of 20th century.

従って、藤原氏とあるが本来の初姓は有道氏であり、12世紀中には塩谷を名乗っていたものと見られる。
Thus the name was FUJIWARA, but originally the first family name was ARIMICHI clan; during the twelfth century, they identified themselves as SHIONOYA.

犬上郡のみならず近江支配の重要拠点であり、16世紀の末には石田三成が居城としたことでも知られる。
It was a key strongpoint that controlled not only Inukami County but all of Omi Province, and is famous for being the seat of power of the daimyo Mitsunari ISHIDA at the end of the sixteenth century.

浄土宗の法然が、7世紀の新羅の華厳宗の学者である元暁（がんぎょう）の『遊心安楽道』を引いている。
Honen, the originator of Jodoshu, referred to 'Yushin Anrakudo (Way of Securing Relaxation and Peace'), which was written in the seventh century by Gangyo, a scholar of Kagen-shu, in Silla.

荘園が一円化して公領（国衙領）と対等な権利地位を獲得した11世紀以降の在地秩序を荘園公領制と呼ぶ。
The consolidation of manors allowed equal privileges and status with an Imperial demesne (or kokugaryo, a territory governed by a provincial government office) in the 11th century, and the land regularity in and after that century was called the shoen-koryo system.

しかし、15世紀末から社会体制の流動化が顕著になると、より強固な支配体制を領国に布く必要が生じた。
With the social system becoming remarkably unstable in the end of the 15th century, it became necessary to apply stricter control system to territories.

初期荘園（しょきしょうえん）は、8～9世紀に未墾地の墾田化・既墾の墾田の集積を通して成立した荘園。
Shoki shoen (early shoen) were shoen (manors) established through an accumulation of wasteland and a collection of reclaimed rice fields from the eighth to the ninth century.

南北朝時代_(日本)にも継承されたが、院政の機能が室町幕府に吸収された14世紀末期には形骸化した。
Although it was still held in the period of the Northern and Southern Courts, hyojohajime of Insei became only a name at the end of the 14th century when the Muromachi bakufu took over the government function of Insei.

峰山町丹波は8世紀始めには丹波国丹波郡丹波里といわれたところで、丹波国の中心地であったと見られる。
Tanba, Mineyama-cho was called Tanba-sato, Tanba County, Tanba Province in the beginning of the eighth century, and is thought to have been the center of Tanba Province.

全体に絵具の剥落・退色が目立つが、現存遺品の少ない平安時代前期、9世紀の仏教絵画の大作として貴重。
In whole, peeling off and fading of pigment is noticeable, but they are very precious as big pieces of Buddhist painting in the early Heian period, ninth century, for which the number of existing relics is small.

摂関政治による諸課題への取り組みに成果が見られ始めたのが、11世紀前期～中期にかけての時期である。
In the early to middle of the 11th century, the regency's approaches of the various problems began to pay off.

12世紀中期の保元の乱・平治の乱は、朝廷内部の政争が軍事衝突によって解決された画期的な事件である。
The Hogen War and the Heiji War in the middle of the 12th century were noteworthy incidents since political conflicts inside the Imperial Court were resolved by means of military confrontations.

郡は、六世紀の中葉頃の欽明朝に屯倉の設置が拡大されていき、ヤマト政権の地方政治組織となっていった。
Districts grew from the established miyake during the reign of Emperor Kinmei in the mid-sixth century to become part of the local administration organization of the Yamato Dynasty.

彼らは先進的な部民共同体の中で戸を単位に編成され、6世紀には籍帳に登載されて、正式に氏姓をもった。
They were organized making each house one unit in an advanced community of people who belonged to the Yamato Regime; in the sixth century, their family name and hereditary titles were written down in their register book; in this way they had an official family name and hereditary title.

だが、律令制の崩壊とともに不動穀の転用・流出が相次ぎ、9世紀終わり頃には有名無実化することになる。
However, with the fall of the ritsuryo system, diversion and run off the fudoso warehouse occurred one after another, and by the end of the ninth century the fudoso warehouse became name only.

その後、8世紀初頭における律令制の移入と時を同じくして、中国風の天下概念が導入されることとなった。
At the time when the Ritsuryo system was introduced in the beginning of the eighth century, the Chinese-style notion of Tenka was also introduced.

やがて19世紀にはいると阿片戦争が起こり、敗北した清朝はイギリスなどと片務的な不平等条約を結んだ。
The Opium War occurred in the 19th century, and the Qing dynasty concluded an unilateral and unequal treaty after its defeat.

こうした勧進があまねく庶民に受容され、広く社会に浸透していくのは、およそ12世紀以降のことである。
It was in and after the twelfth century that these kanjin activities were generally accepted by people and spread throughout society.

いくつもの支流に分かれ、ある流れは消えて行き、その流れのいくつかが7世紀から現在まで伝わっている。
Many lines have split, and some have disappeared; in this way some of those lines have come down from the 7th century to the present day.

11世紀頃になると、内裏や大寺社の再建を目的とした臨時課税をするため、たびたび荘園整理令が出された。
By the 11the century, the manor regulation acts were often enforced in order to impose taxes for the purpose of rebuilding dairi (Imperial Palace) and main temples and shrines.

こうした支配体制を改変する動きは、1040年代を中心とする11世紀中期になって非常に顕著に見られる。
These reforms of governing structure were actively implemented in the mid-11th century, especially around 1040s.

また11世紀中期頃には、それまでの名田より遥かに大規模な名田＝別名（べちみょう）が盛んに設定された。
In the mid-11th century, myoden which were far bigger than existing ones, called bechimyo, were actively established.

14世紀ごろから、百姓名は私的所有の対象とする観念が強まっていき、名主間で自由売買されるようになる。
From the 14th century onwards, the concept that a hyakusho-myo could be private land increased, and the hyakusho-myo lands started to be traded at will among the myoshu people.

11世紀中期には官物の税率が公田官物率法により「段別三斗」に固定化され土地税としての性質が強まった。
The Koden kanmotsu rippo (the law fixing the tax rate of Kanmotsu) fixed the tax rate of the Kanmotsu at 'Danbetsu santo' (54 lit. of rice per 10a) in the mid 11th century, by which Kanmotsu increasingly assumed the characteristics of land tax.

守護による国衙支配は、特に東国で顕著であり、15世紀初頭までに守護による国衙掌握がほぼ完了していた。
Shugo's control over kokuga was so remarkable in Togoku (the eastern part of Japan, particularly the Kanto region) that shugo had almost finished gaining control over the kokuga by the beginning of the 15th century.

著作年代や著者については不明であるが、親王が没してから時期を経ていない9世紀後期の作品と考えられる。
Neither the exact age of this book nor the author is known, but it is generally believed that this book was written in the late 9th century not long after the death of the Imperial prince.

『病草紙』ふくめ、いずれも12世紀後半の作であり、やはり後白河の宮廷から生まれたものといわれている。
These emakimono including 'Yamai no soshi' were created in the latter half of the 12th century, and it is said to be created in the Imperial Court of Goshirakawa.

また、それまでは輸入に頼るのみであった木綿の栽培も16世紀頃から三河国地方において栽培されはじめる。
And starting in the sixteenth century or thereabouts, cotton, which heretofore had had to be imported, began to be cultivated locally in Mikawa Province.

町を一望した多聞山城は松永久秀が16世紀半ばに築き、近世城郭のモデルとなった四層の天守を備えている。
Tamonyama-jo Castle which commands a panoramic view of the town was built by Hisahide MATSUNAGA in the middle of the16th century, and has the four-layered tenshu (main keep or tower of a castle) which became a model for modern castles.

6世紀ころには「丹波」の名のつく女性が天皇の后となっていることから古代より丹波の名称はあったらしい。
Because there seems to have been a woman named Tanba as a consort to an emperor, it appears that the name 'Tanba' has existed since ancient times.

特に11世紀には内裏や大寺社の火災が多く、これらの再建を目的とした臨時課税が困難になる状況を来した。
Especially in the 11th century, a number of fire disasters occurred in dairi (the Imperial Palace), main temples and shrines, and it was difficult to levy extraordinary taxes for their reconstruction.

大型地域集団は次第に政治的な結合を強めていき、倭国連合と呼びうる政治連合体を2世紀初頭頃に形成した。
The large-sized communities were gradually united and a political confederation that could be called a union of Way nations was established during the early second century.

しかし、権力集中化への最大の契機は、7世紀後半の百済復興戦争における敗北（→白村江の戦い）であった。
However, the biggest opportunity for centralizing power was provided with the defeat in the Kudara restoration war during the latter half of seventh century (Battle of Hakusonko or the Battle of Baekgang).

15世紀中ごろには再び貿易が再開されるも、これは李氏朝鮮が貿易に統制をかけようとした目的があった。.
In the middle of 15th century, Yi Dynasty Korea opened trade with Japan again, but the Yi Dynasty tried to regulate this trade relationship.

多賀城神亀元年（724年）中世宮城郡多賀城跡陸奥国府。10世紀中頃には国府機能は周辺の国司館に移動。
Taga-jo Castle, 724, medieval period, Miyagi gun, former site of Taga-jo Castle, Mutsu Kokufu, kokufu function moved to kokushi's residence in the vicinity in mid 10th century

19世紀末、山東省ではドイツ帝国の進出が目立つようになり、それに伴い仇教事件が頻発するようになった。
The advancement of the German Empire became noticeable in Shandong Province at the end of the 19th century and the Kyukyo Incidents occurred alongside it.

多く生産されたのは甕等の貯蔵用具だが、9世紀中頃までは坏や皿などの供膳具もそれなりに生産されていた。
Although made mostly as pots and other storage containers, it was also used as bowls, plates and other wares used in making offerings to divinities until the mid-ninth century.

ところが18世紀末の黎朝末期のころになると、南越をヴェトナム王朝の正統とする史観に批判が加えられた。
However, around the end of 18th century in the end of the Lê Dynasty, the historical view that regarded Lingnan as orthodox territory of the Vietnam dynasty came to be criticized.

11世紀後半には『新猿楽記』が著されており、藤原明衡の晩年の手になるものではないかと考えられている。
In the latter half of the 11h century, 'Shin sarugo ki' was written; it is considered to be written by FUJIWARA no Akihira in his later days.

13世紀には、高麗はモンゴル帝国の攻撃を避けるために首都を江華島に移して数十年にわたる抗戦を続けた。
During the thirteenth century, Goryeo transferred its capital to Gonghwa Island in order to avoid attacks from the Mongolian Empire, and continued resistance activities for decades.

10世紀に朝鮮を統一した高麗は独自の律令を制定したが、これはほぼ唐律令を引き写した内容となっていた。
Kingdom of Goryeo that unified the Korean Peninsula in the 10th century mostly copied from the Tang Luri in order to establish Luli of its own.

鉄剣に紀年が書かれていないが、木棺に収められていた鋲留短甲と鉄鏃の形式から五世紀中葉と見られている。
The iron sword does not have an era, but it seems to have been made in the middle of the fifth century from the shape of short metal body armor with rivets and iron arrowhead collected in the wooden coffin.

8世紀初頭に律令国家に安定的に組み込まれていたのは、今の山形県庄内地方や宮城県中部以南までであった。
However, only Shonai region in present-day Yamagata Prefecture and areas south of central Miyagi Prefecture were stably incorporated into ritsuryo kokka at the beginning of the eighth century.

一方、9世紀後期頃から、富豪百姓層らが経済力や政治力、さらには私兵を擁しての軍事力すらをもつけてきた。
From the late 9th century, meanwhile, the wealthy peasant class strengthened not only their economic and political power but also military power with private soldiers at their command.

もっとも、右京の地は桂川 (淀川水系)の形作る湿地帯にあたるため9世紀に入っても宅地化が進まなかった。
However, the land of Ukyo did not become developed for dwellings even during the 9th century, due to it being a wetland formed by the Katsura-gawa River (of the Yodo-gawa river system).

秦氏は5世紀頃に桂川の治水工事を行っていたらしいが、西京区の桂川沿岸では洪水がたびたび起こったという。
The Hata clan is believed to have improved the Katsura-gawa River around the fifth century, but the river is said to have been flooded repeatedly around the riverside in Nishikyo Ward.

12世紀に入ると、有力貴族などが特定の国の租税収取権を保有する知行国制がひろく実施されるようになった。
In the 12th century, Chigyo kokusei (proprietary province system) was widely performed: in this system, influential aristocrats owned the authority to collect taxes from certain provinces.

13世紀に入ると、絹・布が持っていた貨幣価値を銭貨が駆逐し、次第に年貢も銭貨で納められるようになった。
After the 13th century, the currency value that silk or cloth had had was driven away by coins and nengu (land tax) was also gradually paid in coins.

そのため、地方豪族の支配下にあった一般の民にまで6世紀の段階で氏姓が及んでいたかどうかは定かではない。
Therefore, it is not certain that the giving of clan names (family names) and hereditary titles was extended to the common people under the control of powerful local clans in the sixth century.

さらに、古墳時代中期中葉（5世紀中ごろ）からは、巫女などの人物埴輪やウマや犬などの動物埴輪が登場した。
In the middle of Tumulus period (the middle of fifth century), Haniwa figure of men such as priestess, and animal-shaped Haniwa such as horse-shaped, and dog-shaped appeared.

また、幕府成立から半世紀近くたったことで、膨大な先例・法慣習が形成され、煩雑化してきた点も挙げられる。
Also it can be given that a huge number of precedents and usage of the law were formed and became complicated after almost a half century since the establishment of bakufu.

5世紀の終わりには、畿内の一部に先進的な群集墳が現れ、大型古墳に家型石棺が取り入れられるようになった。
It would be at the end of the fifth century that advanced clustered tumuli mounds appeared in one section of the Kinai region, and house shaped stone coffins were introduced inside these large Kofun mounds.

14世紀後半になると、高麗も中国と同じように倭寇の入寇を受けるようになり、しばしば多大な被害を受けた。
In the late fourteenth century, Goryeo came to be often invaded by wako as China was and suffered enormous damage.

李朝 (ベトナム)期（11世紀）に北宋から事実上の独立を果たし、独自の律令格式を制定するようになった。
Ly Dynasty of Vietnam (11th century) achieved independence from Northern Song, and it established its own Luli Geshi.

8世紀末頃になると、実効性が薄れて来た制度や、実際に運用されなくなった制度が見られるようになってきた。
Towards the end of 8th century, some systems were becoming ineffective and others had fallen out of use.

そうすると6世紀末の時点で俀王は国内で「大王 (ヤマト王権)（オオキミ）」と称されていたことが分かる。
If this description refrected the truth, King of Wa of Yamato sovereignty was called 'Okimi' as early as the end of the sixth century.

新羅は、半島統一を阻害する要因であった唐を牽制するため、8世紀初頭までは日本に従うかたちをとっていた。
In order to keep Tang, a factor hindering unification of the peninsula, in check, Silla pretended to obey to Japan until the beginning of the eighth century.

こうした社会状況を受けて、9世紀前期（藤原冬嗣執政期）から土地課税を重視する傾向が次第に強まっていった。
In response to these social conditions, since the early part of the ninth century (during the period of administration of FUJIWARA no Fuyutsugu), there was a growing tendency to put emphasize on the tax on land.

しかし、9世紀前期までには、百姓の逃亡・浮浪が著しく増大し、律令制の人別支配は根幹から動揺し始めていた。
However, by the first half of the ninth century, the rule over people under the Ritsuryo system began to crumble from the ground up because a significant increase in the number of farmers escaping or going missing.

法隆寺や久米田寺（大阪府岸和田市）に伝わる「星曼荼羅」はともに12世紀の作（いずれも重要文化財）である。
The 'Hoshi Mandala' (Star Mandala) that has been succeeded to Horyu-ji Temple and to Kumeda-dera Temple (Kishiwada City, Osaka Prefecture) were created in the 12th century (both of them are important cultural properties).

そうして多数つくられた山茶碗窯のなかから、12世紀前半、知多半島の常滑焼と渥美半島の渥美焼があらわれた。
A number of Yamajawan kilns were produced through such process; Tokoname-yaki Ware in Chita Peninsula and Atsumi-yaki Ware in Atsumi Peninsula were generated in the first half of the 12th century.

治承・寿永の乱の時代、つまり12世紀末でも「武者」「弓箭の輩」が多く、「武士」と出てくるのは希であった。
There were many 'busha' and 'Kyusen persons' (archers) while 'bushi' was rarely mentioned even during the period of the Jisho-Juei Civil War or during the late twelfth century.

11世紀の東大寺は大和国内に、白米（はくまい）免田・燈油（とうゆ）免田・香菜（こうな）免田をもっていた。
In the eleventh century, Todai-ji Temple had Hakumai Menden, Toyu Menden and Kona Menden within Yamato Province.

更に20世紀末期頃から、かつて荘園だった史実がその地方のアイデンティティを形成する事例が増え始めている。
Moreover, from the late twentieth century, the local areas increasingly form the identities by the historical fact that they were formerly shoens.

5世紀に入ると、ゲルマンがローマ帝国の権威を継承したことにより、ローマ人領主は異民族に取って代わられた。
In the fifth century, as the Germanic peoples succeeded to the authority of the Roman Empire, the lords of Romans were replaced by other ethnic groups.

しかし18世紀になって日本でも絹生産の技術が向上すると、中国産品の輸入が減少し、釜山交易に打撃を与えた。
However, advancement of Japanese silk production technology in the 18th century diminished the imports of Chinese products, which had devastating effects on Busan trade.

16世紀前半には、各地で県を単位とした官田と民田の税率一本化が進められ、中頃には官田は基本的に消滅した。
In the early 16th century, tax standardization between kanden and private estates was promoted everywhere by the prefectures, and kanden basically disappeared by the middle of the century.

『東日流外三郡誌』のように20世紀の成立を疑われるものもあり、全てをひとくくりに捉えられるものではない。
Among history books, 'Tonichirugai-sangunshi' is suspected to be a work from an ancient era, and is said to be gisho written in the 20th century.

9世紀末に宇多天皇が譲位に際して書き記した『寛平御遺誡』にも不動穀が廃絶寸前であることが述べられている。
The 'Kanpyo no Goyuikai' is a group of precepts for governing which the Emperor Uda wrote at the time of abdication toward the end of the ninth century; this document also mentions that fudokoku was just before extinction.

3世紀の後半には、西日本各地に特殊な壺形土器、器台形土器を伴った弥生時代の墓制墳丘墓（首長墓）が現れる。
At the end of the third century, one of the Yayoi period's burial systems was called the funkyubo (grave mound or tumulus) [tombs of Shucho (head of an organization, chief)]; these tumulus appeared all over western Japan, and those funkyubo would have contained unique tsubogata doki (jar-shaped pottery vessels, unglazed earthenware) and kidaigata doki (stand-shaped pottery vessels, unglazed earthenware) inside.

秋田県大仙市豊川の水神社所蔵『線刻千手観音等鏡像』は11世紀に鏡面に線刻が施されたとみられる銅鏡である。
'Senkoku Senju Kannon tokyozo mirror' possessed by Sui-jinja Shrine in Toyokawa, Daisen City, Akita Prefecture is a bronze mirror on which line engraving seemed to be made in the 11th century.

11世紀後半の物語群のなかで最も高い評価を受けてきたのは、六条斎院宣旨作と考えられる『狭衣物語』である。
The tale with the highest reputation among those in the latter half of the 11th century is 'Sagoromo Monogatari' (The Tale of Sagoromo) which is considered to be written by Rokujosaiin no senji.

延喜年間（10世紀初頭）には、醍醐天皇から勅額を下賜されたというが、以後、中世までの歴史は判然としない。
The temple was given the imperial scroll by Emperor Daigo in the Engi era (beginning of the 10th century), but other than that, its history until the medieval period is not clear.

伏見天皇が即位灌頂を行ったことは確かであるため、遅くとも13世紀後半には即位灌頂は始まったことがわかる。
Because it is assured that Emperor Fushimi conducted sokuikanjo, we know that sokuikanjo started in the latter half of the 13th century at the latest.

しかし、早くも8世紀後期頃から百姓の偽籍・浮浪・逃亡が見られ始め、個別人身支配体制にほころびが生じていた。
However, as early as from late 8th century, the regime of people-based governance started to fray at the edges as the case of peasants' false registration, vagrancy and escape increased.

こうした積み重ねにより、11世紀後期の後三条天皇の頃に一国平均役が制度として確立したものと考えられている。
After these events, it is believed that the ikkoku heikinyaku system was officially established in the late 11th century, around the time of Emperor Gosanjo.

10世紀後期の状況を示していると考えられている『西宮記』で御暦奏で進上される頒暦は120巻と記されている。
According to the 'Seikyuki,' a book supposed to have described the court and samurai rules of ceremony and etiquette in the latter half of the 16th century, the number of copies of hanreki to be presented to the emperor was 120.

滋賀県大津市の石山寺に伝承する『不動明王二童子像』（紙本白描）は12世紀の作で重要文化財に指定されている。
'Image of Fudo Myoo Nidoji' (paper book Hakubyo plain sketch) that has been handed down to Ishiyama-dera Temple in Otsu City, Shiga Prefecture was a creation of the 12th century, and is designated as an important cultural property.

また、11～12世紀の寄進型荘園のように、田地の不輸や寄作者の雑役免といった国家的諸権限の割譲もなかった。
Furthermore, from the eleventh to twelfth century, cessation of state power, such as fuyu (tax exemptions) and zoyakumen (exception from all levies except regular land taxes) for contributors was not conducted on donated shoen (manors based on donation).

律令制がほとんど形骸化した10世紀には荒廃して本来京内では禁じられている農地へと転用されることすらあった。
In the 10th century when the Ritsuryo system became a mere façade, the land was desolated and some areas were diverted to farm lands which was, in general, prohibited in Kyo.

こうした動きに対し、10世紀後期に登場した花山天皇は権門抑制を目的として荘園整理令などの諸政策を発布した。
In the latter half of the 10th century, Emperor Hanayama issued several policies including Private estate Regulation Acts in order to control the influential.

7世紀に丹波国が成立したときの領域は、現在の京都府の中部と北部、兵庫県の北部および中部の東辺に及んでいた。
When Tanba Province was formed in the seventh century, its territory spanned from the middle and north areas of the present Kyoto prefecture to the east end of the north and middle areas of the present Hyogo prefecture.

この堂はかつては宝暦2年（1752年）の建築とされていたが、正しくは前述のように19世紀初頭の建築である。
It was once told that this hall was built in 1752, but, as described above, it was built in the beginning of the nineteenth century.

したがって荘園としては未完成であり、完全な不輸権を得た12世紀の領域型荘園の前の過渡的性格のものと言える。
Thus, the shoen manors exempted from the miscellaneous labor tax were imperfect as the shoen and had a transitional character before the territorial shoen manor of the twelfth century which got the complete right of tax exemption.

8世紀末の桓武天皇は、現状との乖離が大きくなりつつあった律令制を再建するため、大規模な行政改革に着手した。
At the end of the eighth century, Emperor Kanmu started a large-scale administrative reform in order to reconstruct the Ritsuryo system, which was becoming increasingly distant from the actual conditions.

8世紀に本格的に始まった律令制の根幹は、戸籍・計帳によって人民を把握し、課税の対象とする人別支配であった。
The foundation of the Ritsuryo system, which officially started in the 8th century, was an individual-controlling system: rulers determined the number of people, according to family register and the yearly tax registers, and taxed those people.

例：『所さんの20世紀解体新書』『モノづくり解体新書』『セックス神話解体新書』『デビルマン解体新書』など。
Some examples are 'Tokoro-san no 20-seiki Kaitai Shinsho' (a TV show titled '20th Century Stories' presided over by George TOKORO, reviewing Japanese popular cartoon characters of 20th century like 'Invader,' 'Ultra-man' and so on), 'Monozukuri Kaitai Shinsho' (an explanatory book on how various ordinary items are fabricated), 'Sex Shinwa Kaitai Shinsho' (a commentary on sex mythologies), 'Devilman Kaitai Shinsho' (an instruction manual to unriddle mysteries of a cartoon series Devilman), and so on.

風土記編纂が命じられたのが和銅６年（713年）であるため、原本は遅くとも8世紀中にはできていたと思われる。
Because Fudoki (the description of regional climate, culture, etc.) was compiled by imperial order in around 713, it seems that the original text came into existence during the middle of eighth century at the latest.

彼ら海賊衆は14世紀には活動を活発化させ、南北朝時代 (日本)の動乱には南北それぞれの側に分かれて戦った。
Kaizoku shu increased their activities in the fourteenth century, and during the disturbance period of Northern and Southern Courts, they split into two groups and fought for each court.

朝鮮半島では、7世紀中葉ごろ、高句麗・百済との緊張が高まっていた新羅により、律令受容の試みが行われていた。
Around the mid seventh century in the Korean Peninsula, Silla of the three kingdoms of Korea adopted Luli tentatively during the period when the tensions against Koguryo and Baekje ran high.

しかし9世紀になると「国なくして敵なく、損ありて益なし」といわれたように律令国家の関心は薄くなっていった。
However, as the ninth century began, interest in ritsuryo kokka weakened as we can see from sources such as, 'If there is no nation, there is no enemy and there is only loss but no profit.'

しかし、8世紀中期に墾田永年私財法が施行されると、有力な大寺社は積極的に墾田を進めて、荘園を確保していった。
However, during the middle era of the eighth century when Konden einen shizai Law (law allowing farmers who developed new arable land to own it permanently) was enforced, dominant temples and shrines actively developed arable land, acquiring shoen (manors) this way.

12世紀末に吉田経房・九条光長・定長の兄弟が三事兼帯を果たしたことについて、中山忠親は次のように記している。
When the brothers of Tsunefusa YOSHIDA and Mitsunaga and Sadanaga KUJO became Sanji kentai holder in the late twelfth century, Tadachika NAKAYAMA wrote as follows.

『源氏物語絵巻』は、12世紀前半ころの藤原隆能の筆と伝えられる平安時代の代表的絵巻で、20図が現存している。
'Genji Monogatari Emaki' (Illustrated scrolls of the Tale of Genji) is an emakimono that represents the Heian period, and it was said to be painted by FUJIWARA no Takayoshi around the first half of the 12th century; 20 frames of the emakimono still exist.

奈良国立博物館所蔵の『辟邪絵』（へきじゃえ）は、罪人ではなく鬼が責め苦にあう絵巻物で12世紀後半の作である。
'Hekija-e' (Exorcist Scroll) possessed by Nara National Museum is the emakimono created in the latter half of the 12th century, and oni was suffering instead of a sinner in the emakimono.

そこで政府は11世紀初頭ごろから地方分権的な国家体制改革を精力的に推進し、王朝国家と呼ばれる体制が成立した。
Therefore, starting in the early eleventh century, the national government actively promoted the reformation of the national system through decentralization, establishing a system called a dynastic nation-state.

この際、象山は『ドゥーフ・ハルマ』A 項に19世紀の新語を加えたプロトタイプ『増訂荷蘭語彙』を寄稿している。
On this occasion Shozan contributed 'Revised and Enlarged Dutch Dictionary,' a prototype dictionary that contained new words in the 19th century in the index A of 'Doeff Halma.'

日本語を記した辞書として10世紀末ごろには既に『和名類聚抄』が作られていたが、院政期にも新たな動きがあった。
By the end of the tenth century, 'Wamyo Ruijusho' (dictionary of Japanese names) was already made, and there was a new progress in the Insei period.

遅くとも3世紀中ばまでにヤマト・吉備・筑紫などの諸勢力が糾合し、初期ヤマト王権が形成されたと考えられている。
It is thought that some political powers, such as Yamato, Kibi and Chikushi, had grouped together and formed the Yamato Kingdom by the third century at the latest.

政府は、こののちも銅銭の鋳造をつづけ、10世紀の乾元大宝まで12回にわたり国家的に銭貨の鋳造はおこなわれた。
The government continued to manufacture copper coins and, until the issue of the new currency Kengen Taiho in the tenth century, as many as 12 rounds of production were carried out.

17世紀半ば以降、このような制度は崩れていき、石高を所有し入会地・用水管理などの資格を持つ者が百姓と呼ばれた。
After the middle of the 17th century, such a system collapsed gradually and those who had their own harvesting lands and were members of the village community's lands and water management, were called Hyakusho.

10世紀後期に入ると、試験問題の出典が予め受験者に通告されたり、権力者による情実の横行などがしばしば行われた。
In the latter half of the 10th century, it was often the case that entrance exam questions were given to applicants in advance, or that preference was given to particular applicants by influential people.

しかし15世紀に入ると、徐々に守護請の実施や在庁官人の被官化を通じて、守護による国衙の実効支配が進んでいった。
However, through the implementation of 'shugo-uke' and 'Hikanization' of zaichokanjin, shugo came to control the kokuga effectively in the beginning of the 15th century.

熊本以外の藩でも18世紀末頃から熊本藩を見習って、明律を範とした司法改革を行う藩が次々と登場するようになった。
Outside Kumamoto, many domains followed the Kumamoto Domain and began carrying out judicial reforms modeled after the Ming code since the end of the eighteenth century.

ところで、9世紀ごろから関東地方を中心として、富豪層による運京途中の税の強奪など、群盗行為が横行し始めていた。
From the 9th century onwards especially in the Kanto region, millionaires who brought taxes to Kyoto were assaulted and robbed.

特に20世紀初頭に中国接近の度を強めていたアメリカは賠償金を中国人留学生への援助や、大学の建設などに充当した。
In particular in the early twentieth century the United States, which was coming closer to China, diverted the reparations to the support of Chinese students in the U.S. and the establishment of universities.

大阪府河内長野市の金剛寺 (河内長野市)所蔵の『野辺雀蒔絵手箱』は12世紀の作で、重要文化財に指定されている。
'Nobe suzume makie tebako cosmetic box' possessed by Kongo-ji Temple (Kawachinagano City) in Kawachinagano City, Osaka Prefecture was created in the 12th century, and it is designated as an important cultural property.

但し、彼らの用いる兵力は殆どなく、18世紀初頭の長崎奉行は10数人、幕末の五条代官所でも30人しかいなかった。
But, their military strength was almost nil, and early in the 18th century there were only ten soldiers in the Nagasaki magistrate office and at the end of the Edo period only 30 soldiers in the Gojo magistrate's office.

前方後円墳の分布は4世紀後葉前まで、主に畿内～瀬戸内海沿岸（吉備国など）～北九州（筑紫国など）に集中していた。
Before the latter half of the fourth century, keyhole-shaped mounds were mainly seen in the Kinai, Seto Inland Sea (such as Kibi County) and northern Kyushu (such as Chikushi County) regions.

これらはいずれも7世紀頃にインドで成立した密教経典に基づいて、密教的世界観、悟りの世界を視覚化したものである。
Based on the sutras of Esoteric Buddhism that were established in India around the seventh century, these two mandalas both visualized the world view and the world of spiritual enlightenment in Esoteric Buddhism.

9世紀になると、プレステビリの前に聖職者聖歌隊席が設けられ、この空間と側廊、周歩廊、祭室も含めて内陣とされる。
In the ninth century, the clergy and choir stalls were arranged in front of the presbytery, so that the naijin included that choir space, aisles, ambulatory corridors, and apsidal chapels.

スリランカでは東南部において遺跡が確認されており、上座部仏教と併存した後に12世紀までには消滅したようである。
In Sri Lanka, ruins were identified in southeast areas, and it seems to have disappeared by the 12th Century after a period of coexistance with Theravada Buddhism.

それらは6世紀後半から出現しており、研究が進めば日本における火葬史は100年以上遡ることになるものと思われる。
These burial mounds appeared in the late 6th century, and if these findings are confirmed by more research, the history of Japanese cremation history may be more than 100 years older than previously thought.

蔵王権現は、役小角（えんのおづぬ、7世紀頃の山岳修験行者）が、吉野の金峯山で修業中に示現したという伝承がある。
There is a tradition that EN no Ozunu (practitioners of Shugen-do (Japanese mountain asceticism-shamanism incorporating Shinto and Buddhist concepts) around the seventh centuries) transformed to Zao Gongen during ascetic training at Mt. Kinpu in Yoshino.

特に東国では9世紀半ばから後半を通じて俘囚の反乱が相次ぎ、群盗の活動の活発化と相まって、治安悪化が顕著であった。
In particular, in Togoku throughout the era from the middle of the ninth century to the end of the century, barbarians raised rebellions one after another in addition to bandits whose activities had become more active, deteriorating security markedly.

10世紀頃には宮中行事とは別に太上天皇や東宮（皇太子）、皇后などの主催でも私的に季御読経が催されるようになった。
By the tenth century, aside from court functions, Kinomidokyo came to be held privately and hosted by the Daijo Tenno (Retired Emperor), the Togu (Crown Prince) or the Kogo (Empress).

感得画として名高い園城寺「黄不動」を模した京都曼殊院の「黄不動」は12世紀前半の作であり、国宝に指定されている。
The 'Ki Fudo' (Yellow Fudo) of Manshu-in Temple in Kyoto which modeled on 'Ki Fudo' (Yellow Fudo) of Onjo-ji Temple which was famous as kantokuzu (image of spiritual reception) was created in the first half of the 12th century, and is designated as a national treasure.

10世紀前期に従来の租税収取体系が変質したことに伴い、権門層（有力貴族・寺社）は各地に私領（私営田）を形成した。
With the change in the tax collecting system in the 10th century, influential classes (influential aristocracy, temples and shrines) took over private land (shieiden: lands directly governed by such powers) in many places.

平安時代の末（11世紀）に秩父重綱の四男江戸重継が武蔵国江戸郷を相続し、「江戸四郎」を称したのが始まりとされる。
The clan started when, in the 11th century, Shigetsugu EDO, the fourth son of Shigetsuna CHICHIBU, inherited Edo-go, Musashi Province and called himself 'Shiro EDO.'

下野国庁の南正面に南北道路が、伊勢では国庁北側の一部に方格地割りが、大宰府では10世紀に方格地割りが認められる。
Such roads include the road running north to south at the south main gate of Kokucho in Shimotsuke Province, as well as the neatly designed roads like the grid on a go (a Japanese game played with black and white stones on a board) board in a north part of Kokucho in Ise Province as well as Dazaifu (Government Headquarters in Kyushu) in the tenth century.

歴史的には国府の方が先行し、8世紀にはもっぱら国府という言葉が用いられ、平安時代後期以降に国衙が一般的になった。
Historically, the word 'Kokufu' spread earlier than 'Kokuga,' therefore the word 'Kokufu' was mainly used in the eighth century, while 'Kokuga' was mainly used after the late Heian period.

国司請負の流れの中で、10世紀後半ごろから国司は田堵（有力農民層のこと）へ官物や雑役などの租税を賦課していった。
In the line of kokushi ukeoi, kokushi imposed taxation such as kanmotsu (tribute goods paid as taxes or tithes), zatsueki (odd-job tasks) and so on to tato (cultivators, powerful farmers) since last half of the 10th century.

しかし、奈良時代後期（8世紀後期）ごろから、課税から逃れたい人民らの偽籍・逃亡・浮浪が次第に顕著となっていった。
However, it became apparent that many people who wanted to escape taxation began falsifying the register, escaping and wandering about during the latter stage of the Nara period (the latter stage of the 8th century).

古代の蝦夷ははじめ「毛人」と書いて「えみし」あるいは「えびす」と読み、7世紀から「蝦夷」と書かれるようになった。
In ancient times, Ezo was written as '毛人' and read as 'Emishi' or 'Ebisu,' but from the seventh century onward, it was written as '蝦夷.'

近代の始期は一般に幕末期〜明治維新期とされるが、18世紀前半の家内制手工業の勃興を近代の始まりとする考えもある。
It is generally said that modern times started around the end of the Edo period to Meiji Restoration, but there is another opinion that the modern times started in the first half of 18th century when the household-based handcraft industry started.

そうした修史の伝統を継承して、律令統一国家が成立した8世紀前半には、日本最初の正史である『日本書紀』が完成した。
Inheriting such a historical document-compiling tradition, the compilation of 'Nihonshoki' (Chronicles of Japan), the first official document about Japanese history, was completed during the first half of the 8th century when a unified nation based on Ritsuryo codes was established.

表向きは唐が滅亡してから70年ほどであった（五代十国時代）が、事実上1世紀以上にわたって中国は分裂状態にあった。
China was officially divided for 70 years (Godai-Jikkoku period), but in reality it lasted for more than 100 years.

翌年には徳丹城が建造され、9世紀半ばまでは使用されていたが、このとき建郡された3郡については後に放棄されている。
In the following year, Tokutan-jo Castle was constructed and it functioned until the middle of 9th century, but the three newly instituted counties were later abandoned.

三角縁神獣鏡があらわれる前の3世紀前葉には、「神獣鏡」類の画文帯神獣鏡と呼ばれる中国鏡が、約60面出土している。
Before the third century when the Sankakubuchi Shinjukyo Mirror appeared, about sixty Chinese mirrors called Gabuntai Shinjukyo Mirrors (Mirror with figures of deities and sacred animals) in a kind of 'mirror with engravings of divine beasts.'

5世紀半ばになり、畿内の大型古墳の竪穴式石室が狭長なものから幅広なものになり、長持ち型石棺を納めるようになった。
It would be during the middle of the fifth century, a vertically constructed stone chamber became relatively wider than a previous shape (It was used to be a long and narrow shape), which was an interior structure of a large class Kofun (ancient burial mound), and was implemented in the Kanai region; the Kofun would have been designed to house a stone coffin, shaped in the form of a large oblong chest (for clothing, personal effects, etc.).

初期は倹約と藩札発布が主であったが、18世紀中盤になると塩・陶器などの土地産物の専売制がかなりの藩で実施される。
Initial policies were mainly the order to encourage a frugal life and the issue of local paper currency, but in the middle of the 18th century a monopoly system of local specialties, such as salt and ceramics, was introduced in many domains.

21世紀となった現在でも、日本各地（主に農村・漁村地域）に、無尽や頼母子、模合と呼ばれる会・組織が存在している。
Even now, in the twenty-first century, gatherings and organizations called Mujin, Tanomoshi, or Moai exist in various places in Japan (mainly in the regions of farming and fishing villages).

その後、明に服属する時期もあったが、黎朝が再度、中国王朝から独立した15世紀には、律令格式が積極的に編纂された。
After the Trần Dynasty, there were times when Vietnam was ruled by Chinese dynasties, but the Lê Dynasty achieved independence from China in the 15th century and actively compiled and edited its own Luli Geshi.

18世紀になると宗教調査的な目的も薄れ、人口動態を確認し、徴税などのための基礎資料として活用されるようになった。
In the 18th century, with its purpose as religion investigation being attenuated, Shumon Ninbetsu Aratame Cho were used as basic documents for the check of the nation's population (census) and for the collection of taxes and so on.

13世紀末に古義真言宗と新義真言宗に別れ、さらにそこから多種多様な教義が展開して現在に至っているのが特徴である。
Generally, it has developed a wide variety of dharma since it split into the Kogi Shingon sect and Shingi Shingon sect at the end of the thirteenth century.

発掘調査がおこわなれていないため出土品などは確認されていないが、築造時期は6世紀後半の早い時期と考えられている。
Since excavation research has not been conducted, artifacts are not discovered, but it has been thought that the tumulus was constructed in early years in the late sixth century.

12世紀末に鎌倉幕府が登場すると、特に東国の名主の中には、幕府に帰参して御家人となり、地頭に補任される者も現れた。
When the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) came to power toward the end of the 12th century, some myoshu farmers, especially those in eastern regions, gained positions in the shogunate government and became gokenin (an immediate vassal of the shogunate in the Kamakura and Muromachi through Edo periods) or were appointed as jito (local landlord).

12世紀中期頃には貴族社会内部の紛争が武力で解決されるようになり、そのために動員された武士の地位が急速に上昇した。
Around the middle of the 12th century, conflicts among the aristocracy were solved by force, which increased the status of warriors who were recruited solely for this purpose.

しかし、7世紀後期に形成していった律令制は、官僚制を原則としており、ある氏族が特定の官職を世襲することを否定した。
The ritsuryo codes formed in the late 7th century, however, were based on the bureaucracy system and were against the idea of certain clans inheriting specific government posts.

また10世紀ごろから、国内の公田を名田へ再編成し、田堵に名田経営と租税納入を請け負わせる負名体制へと移行していた。
In the 10th century onwards, the koden (the field administered directly by a ruler) in the province was reorganized as the myoden, and the fumyo system, in which the tato undertook the management of the myoden and tax, became more and more common.

10世紀前期、朝廷は統治権限を大幅に国司へ移譲する国制改革を行った（これにより成立した体制を王朝国家体制という）。
Then, in the early part of tenth century, the Imperial Court executed a national governmental systems reform that transferred the greatest authority over administration to Kokushi (This system established by this reform was called the system of the dynasty state).

江上波夫が唱えた説で、大陸の狩猟騎馬民族が北九州を経由して4世紀末頃大阪平野に上陸し、征服国家を打ち立てたとする。
This is the theory advocated by Namio EGAMI that in the end of the fourth century, hunting horseback races came from the Continent to Osaka Plain through Northern Kyushu and conquered the dynasty existed to establish a new dynasty.

巻4の冷泉天皇から巻7途中の近衛天皇までは藤原信西『本朝世紀』の抄出であるが、同書自体の散逸が多いため貴重である。
The contents between the part of Emperor Reizei in the fourth volume and the part of Emperor Konoe in the seventh volume are the extracts from 'Honcho Seiki' (Chronicle of Imperial Reigns) by FUJIWARA no Shinzei, which are valuable because a lot of parts of the original book has been scattered and ultimately lost.

律令制が弛緩する9・10世紀になると、大宰府官人、国司、郡司らは職分田を原資の一つとして、富の蓄積を行っていった。
By the 9th to 10th century the Ritsuryo system had become lax, and the officials of Dazaifu, Kokushi, Gunshi and others started to use shikibunden as principal to accumulate wealth.

7世紀後期、新羅は朝鮮半島の統一と唐の影響を抑制することに成功し、唐律令を参考としながらも独自の律令制を構築した。
In the late seventh century, Silla succeeded in unifying the Korean Peninsula and restraining the interference of the Tang Dynasty, and although making reference to the Luli of Tang Dynasty, it constructed its own Luli System.

近隣にある古墳の石室との比較、副葬品の鉄地銀象嵌鞘尻金具などから、7世紀中葉から後半にかけて造営されたと思われる。
When comparing the stone chambers with those in the neighboring tumuli and considering the iron chape with silver inlays among the burial articles, it seems that the tumulus was built from the mid to the late 7th century.

武蔵府中熊野神社古墳造営当時の古墳近隣の情勢を考察すると、7世紀中葉以降とされる造営時期が大きな意味を持ってくる。
The construction period of the mid 7th century onwards gains significance in connection with the historical situation around the tumulus at the time of its building.

法華経の成立が、釈迦存命時より数世紀後だという文献学の成果に対し、日本と他の大乗仏教圏諸国では受容の仕方が異なる。
Considering the results of philology whereby the Hokke-kyo sutra was edited a few centuries later than the age in which Shaka lived, the ways of thinking between Japan and other Mahayana Buddhism countries are different.

室町期の守護は、当初（14世紀中葉）、室町幕府から数年ごとに補任されており、守護職の交替は比較的頻繁に行われていた。
The shugo in the Muromachi period were initially (around the mid 14th century) appointed by the Muromachi bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) once in several years, which resulted in the comparatively frequent alternation of the shugo-shiki (the post of shugo).

雑賀党の鈴木氏が本格的に歴史にあらわれるのは「雑賀孫市」の通称で知られる鈴木孫一が活躍した16世紀の中頃以降である。
The Suzuki clan of Saigato came to be mentioned frequently in history as from the mid-16th century, when Magoichi SUZUKI, commonly known as 'Magoichi SAIGA' took an active role.

11世紀に入ると、ある家系が特定の官職を世襲する「家業の継承」または官司請負制が貴族社会内で次第に確立されていった。
In the 11th century, the 'family business takeover' or the hereditary government office system, in which certain families inherited certain government positions, was gradually established in the aristocratic society.

倭国でも7世紀前半にかけて聖徳太子と蘇我氏により遣隋使派遣・冠位十二階制定・十七条憲法導入などの国政改革が行われた。
In Wa as well, Prince Shotoku and the Soga clan reformed national politics by sending Japanese envoys to Sui Dynasty China, establishing Kani junikai (twelve grades of cap rank) and introducing a Seventeen-Article Constitution.

校班田、および墾田管理の必要から生まれた条里プランは、10世紀以降に班田収授が行われなくなっても引き続き使用された。
The plan of jori that was created due to needs of inspection and allotment of rice fields and management of newly developed rice fields was continuously used after the 10th centry, when handen shuju was not enforced any more.

雑賀衆は15世紀頃に歴史に現れ、応仁の乱の後、紀伊国と河内国の守護大名である畠山氏の要請に応じ近畿地方の各地を転戦。
Saikashu appeared in history around the 15th century, and after the Onin War they fought in various battles in the Kinki region responding to requests from the Hatakeyama clan, which had provided the military governor and feudal lord of Kii and Kawachi Provinces for generations.

しかし、5世紀の中国の歴史書『宋書』倭国伝には、478年倭王武が宋 (南朝)に提出した上表文の中に以下の記述がある。
However, according to the history of ancient Japan, Wo, in 'The History of the Song Dynasty,' the following description was found in a memorial presented to the emperor (the southern dynasty) by the Japanese king Bu in 478.

前述したように、ヴェトナムにおける「天下」概念の成立は13世紀にモンゴル軍撃退後の国威発揚に伴って顕著に確認される。
As mentioned earlier, the notion of Tenka' was established in Vietnam when it repelled the army of Mongolia in the 13th century.

11世紀の赤染衛門作と伝えられる『栄花物語（栄華物語）』正編（巻1-30）は、六国史のような中国風の正史とは異なる。
'Eiga Monogatari' (main part of a book, volume 1-30) which is said to be written by Akazome Emon in the 11th century is different from official histories in Chinese style such as Rikkokushi (the Six National Histories).

「日本」の枠組みがほぼ完成した8世紀、文武天皇によって遣唐使が再開され、粟田真人を派遣して唐との国交を回復している。
When the framework of 'Japan' neared completion in the 8th century, Emperor Monmu restarted sending envoys to the Tang Dynasty, and tried to restore their relations by dispatching AWATA no Mahito as the envoy.

4世紀後葉より以前ヤマトの王の墓はヤマト（奈良盆地）に営まれていたが、それ以降は河内平野に築かれることが多くなった。
Until the latter half of the fourth century, the Yamato Kingdom's royal tombs were situated in Yamato (the Nara Basin), but after that, the majority were built in the Kawachi Plain.

7世紀中頃から終わりにかけて、南インドでその基本形が成立し、次第に施護訳にみられるような完成形態に移行したとされる。
It is believed that from the middle to the end of the seventh century, the basic form of sutras was established in Southern India, and gradually changed to its complete form, as seen in translations by Sego.

築造時期は古墳時代前期（4世紀）と見られており、同古墳が属する杣之内古墳群の中でも最も古い時期に造られた古墳である。
It is thought that the tumulus was constructed in the early Kofun period (tumulus period) (the fourth century), that is to say, it was the one of the oldest in Somanouchi-kofun Tumulus Cluster that the tumulus belongs to.

これは10世紀、天台僧・安然らが不動明王を観想（思い浮かべる）するために唱えた「不動十九観」の影響によるものである。
This is influenced by 'Fudo Juku-kan (Nineteen Characteristic Signs of Fudo Myoo'), which was preached by Annnen, a priest of the Tendai sect, and others of the tenth century in order to image Fudo Myoo.

9世紀中期（855年頃）には肥後で実施された記録が残っており、その後（879年ごろ）、上総でも公営田が施行されている。
In the middle of the 9th century (about 855), it was recorded the Kueiden system was conducted in Higo Province, and that later (about 879) Kueiden was also tried in Kazusa Province.

田堵負名層が中央政府へ国司の非法を訴える国司苛政上訴は、こうした状況の表れであり、10世紀後期から顕著となっていった。
Kokushi kasei joso, an appeal made by tato fumyo to the central government against lawless actions of kokushi, was the manifestation of the above situation and became conspicuous after the late tenth century.

しかし8世紀後葉、対新羅外交政策を転換したことに伴い、対外防衛・侵攻のための軍団兵士制も大幅に縮小されることとなった。
However, the government changed its diplomatic policy against Silla in the latter half of the eighth century, and therefore, the scale of the gundan-soldier system for defense and invasion was reduced drastically.

これが出挙の前身ではないかと考えられており、少なくとも7世紀中期までに利子の慣行が発生していたことの傍証とされている。
This is believed to be the predecessor of Suiko, regarded as a corroboration of the opinion that a system charging and paying interest had already existed by the middle of the seventh century at the latest.

10世紀ごろ、朝廷は律令制に由来する人別支配体制を放棄し、土地課税に基礎をおく支配体制（王朝国家体制）へとシフトした。
Around the tenth century, the Imperial Court abandoned the system of ruling over people which had originated in the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code) and moved to a system based of taxation of land (the system of the dynasty state).

『今昔物語集』は、12世紀初頭ぐらいの成立とされているが、その中で、「武士」を語るときは「兵（つわもの）」と呼ばれる。
'Konjaku Monogatari Shu' (The Tale of Times Now Past) is said to have written in the early twelfth Century, but 'bushi' was referred as 'tsuwamono.'

9世紀中葉における朝廷・国司は、群盗海賊の制圧のために養老律令の捕亡令追捕罪人条にある臨時発兵規定により対応し始めた。
In the middle of the ninth century, the Imperial Court and kokushi started taking measures based on specifications of rinji-hatsuhei (the special dispatch of troops) in Tsuibu-zainin no Jo (the article related to catching criminals who had fled) in bumo-ryo code (Penalties on escaping soldiers, Sakimori [soldiers garrisoned at strategic posts in Kyushu in ancient times], slave, and so on) in the Yoro ritsuryo code, to combat these robberies and acts of piracy.

義江彰夫は同じ12世紀ながら、その初期と後期との間に地方の長者、すなわち開発領主の武装（武士団化）が進んだとしている。
Akio YOSHIE interpreted that weapon preparation (bushidan formation) of local heads or cultivation lords developed between the early and later periods despite being the same twelfth century.

群盗の活動は9世紀を通じて活発化していき、朝廷は群盗鎮圧のために東国などへ軍事を得意とする貴族層を国司として派遣した。
After robbery became more common in 9th century, the Imperial Court sent military aristocrats to Togoku (eastern part of Japan) as kokushi (provincial governors) to discourage such acts.

17世紀後半以降の近世になると畿内近国の町人たちによる参詣記が見られ、小辺路の詳しい様子を知ることができるようになる。
In the early-modern period, especially after the latter half of the 17th century, the common shopkeepers of Kinai region and the vicinities recorded their pilgrimages, and such records gives the details of Kohechi.

8世紀初頭に本格運用され始めた律令制においては、国家の軍事組織として全国各地に軍団 (古代日本)を置くこととしていた。
Cohorts were deployed throughout the country as the national military organization under the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo codes), which began to take full effect at the beginning of the eighth century.

しかし、8世紀後半に入ると、百姓階層の分化が始まり、百姓の逃亡が増加するなど、律令支配の転換を迫る状況が生じていった。
However, entering the latter half of the eighth century, farmers became hierarchical, and situations to force the change in control based upon the Ritsuryo system, for example, an increase in the farmers to replace those who fled, were created.

5世紀頃の中国では、大乗仏教の偽経『梵綱経』の第3に食肉戒より、動物の命を絶つことを理由に、肉食を完全に禁止している。
In 5th century China, the eating of meat was completely prohibited, because it involved taking lives of animals, based on the commandment to abstain from meat-eating in apocryphal scripture of Mahayana Buddhism.

「仏説」を紀元前5世紀ごろの釈迦が話したことを直接の弟子が書き取ったものと定義するならば、そのようなものは現存しない。
If the definition of 'Buddha's teachings' was limited to his own words that his pupils wrote down, it must be acknowledged that no such writings exist.

秋田城天平宝字4年（760年）頃11世紀頃秋田郡（秋田城廃絶後に設置）秋田城跡延暦23年（804年）に国府機能は移設。
Akita-jo Castle, about 760, about 11th century, Akita gun, (located after abolition of Akita-jo castle, former site of Akita-jo Castle, its Kokufu function relocated in 804

しかし明治時代の終わり頃から即位説の根拠に疑問が提出され、21世紀初めの現在では即位はなかったとみる見方が有力である。
By the end of the Meiji period, however, the reasons for the enthronement theory were questioned and now, at the beginning of the 21st century, it is generally understood that the prince was not enthroned.

平家納経を納めた経箱「金銀荘雲龍文銅製経箱」は、厳島神社の社宝として伝わった12世紀後半の作で、国宝に指定されている。
A box called 'Kingin sounryumon dosei kyobako' (金銀荘雲龍文銅製経箱) is a kyobako that contained Heike-nokyo, and it was created and handed down to Itsukushima-jinja Shrine as a treasures of the shrine in the latter half of the 12th century; it is designated as a national treasure.

統治能力を持ちあわせた阿蘇神社大宮司としての阿蘇氏は、記録上12世紀前半の阿蘇惟宣（宇治惟宣）にまで遡ることができる。
The origin of the Aso clan, the daiguji of Aso-jinja Shrine having political ruling power, could date back to Korenobu ASO (Korenobu UJI) who lived in the early twelfth century according to records.

そうした中で6世紀前期に近江国から北陸地方にかけての首長層を背景としたオホド王（継体天皇）が現れヤマト王統を統一した。
During the early sixth century, King Ohodo (Emperor Keitai) appeared from among the chiefs of regions between Omi Province and the Hokuriku region and unified the Yamato royalty.

土地課税を重視する考えは9世紀前期の藤原冬嗣執政期の頃から存在していたが、個別人身支配の原則を覆すまでには至らなかった。
Although the idea of emphasizing tax on land existed in the era when FUJIWARA no Fuyutsugu was in power during the first half of the 9th century, it stopped short of reversing the principle of people-based governance.

11世紀に成立した『新猿楽記』という世相を映し出した書物には、以下の内容の記載があり、田堵の実情をよく知ることができる。
We can learn the reality of Tato from the following descriptions included in the 'Shinsarugakuki,' a book written in the eleventh century reflecting the social conditions at the time.

延喜・天暦の治（えんぎ・てんりゃくのち）とは、平安時代中期（10世紀）の醍醐天皇・村上天皇両天皇の治世を聖代視した呼称。
Engi, Tenryaku no chi is the magnificent imperial reign name for the reigns of Emperor Daigo and Emperor Murakami in the mid Heian Period (the 10th century).

10世紀前期、律令官制の再構築を図る醍醐天皇が、延喜格式の編纂事業を開始すると、その一環として交替式の再編纂も行われた。
In the first half of the tenth century when Emperor Daigo tried to reconstruct the organization of government according to the ritsuryo codes and started the work to compile Engi no kyakushiki (regulations and laws of the Engi era), kotaishiki was recompiled in the work as well.

なだらかな曲線と優美な色彩、精緻な截金文様で知られる東京国立博物館所蔵の『孔雀明王像』（国宝）は12世紀中葉の作である。
'Image of Kujaku Myoo' (peacock king of those who hold knowledge) (a national treasure) possessed by Tokyo National Museum was created in the middle of the 12th century, and it was known for its gentle curves, graceful colors, refined cut-gold foil pattern.

9世紀末頃からは、「追捕官符」の発布を受けた国司（国衙機構）が自らの裁量で国内の郡司・富豪層を軍事編成するようになった。
Around the end of the ninth century kokushi (provincial officials) (in the kokuga [provincial office structure]) who received 'tsuibu kanpu' (Warrants of Pursuit and Capture) from the Imperial Court were able to form, at their discretion, troops with gunji and the rich and powerful class.

11世紀後半以降、天皇家の家督者は上皇・院という立場で天皇家を支配し、治天の君と呼ばれ政治の実権を握って院政を展開した。
After the late eleventh century, the predecessors of the Emperor clan took control of the Emperor clan as a Retired Emperor or a Cloistered Emperor, and were called Chiten no kimi (the retired emperor in power), and held the cloister government by seizing political power.

また、4世紀後期ごろから倭国（ヤマト王権）が朝鮮半島南部へ進出したことを示す文献史料・考古史料は少なからず残されている。
Additionally, the events of the Wakoku (Japan, also known as Yamato sovereignty [ancient Japan sovereignty]) from the late fourth century saw a steady progression in Japanese militaristic advancement into the southern regions of the Korean Peninsula; reports of this fact were revealed in several documents of historical materials, and archaeological artifacts.

帥升以降、男子が倭国王位を継承していったが、2世紀後期になると倭国内の各政治勢力間で大規模な紛争が生じた（→倭国大乱）。
The throne of the king of Wa had been succeeded to a son since Suisho, but the the late second century saw a severe civil war among the political forces in Wakoku (=>Wakoku War).

更に12世紀の公領においては実際は公領に居住しながら、表面上は荘民身分を得て国衙からの税負担を逃れようとする農民がいた。
In addition, in the 12th century, there existed some farmers who tried to evade the tax from 'kokuga' (provincial government offices) by disguising themselves as 'shokan' (people living in a manor, who were exempt from the tax), although in reality they lived in koryo.

それでも、唐中期までは律令制が統治機能を果たしていたが、8世紀中ごろの玄宗 (唐)期になると律令制が徐々に崩壊し始める。
Still, the Ritsuryo system worked as a government system until the middle of the Tang Dynasty, but it began collapsing during the reign of Xuanzong in the middle of the 8th century.

開発も最南部の遼東半島・遼西を除き進んでおらず、こうしたことも原因となって19世紀末のロシアの進出に対して対応が遅れた。
With the exception of the southernmost areas in the Liaodong peninsula and Liaoxi, most of Manchuria was underdeveloped; Hence, the Qing could not mount a response to Russian expansionism at the end of the 19th century.

しかし琳聖太子の記録は古代には無く、大内氏が琳聖太子後裔を名乗るのは14世紀以降とされるため、この伝説は信憑性に乏しい。
However, because there is no record for Rinsho taishi in ancient times, and because it is said that the Ouchi clan came to call itself a descendant of Rinsho taishi from and after the 14th century, this legend lacks credibility.

また、その周辺には弥生時代の黒田遺跡や唐古・鍵遺跡、箸墓古墳、古墳時代（6世紀）の前方後円墳である黒田大塚古墳等がある。
In the neighborhood area, there are several relics, such as Kuroda site and Karako-Kagi site in the Yayoi period, Hashihaka-kofun Tumulus, and Kuroda Otsuka-kofun Tumulus, which is a keyhole-shaped mound, built in Kofun period (tumulus period, sixth century).

が、8世紀後期ごろから租税負担を回避するために逃亡・浮浪する百姓らが増加していくなど、律令制支配に行き詰まりが生じていた。
However, from the latter eighth century, more farmers began to leave their land to become wanderers in order to avoid paying tax and the ritsuryo system was confronted with some change.

平安時代末期、それこそ12世紀中頃の武士団の結合はどうだったのかというと、一番強い結束力はやはり「血縁」だったようである。
The strongest bonding strength was 'blood relation' without a doubt if one contemplated about the unification of bushidan of the late Heian period or the mid-twelfth Century.

記録上は、8世紀＝奈良時代を通じて順調に農地の支給（班田）が行われているが、800年の記録を最後に班田は行われなくなった。
According to the records available, fields were supplied to people (called handen) steadily throughout the eighth century (or the Nara period), but the supply of fields stopped after 800.

また、多くの物語絵（冊子または絵巻物）が制作されたことが推測されているが、11世紀末以前に制作された作品は現存していない。
It is estimated that many narrative paintings were created (either in books or scrolls), but no such paintings from before the end of the 11th century remain.

5世紀の中国の歴史書『宋書』倭国伝に、 478年（順帝昇明2年）倭王武が宋 (南朝)に届けた上表文として以下の記述がある。
In 'Sosho (Sung Shu) Wakokuden,' the Chinese history book of the fifth century, the following sentence is seen as a Johyobun (memorial to the Emperor) delivered from Waobu to Sung (Nan-Dynasty) in 478.

ヤマト王権が統一国家を形成しようとしていた6世紀には、倭王家の系譜を記す『帝紀』・倭国の神話を記す『旧辞』が、編纂された。
In the 6th century when the Yamato sovereignty (the ancient Japan sovereignty) was going to form a unified nation, Teiki, which recorded the family tree of the Wa royal family, and Kyuji, in which mythology of Wa was described, were compiled.

しかし、具体的な活動が記述されるのは6世紀中頃の蘇我稲目（そが・の・いなめ）からで、それ以前に関してはよく分かっていない。
However, the specific accounts were not recorded until SOGA no Iname appeared in the mid-6th century, and events before that remain largely unknown.

4世紀後期には倭の五王が南北朝時代 (中国)南朝への朝貢を再開するも、その後日本は長きにわたり大陸との接触を行っていない。
During the late 4th century, the five kings of Wa opened up again, paying tribute to the Southern Dynasty during the period of the Northern and Southern Dynasty in China, but after that Japan ceased to have contact with the Chinese continent for a long time.

しかし、7世紀の壬申の乱からみて時代が下ることは否定できず、また、数の多さは部分的には『扶桑略記』の影響力の産物でもある。
However, it cannot be denied that the Heian period was centuries after the Jinshin War in the 7th century, and a large quantity of such descriptions can be partly attributed to 'Fuso Ryakki' (A Brief History of Japan).

13世紀に入ると、摂関の地位は、父子継承によって決定された御堂流のうちの5家、すなわち五摂家当主による巡任が体制化された。
During the thirteenth century, the Sekkan position was passed in turn among the heads of the five families determined by paternal succession among the Mido branch, in other words, the Gosekke (five top Fujiwara families), became systemized.

豊臣氏政権時代の徳川氏の蔵入地を基とし、関ヶ原の戦い、大坂の役などでの没収地を加えて、17世紀末には約400万石となった。
The tenryo started from the directly-controlled land of the Tokugawa clan during the period of the Toyotomi clan's regime, and with the addition of territories that were confiscated through such battles as the Battle of Sekigahara and the Seizes of Osaka, it was four million goku by the end of the 17th century.

「令制国」という語は、20世紀末に用いられ始めた歴史学の用語であり、早いものでは1980年代半ば頃から使用例が現れている。
The term ' Ryosei province' is the historical academic term that started to be used at the end of 20th century and early examples for use of the term ' Ryosei province ' appeared in the middle of 1980s.

8世紀の瑜伽部密教の三大学匠といわれるブッダグヒヤ、アーナンダガルバ、シャーキヤミトラなどの注釈書がチベット訳として残る。
Commentaries by three great scholars of Yuga Esoteric Buddhism in the 8th century, Buddhaguhya, Anandagarbha, and Sakyamitra, remain as translations in Tibetan.

円仁、安恵らを経て、10世紀後半の僧である是算の時、比叡山三塔のうちの西塔北谷に移り、東尾坊（とうびぼう）と称したという。
After Ennin and Anne, at the time of Zesan in the later half of the tenth century, it moved to Kitadani in Saito (Western Section), which is one of the Hieizan Santo (The three temple precincts on Mt. Hiei), and named Tobi-bo.

12世紀には既に荒廃していたが､付属の荘園群や地方官への推薦権（年挙）は中世まで残り、学館院別当の称号も名誉職として残った。
Although it was already ruined by the 12th century, affiliated private estates and the chihokan (local official) recommendation (nenkyo) system remained up to the Middle Ages, and also, the title Gakkanin-betto (the chief officer of Gakkanin) also remained to indicate an honorary position.

傀儡子（くぐつ、傀儡とも言う）とは、9世紀頃から各資料に現れだした、諸国を旅し、芸能によって生計を営んでいた集団の事である。
Kugutsu were groups of people who traveled around the country and made a living in the performing arts, appearing on the records from around the ninth century.

しかし、14世紀末ごろになると、一定の氏族がその国の守護職を相伝（世襲）するという守護職の固定化が見られるようになっていた。
However, in around the end of the 14th century, the shugo-shiki was exclusively possessed by a certain clan that inherited the post of its province, which was called 'monopolization of the shugo-shiki.'

12世紀後半の作と考えられる『信貴山縁起絵巻』（奈良県生駒郡、朝護孫子寺蔵）は寺院の創建にまつわる話を絵巻としたものである。
'Shigisan engi emaki' (Ikoma-gun, Nara Prefecture, possessed by Chogosonshi-ji Temple) which is believed to be a creation from the latter half of the 12th century is the emakimono based on the story regarding the foundation of the temple.

荘園などを中心とした支配体制である荘園公領制はこの時期に成立し、以後、16世紀まで荘園は貴族たちの収入源として存在し続ける。
Shoen koryo sei (The System of Public Lands and Private Estates) mainly based on shoen, was established in this period, and after that until the sixteenth century, shoen continued to exist as a source of income for the nobles.

戦国期において水野氏が勢力を伸ばすのは、15世紀中頃、水野貞守が尾張知多郡小河（知多郡東浦町緒川）に拠点を置いたのに始まる。
It was from the middle of the 15th century when Sadamori MIZUNO set his base in Ogawa, Chita County, Owari Province (Ogawa, Higashiura-cho, Chita County) that the Mizuno clan began expanding their power.

10世紀に入ると古代の戸籍制度・班田収授法による租税制度がほぼ崩壊し、国司へ租税納入を請け負わせる国司請負へと移行し始めた。
In the tenth century, the tax system consisting of koseki system and handen shuju sei in ancient times collapsed and started to transfer to kokushi ukeoi (a system to make local government officials cope with all local taxes in their provinces) which made kokushi (provincial governors) undertake the land tax payment.

新約聖書はイエス・キリストの直接の弟子である使徒に由来するとされる正典と、それ以外の外典との仕分けが4世紀には行われている。
Concerning the New Testament, classification between canonical books, which are said to stem from the Twelve Apostles, immediate pupils of Christ, and other secular books were conducted at least till the 4th century.

しかし、『藤氏家伝』も『弘仁格式』も後世（8～9世紀）に編纂されたものであり、正史の『日本書紀』には近江令制定の記事はない。
However, both 'Toshi Kaden' and 'Konin Kyakushiki' were the documents compiled later (between the eighth and the ninth century) and there is no mention of the 'Omi-Ryo' in the official history book 'Nihonshoki' (Chronicles of Japan).

島根県松江市岡田山古墳から出土の鉄刀銘「額田部臣（ぬかたべのおみ）」からは、6世紀の中頃には部民制の施行を知ることが出来る。
On the other hand, the written letters inscribed on the iron sword, which was excavated from the Okadayama Tumulus in Matsue City, Shimane Prefecture, 'Nukatabe-no-Omi (chief of Nukatabe group)' indicated that bemin sei (a political naming system of the Yamato sovereignty) was enforced in the middle of the sixth century.

しかし、10世紀に入ると権門が太政官符・民部省符によって不輸の権 (日本)を獲得して，所有する荘園を事実上の不輸租田とした。
In the tenth century, however, these influential families obtained fuyu no ken (the right of tax exemption) by Daijokanpu (official documents issued by Daijokan, Grand Council of State)/Minbushofu (official documents issued by Minbusho, Ministry of Popular Affaires) and converted their shoen into fuyusoden in effect.

その代表に後三条天皇、白河上皇に仕えた大江匡房が撰し、藤原実兼 (蔵人)が筆録した『江談抄』があり、12世紀前半に書かれた。
'Godansho' (the Oe Conversations, with anecdotes and gossip) selected by OE no Masafusa who served Emperor Gosanjo and the Retired Emperor Shirakawa and recorded by FUJIWARA no Sanekane (kurodo [chamberlain]), is a representative example of anecdotes; it was written in the first half of the 12th century.

そのようなトモ制の拡大・発展の結果、5世紀後半には、さらにトモノミヤツコ（伴造）がトモ（伴）を率いるという体制も整備された。
As a result of the development and expansion of such Tomo system, by the latter half of the fifth century, a system was organized in which the Tomonomiyatsuko led the Tomo.

15世紀末に至り、伯父北条早雲の助けで家督争いに勝利した今川氏親は、亡父今川義忠の代で頓挫していた遠江国への再侵攻を試みた。
At the end of the 15th century, Ujichika IMAGAWA who won succession dispute with the help of his uncle Soun HOJO attempted invasion upon Totomi Province, which had failed at the time of his late father Yoshitada IMAGAWA.

古今和歌集（曼殊院本）1巻－色変わりの染紙に優美な和様書体で書写された古今和歌集の写本で、11世紀にさかのぼる遺品である。
Kokin Waka Shu (Manshuin-bon (Manshuin Temple version)), 1 volume - a manuscript copy of Kokin Wakashu written on dyed paper with different colors with elegant Japanese style handwriting, and is an article that goes back to the eleventh century.

更に7世紀になると、インドで広まった密教が中国やチベットに導入され、金剛杵や曼荼羅など、特殊な仏具が使用されるようになった。
With Esoteric Buddhism, which had been prevalent in India, introduced into China and Tibet in the 7th century, special Buddhist altar fittings such as Vajra and mandala came into use.

また11世紀末期から瘰癧の治癒能力がフランス王権の特権として主張され始め、ノルマン朝のイングランドでも同様の思想が形成された。
By the end of the eleventh century they had started to claim that the ability to heal the king's evil (scrofula) was the privilege of the French Crown; a similar idea was formed in England under the Norman dynasty.

これに伴い、平安前期の弘仁貞観期（9世紀）には、政府の租税方針も律令が当初想定していた人への課税から土地への課税へと転換した。
Therefore, in the Konin-Jogan eras in the early Heian period (the ninth century), the taxes policy of the government was converted from taxation on people, which was the initial policy mapped out under the Ritsuryo codes, to the taxation on lands.

11世紀半ばになると、朝廷の内裏造営などを目的とした臨時課税を目的に全国に一国平均役を課すことがしばしば行われるようになった。
In the middle of the 11th century, ikkoku heikin-yaku (taxes and labor uniformly imposed on shoen [manor in the medieval Japan] and kokugaryo [provincial land] in a province) was frequently imposed across the country as extraordinary taxation to build an inner court of the Imperial Court.

このような７世紀の東アジアの激動を背景として，倭（天武天皇による国号制定以後日本）では中央集権的律令国家建設の必要性が生じた。
Facing the highly volatile situation in East Asia in the seventh century, there emerged a need for 'Wa' (ancient Japan, 'Wa' was called 'Japan' after the establishment of the name of the country by the Emperor Tenmu) to establish a centralized state under the Ritsuryo system.

継受法としての律令法が7世紀以降長期にわたって強行されたことについては、国家権力の強大さ、人民一般の政治的無権利が第一にある。
The primary reason why the adopted ritsuryo law was enforced for a long period of time since the seventh century was the tremendous power of government and the lack of political rights for the general public.

9世紀末頃になると、百姓らの偽籍・浮浪・逃亡が顕著となり、軍事動員の対象となるべき百姓を各戸ごとに把握することが困難となった。
At the end of the 9th century, false registration, vagrancy, or escape by farmers became prominent; therefore, it was difficult to know for each household who could be mobilized in military affairs.

19世紀中ごろまでに、国内の社会矛盾と国外からの圧力（ロシア、イギリス、アメリカ船の接近）により、幕藩体制は限界を迎えていた。
Due to domestic social contradictions and pressure from the inside and outside of Japan (for example, ships of Russia, of England, and of US came near to Japan), the bakufu-domain system had reached its limit by around the middle of the 19th century.

「杖刀人（じょうとうじん）」「典曹人（てんそうじん）」とあることから、まだ「部（べ）」の制度が5世紀末には成立していなかった。
Two names identified of the written letters on those swords were 'jyotojin (a military officer who protects an Emperor or important personal)' and 'tensojin (an officer who deals with paper work and records of the Imperial administration),' and these only referred to their occupations, so historians and scholars could conclude that the 'Be (ancient political naming system)' system was not established as yet, at the end of the fifth century.

この時代は世情が一応安定し、2世紀以上にわたって大きな戦乱もなく、庶民の生活レベルも、それ以前の時代に比較すれば向上していた。
In this period, the Japanese society was more or less stable because there was no big disturbance of war for more than two centuries, and the ordinary people's living standard was improved from that of the former periods.

16世紀後半になるとポルトガル船が日本に来航するようになって海外への関心が高まり、東南アジア方面にまで進出する日本人も現れた。
Interests toward foreign nations grew at the end of sixteenth century when the Portuguese ships began to arrive in Japan, and there were some Japanese who advanced into the Southeast Asia.

5世紀末ごろから徐々に大和王権の影響が浸透していたが、大宝律令が施行された時点でも依然として律令制的支配の及ばない地域だった。
Since around the end of the fifth century, influence of the Yamato (ancient Japanese) sovereignty gradually penetrated, but it was an area which the ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code) could not cover even after the enforcement of the Taiho Ritsuryo (Taiho Code).

これによって、天智天皇もしくは天武天皇の時代（7世紀）に創始されたと考えられる「天皇」号は、それ以前にさかのぼって追号された。
With this, the title of 'emperor' which was believed to have been established in the era of the Emperor Tenchi or the Emperor Tenmu (seventh century) were retroactively given to emperors before them.

その反面、18世紀以降の蘭学流行に見られるように、植民地にならなかったアジア諸国でこれだけヨーロッパの学問が広まった国はない。
On the other hand, among Asian countries that were not colonized, Japan was the only country in which the study of Europe spread, typified by the Western learning boom observed in and after the 18th century.

「不動」の尊名は、8世紀前半、菩提流志（ぼだいるし）が漢訳した「不空羂索神変真言経」に「不動使者」として現れるのが最初である。
The sacred name of 'Fudo' was seen for the first time as 'Fudo messenger' in 'Fukukenjaku Jimpen Shingonkyo Sutra,' which was translated by Bodairushi, Bodhiruci, in the early part of the eighth century.

所領相論に係る裁判についても、それまで国・郡に裁判権が認められていたのが、11世紀中期以降は、太政官のみが裁判することとされた。
Also, jurisdiction of shoryo soron, which was given to both the nation and gun up to then, was centralized to Dajokan from the mid-11th century.

11・12世紀ごろには城塞の建設に伴っての家門形成が顕著であり、このころ形成された多くの家門の名が支配地や城塞を起源としている。
In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, many families were formed with the establishment of castles; the names of the families that formed during this period were derived from their territorial lands or castles.

なお、戦後において10-11世紀の国家体制を律令国家体制とは異なる体制（王朝国家体制）とする王朝国家論が唱えられるようになった。
After World War II, a theory known as the dynastic state theory was developed, and according to this theory, the political system of the regime that held power in the tenth and eleventh centuries was different from that of the Ritsuryo regime (a political system based on the philosophies of Confucianism and Chinese Legalism).

惣村が最盛期を迎えたのは室町時代中期（15世紀）ごろであり、応仁の乱などの戦乱に対応するため、自治能力が非常に高まったとされる。
Soson reached the mature stage in the mid-Muromachi period (around the fifteenth century), and it is said that the self-governing capability was very enhanced so as to respond to conflicts such as the Onin War.

ところで、王朝国家体制が成立して以来、11世紀中期にかけて、中心的な税目である官物の収納については受領が大きな権限を有していた。
By the way, in the period from the time when the dynastic nation system was established to the middle 11th century, zuryo had a significant right to collect kanmotsu, a main tax.

山科は古代より政権との結びつきが深く、669年には中臣鎌足によって精舎（山階寺）が作られ、7世紀末には天智天皇陵などが作られた。
Since ancient times Yamashina has had a close relation with governments; a garden for monks (Yamashina-dera Temple) was founded by NAKATOMI no Kamatari in 669 and the Imperial mausoleum of Emperor Tenji (Tenchi) was built in the late seventh century.

農奴が保有財産を転貸することは珍しくなく、13世紀頃からは領地（領主の直轄地）での労役の代わりに金銭納入が行われるようになった。
It was not rare for the serfs to sublease their estate, and from the thirteenth century the payment of money began instead of labor services on the land (the land directly controlled by the lords).

15世紀、朝鮮半島南部に三浦と呼ばれる日本人居留地が存在し、宗氏を始めとする西日本諸勢力は三浦を拠点に朝鮮王朝に通交をしていた。
In the fifteenth century, there existed a Japanese settlement called Sanpo in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula, and major forces in the western part of Japan such as the So clan maintained amicable relations with the Korean Dynasty using Sanpo as their base.

成務天皇は13代で、応神天皇（15代）仁徳天皇（16代）や倭の五王よりも遡る4世紀のことで、時代でいうと古墳時代の前期にあたる。
Emperor Seimu was the 13th emperor of Japan and lived in the 4th century before Emperor Ojin (15th), Emperor Nintoku (16th) and the five kings of Wa (Japan) in what was the first half of the Kofun period.

おじいさん、おばあさん、姫、公卿・皇族、職人、商人、天皇、武士と「中世的キャラクター」がこの時代（10世紀）に既に出揃っている。
All the medieval characters of this period (the 10th century) such as grandfather, grandmother, princess, lords, nobles, craftsmen, merchants, emperors and samurai were already present in this tale.

また19世紀中頃には大陸地域から香港、上海や外国へ移住した華僑や労働者などは同郷の中国人社会で互助活動として助葬が行われていた。
In the middle of the 19th century, overseas Chinese and laborers who moved to Hong Kong, Shanghai or abroad used to observe Joso as a mutual support activity in the Chinese societies of people from the same province.

インド・中国起源ではないが、日本では11世紀ころ、六道の各々に配当された地蔵菩薩六地蔵が各所に祀られ、大いに庶民から信仰された。
Although not originating from India or China, Roku Jizo (six Jizo Bodhisattva) which are allocated in each Rokudo, were enshrined throughout Japan in the 11th century and widely worshipped by ordinary people.

後白河法皇が常磐光長に命じて12世紀後半に完成させた『伴大納言絵巻』は、応天門炎上をめぐる説話を的確な風俗表現で描いた絵巻である。
In 'Ban Dainagon Emaki' which was completed by Mitsunaga TOKIWA in the latter half of the 12th century under the order of the Cloistered Emperor Goshirakawa, the story of the fire of Oten-mon Gate was precisely described in the real-life touch.

11世紀後半には堅田の漁師達が下鴨社の支配下に入り（堅田御厨）、続いて堅田とその周辺地域に比叡山延暦寺の荘園（堅田荘）が成立した。
In the late 11th century, fishermen of Katata became under the control of Shimogamo-sha Shrine (Katata Mikuriya) and then manors owned by Enryaku-ji Temple on Mt. Hiei were established in Katata and its neighboring regions.

12世紀中期に鳥羽上皇が没すると、治天の君の座を巡って天皇家・摂関家を巻き込む政争が起こり、軍事衝突によって解決した（保元の乱）。
After the death of the retired Emperor Toba in the middle of the 12th century, a political fight for the seat of chiten no kimi occurred, which involved the Emperor's family and Sekkan-ke, and was resolved after a military confrontation (the Hogen War).

9世紀前半に円仁が中国五台山 (中国)の念仏三昧法を比叡山に伝えており、源信_(僧侶)が『往生要集』を著して天台浄土教を大成した。
In the first part of the ninth century, Ennin introduced the Nenbutsu Zanmai Ho (method of mental absorption in the Buddhist invocation) of Wutai Shan (in China) to Mt. Hiei and Genshin (priest) perfected Tendai Jodo sect by writing 'Ojoyoshu' (The Essentials of Salvation).

そうした流れの中で16世紀中葉に登場した織田信長は、兵農分離などにより自領の武力を強力に組織化して急速に支配地域を拡大していった。
Nobunaga ODA who appeared around the middle of the 16th century established a strong fighting organization in his territory, for example, by separating samurai from the farmers, and rapidly expanding his territory.

古墳時代前期初頭（3世紀中葉〜後葉）には、円筒形または壺形、少し遅れて器台の上の壺を乗せた形の朝顔形埴輪などの円筒埴輪が見られた。
In the early Tumulus period (from about the middle to the late part of the third century), cylindrical Haniwa appeared such as cylindrical form Haniwa, or jar form Haniwa, and later, bell-shaped Haniwa which had the form putting a jar on the stand.

7世紀頃には、蝦夷は現在の宮城県中部から山形県以北の東北地方と、北海道 (地方公共団体)の大部分に広く住んでいたと推察されている。
In around the seventh century, the Emishi/Ezo (northerners and northeasterners) had presumably lived widely over most parts of the Tohoku Region, north of the center of modern day Miyagi Prefecture and northern Yamagta Prefecture, and most parts of Hokkaido (current local public body).

それとともに中国領内にある嶺南地方をヴェトナムと一体として考える思想が衰退し、18世紀末には正史において南越国は正統から外された。
In association with it, the idea of regarding China's Lingnan region as a part of Vietnam declined, and Nanetsukoku finally lost its legitimacy in the official history book at the end of 18th century.

東大寺の倉庫であった正倉院の宝物は聖武天皇の遺愛品を中心とする8世紀美術の宝庫で、日本製品とともに唐からの舶載品を数多く所蔵する。
Shoso-in Treasure Repository (formerly, the storehouse affiliated to Todai-ji Temple) is literally the treasury of the eighth century's art - this art is mainly occupied with the articles treasured by the late Emperor Shomu - so Shoso-in owns many goods from Tang-dynasty China as well as Japanese goods.

7世紀後半に日本に導入された律令制は、中国のそれに倣って、国民を良民と賤民とに大別する良賤制を採用した（良賤の法、645年制定）。
The Ritsuryo system, brought in Japan during the latter half of the seventh century, adopted the Ryosen system which largely divided the people into the Ryomin (lit. good people) and the Senmin (the lowly persons) after a model from China (the Law of Ryosen, enacted in 645).

だが、荘園公領制が解体する14世紀に入ると、生産力の上昇や農民層の抵抗、更に荘園内部でも上級層の没落と下級層の上昇などが発生する。
However, during the fourteenth century, many factors, such as the improvement of the productivity, the resistance of the class of peasants, and the downfall of the upper-class together with the advancement of the lower-class, contributed to the eventual demise of the shoen-koryo sei.

18世紀末に、ロシアに漂流しエカチェリーナ2世に謁見した大黒屋光太夫や、幕末に活躍する中浜万次郎（ジョン万次郎）もその一人である。
Kodayu DAIKOKUYA, who drifted to Russia and presented to Catherine II of Russia at the end of the 18th century, and Manjiro NAKAHAMA (John Manjiro), who would play an active role at the end of Edo period, were one of them.

11世紀に秩父氏から出た江戸重継は、江戸の桜田（のちの江戸城）の高台に居館を構え、江戸の地名をとって江戸太郎を称し、江戸氏を興す。
In the 11th century, Shigetsugu of the Chichibu clan built his own residence (later, the Edo Castle) on a hill overlooking Sakurada, and founded the EDO clan by renaming himself EDO Taro after the place name Edo.

日本に密教が伝来した9世紀に灌頂の儀礼が開始され、やがて密教の灌頂儀式が天皇の即位式に取り入れられ、即位灌頂が成立することになる。
In the ninth century, when Esoteric Buddhism was brought into Japan, the ritual of kanjo commenced and the ceremony of kanjo of Esoteric Buddhism was used for the enthronement ceremony for the emperor and sokuikanjo was formed.

チベットにおける個別の仏典翻訳は、7世紀ソンツェン・ガンポ王の命令で、経典のチベット語訳は、トンミサンボータによって始められたが、
In Tibet, the translation of individual Buddhist scriptures was begun by order of King Songtsan Gambo in the seventh century; the translation of Buddhist sutra into the Tibetan language was begun by Tonmisanboda (トンミサンボータ).

そうした立場からは、古代から中世への過渡期に位置づけられるべき王朝国家体制期は、11世紀中期に終わったのだとする見解も出されている。
From the above standpoint, some assert that the period of Dynastic polity, which should be regarded as the transitional period from the ancient times to the medieval age, ended in mid-11th century.

しかし、9世紀に入ると支配・収取から逃れるために百姓たちの逃亡・浮浪が顕著となっていき、律令制支配・収取は大きな転換が迫られていた。
In the ninth century, however, farmers began to flee from their villages and became vagrants in increasing numbers in order to escape government control and taxation, thereby necessitating a major change in the system of administration and taxation based on the ancient ritsuryo legal codes.

家系としての「兵の家」の形成過程で忘れてはならないのが、10世紀後半に現役武官ではないのに「朝家の爪牙」として動員されたことである。
What should not be forgotten in a formation process of 'tsuwamono-no-ie' (house of soldiers) as the family line was that 'choka no soga' mobilized in the late tenth century without the presence of a military officer.

13世紀中ごろから畿内などでの活動が活発であった悪党や、奥州での安東氏と蝦夷の対立など、政情不安に乗じてのものだとも考えられている。
It is thought that the movement tried to take advantage of political unrest such as the akuto (people who rebelled against shoen owners and the government) that were active in the Kinki area, and the conflict between the Ando family and Ezo in Oshu around the middle of the 13th century.

なお、日本美術史では20世紀末頃から「弘仁・貞観時代」という表記をあまり用いなくなり、「平安時代前期」と称することが多くなっている。
In Japanese art history, the term 'Konin-Jogan Culture' has become less common from the end of the twentieth century, and the term 'early Heian period' is commonly used.

21世紀を迎え、グローバル化やインターネット社会の拡大なども相まって、戦後一貫して進んできた文化・生活の多様化が、一層進展している。
The culture and lives have been diversified consistently since the end of the war, but entering the 21st century, they have further diversified together with globalization and the trend of society where the Internet has been used more and more widely.

13世紀中期頃から、貨幣経済の浸透と商品流通の活発化、村落の形成、地頭ら武士による荘園公領への侵出など、大きな社会変動が生じ始めた。
Starting around the middle of the 13th century, the social system started changing drastically: For example, money had become used in the economy, goods were circulated actively, and samurai, such as jito (managers and lords of manors), had advanced into shoen koryo (public lands and private estates).

また18世紀に入ると日本は飢饉が頻発するようになり、天保の大飢饉になると藩によっては収穫ゼロ（津軽藩など）の所も出てくるようになる。
In the 18th century, famines were frequent in Japan, and after the Tenpo Famine, some domains were unable to yield any crops at all (Tsugaru Domain and so on).

日本では、塑像の作例は奈良時代に集中しており、木彫が彫刻界の主流となった平安時代以降（おおむね9世紀以降）の塑像の作例はまれである。
Most of the earthen images were produced in the Nara period and few were produced in Heian period or later (mainly after 9th century) when wood carvings became the mainstream in sculpture society.

10世紀中期頃、国衙行政は在庁官人の手で運営されるようになり、受領の中には任国へ赴任せず、在庁官人へ行政を任せる者も多くなっていった。
During the middle of the tenth century, the administration of kokuga came to be managed by zaichokanjins, some of the zuryos did not go to their place of assignment and often left administration to the zaichokanjins.

初め煎茶は遣唐使によりもたらされた貴重なものが用いられたが、9世紀後半には宮中の内裏茶園で栽培され、蔵人所の造茶使が製造を行っている。
After it was first introduced to Japan, a valuable kind of sencha was used that had been brought over by the Kento-shi (Japanese envoy to Tang Dynasty China), but by the late ninth century, the zochashi (a person who manages a tea garden) at the Kurodo-dokoro (chamberlain's office) made tea from plants that had been grown in the tea garden of the Imperial Court.

11世紀に入ると、藤原道長がこれを所有してその没後は嫡男藤原頼通が継承して、道長の娘（頼通の姉）である藤原彰子が出家後の住まいとした。
At the turn of the eleventh century, FUJIWARA no Michinaga owned the villa, and after Michinaga died, his legitimate son FUJIWARA no Yorimichi inherited the villa and FUJIWARA no Shoshi, a daughter of Michinaga (an elder sister of Yorimichi), lived there after became a nun.

南北朝を統一し、安定政権を築いた足利義満が、正式に明からの冊封を受けることで、15世紀初頭から日明貿易（勘合貿易）が開始するのである。
The trade between Japan and the Ming Dynasty in China (the tally trade - between Japan and the Ming Dynasty) started from the early 15th century when Yoshimitsu ASHIKAGA who unified the Northern and Southern Courts and established his stable political administration officially received sakuho (homage by Chinese emperors) from Ming Dynasty.

この事件以降、12世紀中葉の平治の乱まで中央の政治抗争は武力を伴わず、死刑も執行されない非武力的な政治の時代が永らく続くこととなった。
After this incident, until the Heiji War in the middle of 12th century, the non-violent political age continued, during which central political conflicts did not lead to military confrontations or the execution of the death penalty.

平安後期になると、「家」内部で家業の継承をめぐる紛争が頻発し、12世紀中葉にはその紛争が武力衝突として具現化してしまった（保元の乱）。
In the late Heian Period, disputes over the succession of family business frequently occurred inside the 'clan,' and in the mid twelfth century, the disputes evolved into tangible forms of armed conflicts (the Hogen war).

したがって、少なくとも17世紀半ば、江戸時代前期において、天皇の御世を長かれと祝賀する歌である、とする解釈が存在したことは確かである。
Therefore, we can say for sure that, at least in the middle of the seventeenth century, namely during the early part of the Edo Period, there was an interpretation that the poem in question was for celebrating the reign of the emperor and wishing his reign would last long.

紀元前2世紀-紀元前後ごろの時期には、倭人は定期的に前漢へ朝貢しており、また約100の政治集団（国）を形成していた（『漢書地理志』）。
In the period from the second century B.C. to around the beginning of the first century, Wajin paid tribute to the Former Han Dynasty on a regular basis and formed about 100 political groups (countries) ('Kanjo Chirishi' (Historical records of the Han Dynasty)).

7世紀後半から701年までの期間に、国号が「日本」と定められたとされているが、このときから、日本を「やまと」と訓じたとする見解がある。
It is said that the name of the country was determined to be '日本' (Nihon) in the latter half of the seventh century to 701, but some say that 日本 was pronounced Yamato.

日本には、公式には13世紀(鎌倉時代)に伝えられたとされているが、平安時代には既に伝わっており、檀林寺で禅が講義されたとの記録がある。
Zen was officially said to be transmitted in the 13th century (in the Kamakura period), but it had been already introduced in the Heian period and there is a record that Zen was lectured at Danrin-ji Temple.

従来、律令体制と連動してきた尾張国の猿投窯が、11世紀以後、購買層を支配者層から庶民層へとうつし、実用的な無釉の山茶碗の生産を開始した。
The Sanage kilns of Owari Province had been linking to the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code), and after the 11th century, there was a change in buyers, from the ruling class to the common people class, and unglazed Yamajawan (bowl) began to be manufactured.

8世紀後半の西大寺 (奈良市)文書や木簡出土例などから「高志公」は古代の越後国頸城郡・古志郡など、越後南部に分布したウジ名と考えられる。
According to Saidai-ji Monjo (documents of Saidai-ji Temple in Nara City) and unearthed articles of mokkan (a narrow strip of wood on which an official message is written) in the latter half of the eighth century, it is considered that 'Koshi no kimi' was a name of Uji distributed in the southern part of Echigo such as Kubiki County, Koshi County, and so on in Echigo Province in ancient times.

それに先立つ9世紀には、地方においては国衙と在地の郡司・豪族・富裕層、あるいは前任国司の子弟などを含む王臣子孫達との武力衝突が多発する。
Previously, there were frequent martial conflicts between the kokuga (provincial government offices), rich clans, and social classes, or posterity of a vassal including servants of previously assigned governors during the ninth century.

10世紀中葉から後期にかけて、ある官職に伴う権限義務を特定の家系へ請け負わせる官司請負制が中央政界でも地方政治でも著しく進展していった。
From the middle to the end of the 10th century, the government official contract system developed in the national political arena as well as in regional politics: specific family lines were given contracts to have authority and duties associated with certain government posts.

戦乱といえば、15世紀前半から南部氏が仙北・鹿角に出兵（この鹿角争奪戦は永禄頃まで続く）、伊達氏の河北地方への侵食など領地争いが目立つ。
With respect to wars, disputes over territories are prominent as seen in sending troops by the Nanbu clan to Senboku and Kazuno since the first half of the fifteenth century (this war over Kazuno continued until around Eiroku Era) and invasion into the Kahoku region by the Date clan.

9世紀後半頃、国司の権限が大幅に強化され、受領化するとともに、郡司の権限は大幅に縮小され、全国的に郡衙が衰退したことがわかってきている。
These remains were proof that around the late ninth century, the kokushi (provincial governors) acquired greater authority and significant power and began to administrate like a Zuryo (the head of the provincial governors) in their actual practice, and the effect of this fact upon the Gunji was a dramatic reduction in power and authority so the Gunga system declined in Japan.

考古学的な見地からは、平群氏の奥津城とされる平群谷古墳群（平群町に所在）の変遷を考えると、同氏の台頭は6世紀中期以前には遡れないという。
According to archeologists, when they see the changes of Heguridani-kofun Tumulus Cluster (located in present Heguri Town) which is said to be the okutsuki (Shinto tomb) of the Heguri clan, the emergence of the Heguri clan cannot be traced before the middle of the sixth century.

この近代国際法は、19世紀に入ると掲げられた理念とは裏腹な砲艦外交によって中近東、アフリカ、東アジア等世界全体に適用範囲を広げていった。
From the beginning of the nineteenth century, the range of application of this modern international law was expanded to whole world including, the Middle and Near East, Africa and East Asia through gunboat diplomacy that was contradictorily to the heralded idealistic principle.

なお、一部の例外を除いて、各藩は藩士への知行体制を18世紀初旬までに地方知行制（現地領主制）から俸禄制（サラリー制）へと変遷させている。
In addition, with some exceptions, by early in the 18th century, each domain had changed the fief system for retainers to provide a land into the salary system.

十六世紀中頃（戦国時代末期）、頼高の孫・及川頼家の時、同族間の内紛により主君葛西氏に領地を召し上げられてこの家系も没落し多くは帰農した。
During the mid-sixteenth century (the late Sengoku period), in the time of Yoriie OIKAWA, a grandson of Yoritaka, they were deprived of the territory by his master, the KASAI clan; subsequently, the family line went to ruin and took up farming again.

奈良県斑鳩町・法輪寺 (斑鳩町)の木造虚空蔵菩薩立像は7世紀にさかのぼる古像だが、当初から虚空蔵菩薩と呼ばれていたかどうかは定かでない。
The wooden Kokuzo Bosatsu standing figure in Horin-ji Temple (Ikaruga-cho) in Ikaruga-cho Nara Prefecture is an old figure from about the seventh century, but it is not clear whether it was called a Kokuzo Bosatsu from the beginning.

「戸主高志公」（名を欠く）の戸では1年間に6名もの人が亡くなっているが、9世紀前半は日本古代史上でもまれにみる天変地異の続いた時代である。
In Ko 'headed by KOSHI NO KIMI' (no given name), as many as six members died in one year, because the first half of the ninth century was a rare time in ancient Japanese history when natural disasters occurred continuously.

この枡は、制定後間もなく全国的に流布し、その後は14世紀初頭に至るまで、数多い私枡のなかにあって、一定の権威をもった公定枡として機能した。
Soon after it was designated, Senjimasu was put into circulation throughout the nation, and until the beginning of the fourteenth century it functioned as an official measure holding constant authority within many private measures.

現地派遣の筆頭国司（受領）が前代より大幅に権限委譲された上で、富豪百姓層を通じて地域支配、税の徴収を行う王朝国家体制が10世紀に確立した。
As a result a system of the dynasty state was established in the 10th century, in which the heads of the provincial governors (Zuryo) who had been sent to each region received much stronger empowerment than their previous generation and ruled the region and collected tax through the rich peasants.

朝廷では、13世紀後半以降、後深草天皇の子孫（持明院統）と亀山天皇の子孫（大覚寺統）の両血統の天皇が交互に即位する両統迭立が行われていた。
After the late thirteenth century, the Imperial Court adopted the ryoto tetsuritsu system, a system in which succession to the imperial throne alternated between the two ancestral lines of the imperial family: Emperor Gofukakusa (the Jimyoin line) and Emperor Kameyama (the Daikakuji line).

安土桃山時代の16世紀後半から、本所となる伊勢以外にも江戸、大阪、京都などいわゆる三都に出店し日本全国に商売のネットワークを広げていった。
They expanded the business network across the country by starting in business not only in Ise Province, where their headquarters were placed, but also in the so-called three cities, Edo (now Tokyo), Osaka and Kyoto since the latter half of the 16th century, in the Azuchi-Momoyama period.

現在では、考古学からする文化圏の検討と、北東北に分布するアイヌ語地名から、7世紀以降の蝦夷についてアイヌとの連続性を認める説が有力である。
Nowadays, the leading hypothesis is derived from a theory that considers the issue from the perspective of cultural areas based on archaeology; another theory considers the continuity of Emishi after the seventh century with the Ainu, as examined from the perspective of toponyms of the Ainu language distributed in the northern Tohoku region.

『阿含経』などもっとも古いと思われるものでも早くて紀元前4世紀、それから長い時間をかけて、徐々に結集として編集されたものと考えられている。
The oldest transcription such as 'Agonkyo' is from the 4th century BC, at the earliest, and it is thought that the transcription was edited to match the style of collection over a long period of time.

憲法発布の勅語に「不磨ノ大典」とあったためか、1947年（昭和22年）の日本国憲法施行まで半世紀以上の間、一度も改正されることはなかった。
Since the expression 'the constitution never worn thin' was used in the Imperial speech about the Constitution of the Empire of Japan, the Constitution had not been modified for more than 50 years until it was replaced by the Constitution of Japan in 1947.

当初は有力な公民に対する賦課として行われる形式を採っていたが、11世紀中期の官物率法の成立を機に次第に土地に対する賦課へと変質していった。
Originally it was a tax on prominent citizens, but with the establishment of Kanmotsu rippo (the law fixing the tax rate of kanmotsu, tribute) in the middle of the 11h century, it transformed into a tax against land.

鉄砲伝来（てっぽうでんらい）とは、15世紀にヨーロッパから東アジアへ火縄銃型の銃が伝わったこと、狭義には日本の種子島に伝来した事件を指す。
The term 'Teppo Denrai' (introduction of firearms) generally refers to the introduction of matchlock guns from Europe into East Asia in the 15th century, and in a more limited sense it means the introduction of matchlock guns into Tanegashima Island, Japan.

11世紀ごろに武家の棟梁と呼ぶべき指導的な武士（例えば源頼信など）が登場すると、多数の武士が棟梁と主従関係を結んで、棟梁の郎党となっている。
Around the eleventh century, as leading samurai like MINAMOTO no Yorinobu who should be called toryo (a leader) appeared, many samurai connected master to servant relationships with toryo and become roto for the toryo.

そのため、16世紀になると室町幕府や守護大名、戦国大名たちは撰銭を禁ずる撰銭令（えりぜにれい）を発令して、円滑な貨幣流通を実現しようとした。
Thus, in the sixteenth century the Muromachi bakufu, Shugo daimyo (Japanese territorial lord as provincial constable), and daimyo (Japanese territorial lord) during the Sengoku Period tried to officially announce a ban on the Erizeni to achieve smoother money circulation.

ボストン美術館蔵の「千手観音像」「馬頭観音像」「如意輪観音像」は、いずれもアーネスト・フェノロサ・ウェルドコレクションで12世紀の作である。
The 'Image of Senju Kannon,' 'Image of Bato Kannon,' 'Image of Nyoirin Kannon' possessed by the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston were the Fenollosa-Weld Collection, and they were created in the 12th century.

なお、荘園公領制が完全に崩壊するのは、南北朝時代よりも2世紀後の太閤検地によってであるが、この南北朝期に既に大きな転機を迎えていたのである。
Nevertheless, although the shoen koryo sei (system of controlling private and public lands) did not completely collapse until more than 200 years after the reunification of the Southern and Northern Courts, when the Taiko Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI ordered his great country-wide land survey, land ownership had already reached a major turning point during the period of the Northern and Southern Courts.

古代のカースト制氏族社会においては自由な土地の売買や譲渡は許されていなかったが、紀元前5世紀前後には社会の発展とともに緩やかになっていった。
In the ancient caste system clan society, free purchase and sale or transfer of lands were not allowed, but around the fifth century B.C., they were loosely allowed with the development of society.

11世紀中頃以後、不入の権 (日本)の拡大とともに一円支配が確立され、荘園内に居住するものは全て荘民として荘園領主に帰属されることになった。
After the middle of the 11th century, together with the expansion of Funyu rights (Japan), Ichien shihai (reigning of whole regions) became established and all those who lived within a shoen were under the rule of the shoen landowner as shomin.

17世紀前半に、大坂の遊郭を新町（新町遊廓）へ、京都柳町の遊郭を朱雀野（島原遊廓）に移転した他、吉原遊廓を最終的に浅草日本堤付近に移転した。
During the first half of the 17th century, yukaku in Osaka was moved to Shinmachi (Shinmachi yukaku), and Kyoto Yanagimachi yukaku was to Shujakano (Shimabara yukaku); besides Yoshiwara yukaku was moved to near Nihonzutsumi, Asakusa in the end.

そのため、欧化政策など日本が西洋と対等たらんとする様々な政策が行われたが、条約改正自体は半世紀におよぶ不断の努力を必要とした（→条約改正）。
Because of this, although the government proceeded with various policies such as the Westernization policy in order to be equal to western countries, it took a half century to revise the unequal treaty.

21世紀初頭の現在では日本のも中国のもガマの穂では出来ておらず、中身は綿、カポック、そば殻、パンヤ、外装はビロード、または綿から出来ている。
At present days in the beginning of the 21st century, it is not made from bulrush fluff in Japan or China, but cotton, kapok, or buckwheat hull is used for inner material and velvet or cotton is used for outer material.

8世紀後期頃から始まった古代の戸籍制度の崩壊は、平安時代に入っても止まらず、平安時代中期には、国家による直接の人民支配はもはや不可能になった。
The collapse of the ancient family registration that had begun in the end 8th century did not stop in the early Heian period and the direct control of people by the central government became impossible in the mid Heian period.

14世紀中期頃には、荘園・公領内の村落が自治性を高めるようになり、畿内や西国では惣村、東国や九州では郷村とよばれる自治村落へと成長していった。
Around the middle of the 14th century, villages within manors and government territories increased their autonomy and grew into self-governing communities, which were called soson in Kinai and western regions and goson in eastern regions and Kyushu.

名品が多いなかでとくに傑作とされるのが、12世紀後半に制作された高野山有志八幡講十八箇院『阿弥陀聖衆来迎図』（国宝、高野山霊宝館保管）である。
Among many masterpieces, 'Amida Shoju Raigo-zu' (image of the Descent of Amida and the Heavenly Multitude) of Takanosan Yushihachimanko Juhachika-in Temple (高野山有志八幡講十八箇院) created in the latter half of the 12th century (a national treasure, possessed by Koyasan Reihokan Museum) is the greatest Buddhist painting.

18世紀中頃に作られたと見られる新道と古道の分岐点を左にとって古道を進むと、観音堂の傍を過ぎ、十津川の支流・西川のほとりの西中大谷に降り立つ。
And the road (the old road) meets a new road which is considered to have been built in the middle of the 18th century, the old road extends to the left, passes beside Kannon-do (a temple dedicated to Kannon), and descends to Nishinaka-Otani near Nishi-kawa River, a branch of Togtsu-kawa River.

弘仁・貞観文化（こうにん・じょうがんぶんか）とは、日本史において、弘仁・貞観_(日本)年間を中心とする平安時代前期（ほぼ9世紀に相当）の文化。
Konin-Jogan culture is considered in Japanese history to be the culture that flourished in Japan during the Konin and Jogan era of the early Heian period (about the ninth century).

なお、奈良時代の日本の人口は約500万人、農地は100万町（約120万ヘクタール、21世紀初頭が約480万ヘクタール）だったと推計されている。
It is estimated that the population of Japan in the Nara period was approx. five million and the arable land area was approx. 1.2 million hectares (compared with approx. 4.8 million hectares in early 21st century).

7世紀頃には、蝦夷は現在の宮城県中部から山形県以北の東北地方と、北海道 (地方公共団体)の大部分に広く住み、その一部は日本の領域の中にあった。
By the seventh century, the Emishi had lived broadly in the Tohoku region (from mid-Miyagi Prefecture through Yamagata Prefecture and to the north) and most of Hokkaido (local public entity), a part of which was included in the Japanese territory.

今日、春日大社に「春日大社若宮御料古神宝」として12世紀制作の「金鶴及び銀樹枝」「銀鶴及び磯形」が伝わっており、いずれも国宝に指定されている。
Creations such as 'Gold crane and silver tree branch' and 'Silver crane and Isokata' created during the 12th century have been handed down to Kasuga-Taisha Shrine today as 'Kasuga-Taisha Shrine Wakamiya Imperial property Sacred Treasures,' both are designated as national treasures.

その人口は絶えず拡大を続け、18世紀初頭には人口が百万人を超え、八百八町といわれる世界有数（一説によると当時世界一）の大都市へと発展を遂げた。
The population continued to increase, and exceeded one million at the beginning of the eighteenth century, and became known as a city of a 'eight-hundred-and-eight-towns' (metaphor for an infinite towns)- one of the world's great metropolises (By some estimates, it was the most populous metropolis in the world.).

かつては10世紀初頭以降の政治状況・社会状況を指して、中央政府が統治権をほとんど放棄し、地方の無秩序状態をきたした状態と評価されたこともあった。
In the past, political/social situations in the early 10th century was thought of as a society where the central government abandoned almost of its ruling power and invited the state of chaos in the provinces.

11世紀中期に見られた体制変化・社会変化は、当時徐々に一円化を進め、著しい増加を見せていた荘園に対抗するための国衙側（公領側）の対応策であった。
The changes in the governing structure and society that occurred in the mid-11th century were countermeasures taken by kokuga side (public land side) in order to counter shoen (manor in medieval Japan), which were rapidly increasing at the time and proceeding with ichienka (realization of complete ownership).

12世紀に描かれた、大和文華館（奈良県奈良市）所蔵の『寝覚物語絵巻』は、悲恋の物語を描いたとされる銀箔の美しい絵巻であり、国宝に指定されている。
'Nezame monogatari emaki' (Picture Scroll of the Tale of Nezame) that was painted in the 12th century and is possessed by Yamato Bunka-kan (Nara City, Nara prefecture) is a beautiful emakimono covered in silver foil which is said to be the story of tragic love, and it is designated as a national treasure.

9世紀に入り、軍団 (古代日本)が形骸化し実質的に消滅していくと、郡司・富豪層や俘囚が「発兵勅符」に基づいて軍事力として編成されるようになった。
In the ninth century when the private warrior bands (in ancient Japan) became nominal and effectively disappeared, gunji (district officials), the rich and powerful class, and fushu (the indigenous tribes of the north-eastern Japan who became allies of the Imperial Court) were formed as military forces under 'hatsuhei-chokufu' (an imperial order authorizing the mobilization of soldiers).

17世紀にはいると嵐山の豪商であり政商の角倉了以が桂川を開削し、現在の丹波町与木村から下流の淀や大坂まで通じることになったため、船運が発達した。
In the 17th century, a wealthy merchant with political ties, Ryoi SUMINOKURA, built a canal from the Katsura-gawa River to connect the present-day Yogi-mura (与木村) in Tanba-cho, and Yodo and Osaka; consequently, water transportation developed.

これらのことから、「三韓征伐」説話を根拠として全く用いることがなくとも、4世紀後半以降の倭の朝鮮半島進出自体は歴史的事実として立証できるとする。
Those evidences, even dismissing the tale of 'Sankan-Seibatsu,' would be determinate factor in the foundation of the theory that Wa progressed in his militaristic advance into the Korean peninsula during the later portion of the fourth century as historical fact.

7世紀後半以降、百済の滅亡など緊迫する東アジアの国際情勢の中で、倭国は中央集権化を進めることで、政権を安定させ、国家としての独立を保とうとした。
In and after the latter half of the seventh century, under the tense international circumstances in East Asia such as the fall of Baekje and so on, Wakoku (Japan) intended to stabilize the government and keep the independence as a nation by promoting the centralization.

7世紀の終わり頃完成した、古代の都で最大の規模を誇り、条坊制を布いた本格的な中国風都城の藤原京を中心とした天皇や貴族中心の華やかな文化であった。
Completed around the end of seventh century and being the largest-scaled among the ancient cities, it was a gorgeous, imperial and aristocratic culture around the Fujiwara Capital, which featured genuine Chinese style capital with street plan.

9世紀にはいると現在の岩手県地域にも城柵が作られはじめ、延暦21年（802年）に坂上田村麻呂により胆沢城が設置され、鎮守府が多賀城から移された。
In the 9th century, josaku were also started to be founded in the present-day Iwate region, as Isawa-jo Castle was founded by SAKANOUE no Tamuramaro in 802, to which Chinju-fu (Pacification and Defense Headquarters) were relocated from Taga-jo Castle.

その場合は、衾田陵は延喜式でいう山辺郡でも推定築造時期が六世紀と考えられている周辺唯一の古墳である西山塚古墳と考えられている（和田 2003）。
If such case, Fusumada-ryo Mausoleum is considered to be the only tumulus around the area, Nishiyamazuka-kofun Tumulus, which was believed to be constructed in the sixth century in Yamabe County stated in Engishiki (by Wada, 2003).

8世紀から本格的に開始した日本の律令制は、戸籍・計帳によって人民百姓を把握し、口分田を班給する代わりに租庸調を租税として収取する支配体制であった。
The Ritsuryo system of Japan, which was officially inaugurated in the eighth century, was an administrative system based on the control over people and farmers by koseki (the household registers) and keicho (the yearly tax registers) and the collection of land tax by Soyocho (a tax system, corvee), which was imposed in exchange for hankyu (allotment) of kubunden (the farm land given to each farmer in the Ritsuryo system).

その10世紀初頭の地方社会経済に目を転じると、旧来の郡司の勢力が弱体化しはじめると同時に、王臣子孫も含めた新興勢力・有力農業経営者が台頭を始める。
When looking at the social situation in districts of the early tenth century, the former gunji (district managers) force weakened simultaneously with the rise of the new power consisting of the posterity of vassals and wealthy farmers.

2007年2月1日、東麓遺跡において7世紀前半から中頃のものと見られる建物跡や石垣を発見したと発表され、蘇我氏の邸宅跡ではないかと注目されている。
It was announced on February 1, 2007 that remains of structures and stone walls, which are estimated to date back from the early to mid-seventh century, were discovered at the Toroku site, and the unearthed objects are drawing attention as possible remains of Soga clan's residence.

15世紀ごろからアイ (植物)の栽培と藍染めが由良川沿いを中心に盛んに行われており、1496年、藍染めの布を荘園に納めたとされる記録が残っている。
The cultivation of indigo plants and indigo dyeing were actively carried out mainly along the Yura-gawa River since the fifteenth century; a record still remains that indigo-dyed fabric was rendered to the manor in 1496.

これらの動きは実証的な歴史研究、すなわち18世紀の荻生徂徠や伊藤東涯らによる政治制度史研究へとつながっていき、あわせて国学へも大きな影響を与えた。
These movements led to fact-based research of history, or the historical research of political systems by Sorai OGYU and Togai ITO, and affected Kokugaku (the study of Japanese classical literature) as well.

5世紀には農業生産力が上がり国力が増大し、日本書紀には、この時期に朝鮮半島に兵を送り、一時期は朝鮮半島の一部を領有した（→任那説）と記されている。
According to'Nihonshoki' (Chronicles of Japan), agricultural productivity and national power grew until the 5th century, at which time armies were sent to the Korean Peninsula, occupying a part of it for a while (the theory of Mimana).

8～9世紀において改賜姓がさかんに行われているのは、八色の姓において、上級の氏姓にもれた下級の身分の者や、これらの農民を主な対象としたものである。
During the period between the eighth century and the ninth century there were many changes made in the hereditary titles; this change was geared to the people with the lower social position who were excluded from the rank of higher hereditary position in the Yakusa no Kabane Reform as well as these peasants.

武士が政治的権力を持つ12世紀以前にはこうした区別は存在せず、荘務権を持つ本所に属する荘園・所領を該当する領主（公家・寺社）の「本所領」と称した。
Before the twelfth century when bushi (warriors) came into power, there was no distinction among the estates, and shoen and shoryo belonged to honjo (owner of shoen), who has shomuken (administrative power and jurisdiction in shoen), were called 'honjo ryo' (patronage properties) of the corresponding ryoshu (estate proprietors; the court nobles, temples and shrines).

しかも、9世紀に入ると、明経道の地位が低下して正史や漢詩などの漢文学を扱う（儒教も学ぶものの、そのウェイトは高くはなかった）紀伝道が台頭してきた。
Further, when it entered the ninth century, the position of Myogyodo was lowered and Kidendo, which handled the official history and Chinese-style poetry (they learned Confucianism, too, but its ratio was not very high), became popular.

「扇面古写経」（扇面法華経冊子）は、12世紀末葉に流行した装飾経のひとつで、自然や風俗をえがいた扇形の紙面（扇面型料紙）に法華経を写したものである。
The 'Senmen Koshakyo' (Ancient Sutra Manuscripts on a fan) (Senmen Hokkekyo Sasshi [Lotus Sutra Booklet on a Fan]) is one of decorative sutras that became popular in the end of the 12th century, and Hoke-kyo Sutra (the Lotus Sutra) was copied on the fan-shaped paper (fan-shaped ryoshi) on which nature or customs were described.

日本では、唐の脅威にさらされた7世紀後期、国力の充実強化を目的として、律令の概念が積極的に受容され、まず先駆的な律令として飛鳥浄御原令が制定された。
In Japan, the concept of Ritsuryo was actively adopted in order to reinforce and substantiate national power against the threat of the Tang during the late seventh century, and Asuka Kiyomihara Ryo was first established as the pioneer of Ritsuryo.

雪舟（せっしゅう、1420年（応永27年） - 1506年（永正3年））は号で、15世紀後半室町時代に活躍した水墨画家・禅僧で、画聖とも称えられる。
Known as Sesshu (1420 - 1506), he was an ink painter and Zen monk active in the Muromachi period in the latter half of the 15th century, and was called a master painter.

12世紀に入ると、荘園の増大で税収が減り、上級貴族に俸給を払えなくなった朝廷は、彼らに知行国として国を与え、その国に関する国司の任命権と税収を与えた。
In the 12th century, as a result of the reduction in tax revenue caused by the expansion of the shoen, the Imperial Court was no longer able to pay salaries to high-ranked aristocrats, so it gave these nobles provinces as chigyo-koku (provincial fiefdom), as well as the right to appoint kokushi (provincial governors) and collect taxes.

更に10世紀後期には大学別曹（勧学院・奨学院・学館院）に対しても自己の所属する学生を諸国の掾への無試験任官の推挙を行う「院年挙」を認めるようになった。
In addition, in the latter half of the 10th century, Daigaku-besso (Kangaku-in colleges, Shogaku-in colleges, and Gakkan-in colleges) were allowed to use the system called 'Innenkyo,' whereby their students were appointed as Jo of provinces by recommendation without examination.

そのため、10世紀後半の貴族社会において、承平天慶勲功者とその子孫は軍事に特化した家系、すなわち兵の家（つわもののいえ）として認知されるようになった。
Therefore, in the noble society in the latter half of the 10th century, Johei Tengyo kunkosha and their descendants came to be recognized as family lines specialized in military affairs, that is, tsuwamono no ie (samurai families).

12世紀末の治承・寿永の内乱（源平合戦）を経て、初期鎌倉幕府政権は、国追捕使の権限を継承した惣追捕使を各国に設置することについて、朝廷から承認を得た。
After the Jisho-Juei Civil War (the Genpei War) towards the end of the 12th century, the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) at its initial stage gained the approval of the Imperial Court to establish Sotsuibushi (government post in charge of police and military roles), inheriting the rights of koku-tsuibushi, in each province.

7世紀には、飛鳥は古代日本の政治と文化の中心地となり、都市機能の整備が行われるなど、宮都の様相を呈していたので、「飛鳥京」とも呼ばれていた（『紀』）。
In the seventh century, Asuka became a central place of politics and culture in ancient Japan, and it is called 'Asuka no miyako' as it took on the character of a capital with city functions developed ('Ki' [also known as 'Nihonshoki,' or Chronicles of Japan]).

しかし21世紀に入ってからは、エルトゥールル号事件の顛末が、以下の事件と絡めて、インターネット上の電子掲示板やメールマガジンで紹介される機会が増えた。
However, in the 21st century, the whole story of the Ertuğru disaster came to be introduced through electronic bulletin boards or mail magazines on the Internet along with the following incident.

5世紀後半の475年、高句麗の南下によって百済は南方へ移動したが、この事件は百済と友好関係にあったヤマト王権（倭国）にも経済的・政治的な影響を与えた。
During the late fifth century, in 475, Baekje moved further south as Goguryeo advanced southward, and this economically and politically affected the Yamato Kingdom, that had a friendly relationship with Baekje.

12世紀に実務官僚の家が勧修寺流・日野家・高棟流平氏に固定化したことに伴い、三事兼帯も自然とこの三家に限定された（例外は信西の子、藤原俊憲・貞憲のみ）。
After the families of officials in charge of practical business became restricted to Kajuji-ryu (the Kanjuji line), the Hino family and Takamune-ryu Heishi (Taira clan of Takamune group) in the twelfth century, persons who became Sanji kentai holder also came to be limited to those who were the members of these three families (exceptions were FUJIWARA no Toshinori/Sadanori, sons of Shinzei).

この変化は9世紀末の宇多天皇から醍醐天皇にかけての国政改革で基準国図に登録された公田面積を富豪層に割り当て、この面積に応じて徴税する機構として結実した。
This change resulted in a mechanism in which an area of a field administered directly by a ruler and registered in the standardized map of provinces in the reform of the national administration from Emperor Uda to Emperor Daigo in the late ninth century was allocated to the rich and powerful class, and the tax was collected according to the area.

律令法は、奈良・平安両時代を通じて国家の基本法であることに変りはなかったが、 10世紀の『延喜式』の制定公布の時代前後を境として、重要な変化がみられた。
Ritsuryo law remained the basic national law throughout the Nara and Heian periods, but important changes occurred around the time when 'Engishiki' (a book of laws and regulations compiled during the Engi era) was established and issued in the tenth century.

しかしこうして10世紀後期以降、受領と田堵負名層との間に紛争がしばしば見られるようになり、受領の施策に不満の田堵負名層が中央政府へ訴え出ることもあった。
However, from the late 10th century and onwards, there were frequent conflicts between the zuryo and the tato fumyo, and in some cases, the tato fumyo appealed to the central government about measures taken by the zuryo.

駅伝制の確立時期は7世紀後半ごろの日本の古代道路遺構が広い範囲で検出されていることから、改新の詔が契機となって、交通制度の整備が進められた可能性がある。
Considering from the fact that ancient roads built in the latter half of the seventh century were discovered in a wide range of Japan, there is a possibility that Kaishin no Mikotonori triggered developments on the transportation system.

その後、墳頂中央で家型埴輪の周りに盾形・蓋形などの器財埴輪で取り巻き、さらに円筒埴輪で取り巻くという豪華な配置の定式化が4世紀後半の早い段階で成立する。
After that, the formularization of the sumptuous arrangement was established in the early stage of the late fourth century, which was displaying Kizai Haniwa such as lid-shaped Haniwa and peltate Haniwa around house-shaped Haniwa on the center of the mound top, and cylindrical Haniwa around them.

もっとも、20世紀以降の美術については、作者がもっぱら海外で制作していたり、国境を越えて幅広く活動していることが多く、上記の考え方は必ずしも妥当しない。
And the above-mentioned idea about the geographical range does not always apply to the art from the 20th century, because many Japanese artists have come to produce their arts only in foreign countries or make their activities worldwide.

11世紀後半の白河天皇に藤原為房・平時範が三事兼帯を果たすと、藤原顕隆・藤原顕頼（為房の子孫）、平実親・範家（時範の子孫）も父祖に倣って三事兼帯となった。
After FUJIWARA no Tamefusa and TAIRA no Tokinori became Sanji kentai holder under Emperor Shirakawa in the late eleventh century, FUJIWARA no Akitaka/FUJIWARA no Akiyori (descendants of Tamefusa) as well as TAIRA no Sanechika/Noriie (descendants of Tokinori) became Sanji kentai holder in the wake of their forefathers.

確実な参詣の記録として最古のものは16世紀にさかのぼり、伊予国の武将土居清良が戦死した父の菩提を弔うために高野山を経て熊野三山に参詣したとするものである。
The oldest reliable record of pilgrimage to Kumano dates to the 16th century, according to it, Kiyoyoshi DOI, a samurai of Iyo Province, visited Kumano Sanzan after visiting Mt. Koya to perform a memorial service for his father who had died in a battle.

このことから、襲津彦は特定の実在人物ではなく、4・5世紀に対朝鮮外交や軍事に携わった葛城地方の豪族たちの姿が象徴・伝説化された英雄であったと見る説もある。
For these reasons, some theories view that he was a fictious hero figure that was symbolized and turned into a legend by the Gozoku (local ruling family) in the Kazuraki region, who were invloved in diplomacy with Korea, and military affiars during the 4th and 5th century.

紀伊国藤白（現在の和歌山県海南市）の鈴木氏は、12世紀頃に熊野から同じ紀伊国内の藤白に移り住んで以来、王子社（現在の藤白神社）の神官を代々務めた家である。
The Suzuki clan in Fujishiro, Kii Province (present Kainan City, Wakayama Prefecture) was the family of Shinto priests at Oji-sha Shrine (present Fujishiro-jinja Shrine) during the generations, since the family moved within the same Kii Province from Kumano to Fujishiro around 12th century.

古墳時代の4世紀中頃には、網野町に日本海側最大の前方後円墳である網野銚子山古墳（全長198メートル）、丹後町に神明山古墳（全長190メートル）が築かれた。
Around the middle of the fourth century, in the Kofun period (tumulus period), the largest keyhole-shaped tomb mound on the Japan Sea side, Aminochoshiyama-kofun Tumulus (198 meter in entire length) was established in Amino-cho and Shinmeiyama-kofun Tumulus (190 meter in entire length) in Tango-cho.

13世紀以降は、鎌倉時代、南北朝時代 (日本)、室町時代を通じて、大和民族の分布域は、北海道の渡島半島南部に定着した（渡党を参照）程度で、拡大は停滞した。
After the 13th century, throughout the Kamakura period, the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (Japan) and the Muromachi Period, the distribution range of the Yamato race was set back in expansion, only settling in Oshima Peninsula in Hokkaido (refer to Watari-to).

政庁第2期に対応する8世紀段階において条坊に関連すると考えられる遺構は、政庁中央から南へ伸びる南北中央大路（朱雀大路に相当する）周辺を中心として存在する。
For the time of eighth century that corresponds to the second period of the government, there are remains that are considered to be related to jobo mainly around the vertical central street (equivalent to Suzaku-oji Street) that runs from the central government to the south.

雄略天皇の時代の5世紀後半の大伴室屋（むろや）の時代より勢力を伸ばし、武烈天皇の代に孫の大伴金村（かなむら）が連（おおむらじ）になった時が全盛期であった。
The Otomo clan extended its influence in the late 5th century, during the age of OTOMO no Muroya and the reign of Emperor Yuryaku, reaching the height of its prosperity when OTOMO no Kanamura--the grandson of Muroya--became Oomuraji in the reign of Emperor Buretsu.

4世紀に分治の色が濃くなったものの、当時「西の皇帝」「西の領土」などとは言われても「西ローマ帝国」とは言われず、あくまで「ローマ帝国」の分割統治であった。
Even though in the 4th century divided governing of the country became more evident and the West of Rome was called as 'the emperor of the West' or 'the territory of the West', it was not officially called the Western Roman Empire and 'the Roman Empire' was considered to govern the both territories.

箸墓古墳の築造年代についても、研究者により多少の前後はあるものの卑弥呼の没年（248年頃）に近い3世紀の中頃から後半と見る説が最近では一般的になっている。
Opinions concerning the Hashihaka Tumulus differ among scholars, though recently it is widely accepted that the tumulus was created between the mid-third century (which is close to the year of Himiko's death in 248) and the latter half of the third century.

12世紀に入る頃から、荘園領主である寺社は経営安定化のために雑役免系荘園の一円支配を目指し、寺田・神田などの封戸と同様に官物徴収権も獲得するようになった。
From the beginning of the twelfth century, some of temples/shrines, the lord of shoen, began to seek ichienshihai (complete rule of the land) of Zoyakumen kei shoen and eventually obtained the right to collect kanmotsu as with the case of fuko (lands allotted to temples/shrines) called jiden (land allotted to temples) or shinden (land allotted to shrines).

熊本県の江田船山古墳から出土した鉄剣・鉄刀銘文には「台天下獲□□□鹵大王」とあり、この頃（5世紀後期）には治天下大王の称号が生まれたことを示唆している。
On the inscriptions on an iron sword excavated from the Eta Funayama Tumulus in Kumamoto Prefecture, it says 'amenoshitashiroshimesu okimi,' suggesting that the title amenoshitashiroshimesu okimi had been born at least by this period (the end of the fifth century).

『大毘盧遮那成仏神変加持経』、別名『毘盧遮那経』（びるしゃなきょう）、『大日経』（だいにちきょう）は、7-8世紀頃成立したと考えられている密教経典である。
'Daibirushana Jobutsu Jinbenkaji-kyo Sutra,' which is also called 'Birushanakyo Sutra' or 'Dainichi-kyo Sutra,' refers to Esoteric Buddhist scriptures that are considered to have been established in or around the period of the seventh through eighth centuries.

7世紀ごろベンガル地方で、ヒンドゥー教の神秘主義の一潮流であるタントラ教（wTantra または Tantrism）と深い関係を持った密教が盛んになった。
Around the 7th Century, esoteric Buddhism with close ties to Tantra (or Tantrism), a sect of Hinduism mysticism, became popular in the Bengal area.

堂内中央の厨子に安置される救世観音像は聖徳太子等身の像と伝える飛鳥時代の木彫像であるが、各種史料によれば平安時代後期の12世紀にはすでに秘仏とされていた。
The Kuze Kannon image housed in a zushi placed in the middle of the hall is a wooden sculpture of the Aska period and considered to be the exact image of Prince Shotoku, and according to historical materials, this statue had already been treated as a hibutsu by the 12th century, the late Heian period.

11世紀40年代ごろから太政官によって制定され始めた公田官物率法は、一国内の税率を固定化する内容を持っており国司に付与された租税収取権に大きな制限を加えた。
Koden kanmotsu rippo, which was established by Dajokan around 1140, restricted kokushi's right to collect tax since it included the provision which fixed the tax rate in a province.

そのため、16世紀になると室町幕府や守護大名、戦国大名たちは撰銭を制限し、あるいは禁ずる撰銭令（えりぜにれい）を発令して、円滑な貨幣流通を実現しようとした。
Therefore, entering the 16th century, the Muromachi bakufu, shugo daimyo (Japanese territorial lord as provincial constable) and daimyo (Japanese territorial lord) during the Sengoku period restricted the erizeni act or issued erizenirei (a ban on the erizeni act) to achieve smooth circulation of the currencies.

更に9世紀後半には、地域の富豪・有力百姓らの私倉を正倉と認め（里倉）、彼らに公出挙運用を請け負わせることで、地方機関の出挙収入の確保が図られるようになった。
In addition, in the latter half of the ninth century, local administrative organizations attempted to secure income through Suiko by allowing rich people and influential farmers in local areas to undertake the management of Ku-Suiko after admitting the private warehouse possessed by those people to be Shoso (Riso).

律令制が本格的に施行された8世紀のうちから、官吏、特に国司交替の手続きに関する法令（詔勅・太政官符）を集成した私撰の「交替式」と呼ばれる書物が存在していた。
As early as the eight century when the Ritsuryo system was enforced on a large scale, a privately compiled book called 'Kotaishiki' existed, in which the laws and regulations concerning the procedures for replacing government officers, in particular, kokushi (provincial governors) (Shochoku - imperial edicts) and Daijokanpu (official documents issued by Daijokan, Grand Council of State) were collected.

6世紀の氏姓制度成立以前において、「葛城」が本来的なウヂ名として存在したかについては疑問があり、ここでは従来の「葛城氏」の呼称を用いて便宜を図ることとする。
Although it is doubtful whether the clan name 'Katsuraki' actually existed before the establishment of the system of clans and hereditary titles, this clan name is employed here for the sake of convenience.

「サムライ」は16世紀になって登場した比較的新しい語形であり、鎌倉時代から室町時代にかけては「サブライ」、平安時代には「サブラヒ」とそれぞれ発音されていた。
'Samurai' is a fairly recent pronunciation that arose in the sixteenth century; before that, it was pronounced 'saburai' from the Kamakura period to the Muromachi period and 'saburahi' in the Heian period.

一例として19世紀、ヨーロッパ諸国の多くも金銀複本位制を採っていたが、銀産出高の増加などにより銀の市場価格が下落、金貨との法定金銀比価との間に開きができた。
As an example, in the nineteenth century, many of European countries adopted the bimetallism, but there was wide gap of legal exchange ratio between gold and silver because silver production increased and its market value declined.

東遊運動（とうゆううんどう、トンズーうんどう、ベトナム語：Phong trào Đông Du／風潮東遊）は、19世紀末からベトナムで発生した民族独立運動。
The Dong Du Movement (Toyu Undo or Donzu Undo in Japanese: Phong trào Đông Du in Vietnamese) was an independence movement that started in Vietnam at the end of the 19th century.

その他、8世紀頃に唐周辺に見られた諸国（渤海 (国)や吐蕃王朝）は、自前の律令は制定しなかったが、唐律令制を積極的に受容・改変し、独自の律令制を立てていた。
Moreover, the neighbouring countries that existed around Tang during the eighth century (ex. Balhae or Tibetan Empire), did not enact Luli that they created from scratch, but positively adapted and altered the Tang Luli to make the Luli System of their own.

紀元前から7世紀末まで日本を代表した政権は一貫して九州にあり、倭（ゐ）、大倭（たゐ）、俀（たゐ）と呼ばれていたとする九州王朝説があるが、主張に根拠が乏しい。
There is a theory of Kyushu Dynasty which says the government representing Japan was located in Kyushu from before Christ to the end of seventh century called Wi or Tawi, but this lacks much evidence.

しかし、江戸時代江戸時代中期の徳川家宣の治世を経て、幕府は政策を改めて関与を徐々に減らし、19世紀はじめの仙石騒動を最後に、お家騒動への介入は行っていない。
By the reign of Ienobu TOKUGAWA in the mid-Edo Period, however, the shogunate amended its policy and gradually reduced such interventions and did not intervene in family feuds since the Sengoku family feud in the early 19th century.

密教絵画では、京都市東山区青蓮院の『青蓮院国宝』（絹本着色、通称「青不動」、国宝）があり、「不動十九観」に依拠する現存最古の画像であり、11世紀の製作である。
Among Esoteric Buddhist paintings, 'Shorenin National Treasure' in Shoren-in Temple in Higashiyama Ward, Kyoto City (color painting on silk, commonly called 'Ao Fudo' [Blue Fudo], a national treasure) is the oldest existing image based on 'Fudo Juku-kan, nineteen Characteristic Signs of Fudo Myoo,' and it was created during the 11th century.

12世紀に入ると「父系家族」の色彩は強くなるが、「子は親に絶対服従」に近いものがあると同時に、それ以前と同様に婚姻による義父と婿もまた強い絆とみなされている。
The 'paternal family' notion became stronger when entering the twelfth century, but there were something similar to 'the child having absolute servitude to the parent,' and a similar strong relationship between the father-in-law and the groom by marriage.

7世紀後半に律令制が整備され、田地が口分田などの班田収授法の体系に組み込まれていっても、神田（および仏教寺院の運営にあてる寺田）のみは、班田の対象外とされた。
Even when the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo codes) was established in the late seventh century and rice fields were integrated into Kubunden (rice fields allotted to people by the central government) under the Handen Shuju no ho Law (the law of rice field allotment system), Shinden and Jiden (rice fields owned by temples) were exempted from the law.

2世紀後半、ローマ帝国では正帝と副帝による分治が起こり、ディオクレティアヌス帝の時代に帝国が東西に分けられ、2人の正帝と2人の副帝によってテトラルキアされた。
In the latter half of the 2nd century, the Roman Empire was governed by the emperor and the vice emperor, and during the time of emperor Diocletianus, the Empire was divided into the west and the east and governed by two emperors and two vice emperors.

フリントロック時代には火薬と弾をソーセージ状に包んだペーパーカートリッジをポーチに入れて携行するようになり、それが19世紀半ばのパーカッション時代まで続いた。
Once flintlock guns began to be used, paper cartridges wrapping gun powder and a bullet like sausages were carried in a pouch, and this continued until the percussion era in the mid 19th century.

遣唐使が中止された9世紀末以降、文化の和風化が進展し、漢字を元にして日本固有の文字である仮名が考案され、和歌や『源氏物語』に代表される物語文学が盛んになった。
After the dispatch of the Japanese envoy to Tang Dynasty China was ended in the end of the ninth century, the Japanization of the culture advanced, so 'kana' (syllables peculiar to Japan) based on Chinese characters was created, and kana helped the spread of 'waka' (a traditional Japanese poem of thirty-one syllables) and narrative literature exemplified by 'Genji Monogatari' (The Tale of Genji).

これらの軍事支出と皇帝万暦帝の奢侈は明の財政を悪化させ、17世紀前半の女真の強大化に耐え切れないほどの、明の急速な弱体化の重要な原因となったと考えられている。
Such military expenditure and extravagance by the emperor, Banreki, worsened the financial conditions of Ming and it is considered to be a serious cause of rapid weakening of Ming that could not bear growth of Jurchen during the first half of the seventeenth century.

五世紀中葉に房総半島の一角に本拠をもつ小首長が畿内の倭王のもとに武人として奉仕し、その功績によって銀象嵌の銘文をもつ鉄剣を下賜されるという関係が成立していた。
By the middle of the fifth century, there had been a system in which a minor chief who was based in a part of the Boso Peninsula served a king of Wa in the Kinai District as a warrior, and the chief was granted an inscribed iron sword inlaid with silver due to his achievements.

貨幣経済の浸透や百姓階層の分化とそれに伴う村落社会の形成といった13世紀半ばから進行していた日本社会の変動は、元寇の影響によってますます加速の度合いを強めた。
Changes in Japanese society having been progressing since the middle thirteenth century, such as the development of the monetary economy, hierarchization of the peasant class and formation of rural communities, were further accelerated by the influence of Genko.

また、6世紀前半には仏教が朝鮮半島より伝来し(日本の仏教の項を参照)、さらに遣隋使・遣唐使の派遣もあって、農業・鍛鉄・建築など多方面にわたって技術が発展した。
In addition, Buddhism was introduced into Japan from the Korean Peninsula in the first half of the 6th century (cf. the article on Japanese Buddhism) and through dispatches of missions to Sui and Tang Dynasty China technological developments were made in many areas including agriculture, iron working, and architecture.

すでに9世紀後期の頃から、実際に租税収取を担当する地方行政の現場では、戸籍・計帳を基盤に置いた課税方式が後退し、土地に対する課税が積極的に行われる傾向にあった。
As early as from the late 9th century, local administrative bodies, which were actually in charge of tax collection, tended to impose tax on land rather than collecting it based on family registration/keicho.

10世紀初頭頃から、公田は名田と呼ばれる租税収取の基礎単位へ編成され、現地の富豪層（田堵・負名層）が名田経営と租税納入を請け負うという名体制が形成されていった。
In the early 10th century, Koden was reorganized into the base for taxing called Myoden (rice field lots managed by a nominal holder) and the system called Myo-system, under which local wealthy peasants (Tato (cultivators)/Fumyoso (tiller of the public rice field)) were responsible for the management of Myoden as well as land tax payment, was established.

平安期の10世紀頃、大きな社会変化を背景として、朝廷は、徴税・軍事をもはや官司機構で担うのではなく、国司や富豪などへ請け負わせる官司請負制への転換を進めていた。
Around the tenth century during the Heian period when a large social change occurred, the Imperial court abandoned the policy of entrusting tax-collecting affairs and military affairs solely to the central government system and promoted to entrust these affairs to kokushi (provincial governors) or rich persons, or, in other words, to introduce the kanshiukeoi-sei system.

15世紀後期、応仁の乱から明応の政変にかけて、幕府の支配体制が流動化していくと、守護代や有力国人が守護に代わって、領国支配の実権を握る例も見られるようになった。
With unrest spreading over the ruling system of the bakufu in the period of the Onin War to the Meio Coup in the late 15th century, some shugo-dai and influential kokujin held real power in ruling the territories instead of shugo.

この結果、10世紀後半の貴族社会において、承平天慶の乱の勲功者とその子孫たちは軍事に特化した家系、すなわち兵の家（つわもののいえ）として認知されるようになった。
As a result, in aristocratic society of the later half of the 10th century, Johei Tengyo kunkosha and their descendants became known as families specialized in military affairs called tsuwamono-no-ie.

すでに弥生時代から西日本を中心に墳丘墓が営まれていたが、3世紀後半頃から大和盆地を中心に前方後円墳と称される日本独特の形式の大規模な墳墓が営まれるようになった。
Burial mounds had already been constructed in the Yayoi period mainly in Western Japan, and from around the later third century, what is called zenpo-koen-fun -- a large-scale tomb peculiar to Japan -- began to be constructed mainly in the Yamato Basin.

これに対して、8世紀には大学寮において一部ながら見られ、『経国集』などによって今日でも見ることが出来る儒教的見地からの仏教批判はすっかり影を潜めるようになった。
In opposition to this, criticism against Buddhism from the Confucianism side of view, which could partly be seen in Daigakuryo in the eighth century, and can still be seen today in historical sources such as 'Keikokushu' (A collection of managing the country) became completely eclipsed.

なお、『観無量寿経』は、サンスクリットの原典が発見されておらず、おそらく4-5世紀頃中央アジアで大綱が成立し、伝訳に際して中国的要素が加味されたと推定される。
Meanwhile, the original Sanskrit text of 'Kanmuryoju-kyo Sutra' has not been discovered, so it is assumed that its broad outline was established in Central Asia around 4-5 A.D. and that factors related to China were added during the process of translation.

そのため、軍団兵士制を支えてきた戸籍制度を維持する必要性も低下していき、9世紀初頭以降、律令制の基盤となっていた戸籍を通じた個別人身支配が急速に形骸化していった。
Therefore, the necessity of maintaining the family registration system having supported the gundan-soldier system diminished, and the control of individual persons through the family register, which constituted the base of the ritsuryo-code-based nation, rapidly became a dead letter in early ninth century.

近世以前の小辺路は紀伊山地山中の住人の生活道路であり、20世紀になって山中に自動車の通行できる道路が開通してからも、おおよそ昭和30年代までは使用され続けていた。
Since before the early-modern period, Kohechi had been a community road for the residents in the Kii Mountains, and even after a new roadway was constructed through the mountain in the 20th century, it had been still used as a local road until about the 30's of the Showa era.

また、それら文化財自体の地震などへの耐震性についても、現在の基準で判断すると問題のある建物も相当数あるが、解体修理は世紀単位で一度しかできず、莫大な費用を要する。
When judging the earthquake resistance of those cultural properties in accordance with current standards, there are many buildings that fail but dismantling and repair can only be conducted once every century and requires enormous amounts of money.

その後、唐僧維躅（ゆいけん）の書に見える「二十年一来」（20年に1度）の朝貢が8世紀ごろまでに規定化され、およそ十数年から二十数年の間隔で遣唐使の派遣が行われた。
After that, a rule was made before the eighth century for an emperor to send a mission once every 20 years as described in the book written by the Tang priest Yuiken and a mission was sent approximately every dozen to two dozen years.

前期前葉（4世紀前葉）には、これらの埴輪とは別の系統に当たる家形埴輪のほか、蓋（きぬがさ）形埴輪や盾形埴輪をはじめとする器財埴輪、鶏形埴輪などの形象埴輪が現れた。
In the early of the fourth century, house-shaped Haniwa, which are different type from those Haniwa, Kizai Haniwa including lid-shaped Haniwa and peltate Haniwa and Keisho Haniwa such as chicken-shaped Haniwa appeared.

だが、『日本書紀』によれば、法隆寺は670年に一度焼亡しており、現存する同寺の伽藍はその後（7世紀末頃）の再建であることは発掘調査の結果等からも定説となっている。
However, according to Nihonshoki, Horyu-ji Temple burned down in A.D. 670 and the existing Saiin Garan was reconstructed later (around the end of the seventh century), and this depiction is now widely accepted, partly because the excavation and research proved the truth of the depiction.

中国でも周辺の東アジア諸国でも、10世紀以後、上記のような律令制は死滅もしくは形骸化したが、その後も法形態としての律令は、中国や日本やベトナムなどで存続し続けた。
Both in China and its East Asian neighbors, the Ritsuryo system as described above disappeared or became a dead letter after the 10th century, but even after that period, it continued as a form of law in China, Japan, and Vietnam.

悟りを得たと言われている日本の学者鈴木大拙によって20世紀に日本からアメリカ合衆国、ヨーロッパへと禅が紹介され、曹洞宗の弟子丸泰仙によってヨーロッパで布教された。
Zen was introduced by Daisetsu SUZUKI, a Japanese scholar who was said to reach enlightenment, to the United States and Europe in the 20th century, and was spread by Taisen DESHIMARU of the Soto sect in Europe.

このため、後世紀伝道において主導的な立場に立った菅原氏が大学寮における自家の功績を顕彰するために、平安時代中期以後の学問料支給とこの史実を結び付けたと言われている。
Therefore, it is said that the Sugawara clan, which later got the leading position in Kidendo, associated this historical fact with Gakumonryo of the mid-Heian period aiming to demonstrate the family's achievement at Daigaku-ryo.

一般的に平氏政権は12世紀中期から段階的に成立したのであり、仁安2年5月宣旨を大きな画期としつつ、治承三年の政変により平氏政権の成立が完了したものと考えられている。
In general, the Taira clan administration was established in steps from the middle of the 12th century, and although the May 1167 Imperial Order was a major event, the coup d'etat in 1179 is considered to indicate the completion of the establishment of the Taira clan administration.

13世紀の頃、足利義氏 (足利家3代目当主)の長男・長氏が三河国碧海郡吉良荘（現・愛知県西尾市・幡豆郡）を本拠としたのを契機に、「吉良」を名乗りとしたことに始まる。
It originated from around the13th century, the first son of Yoshiuji ASHIKAGA (the third family head of the Ashikaga family), Osauji established his home base in Kiranosho, Aomi County, Mikawa Province (present Nishio City and Hazu County, Aichi Prefecture), then commenced calling himself, 'Kira.'

以降尊義の東条吉良氏と、西条に勢力を限定された満貞の西条吉良氏とは、互いに正統性を主張しあって譲らず、両者の子孫が約一世紀に渡って三河一国を舞台に抗争を繰り広げた。
After this incident, the Takayoshi's family line of the Tojokira clan and the Saijokira clan, which had limited power over the Saijo, persisted on the legitimacy of their respective clans, the conflict continued for over a century staged upon Mikawa Province between the descendents of the two.

3世紀中葉〜後葉になると、前方後円墳（岡山市都月坂1号墳、桜井市箸墓古墳、兵庫県たつの市御津町権現山51号憤）から最古の円筒埴輪である都月型円筒埴輪が出土している。
From the middle to the late of the third century, the Totsuki-style cylindrical Haniwa, which are the oldest cylindrical Haniwa, were unearthed from large keyhole-shaped tomb mound (Totsukizaka Ichigo-kofun Tumulus in Okayama City, Hashihaka tomb in Sakurai City, and Mt.Gongen Gojuichigo-kofun Tumulus in Mitsu-cho, Tatsuno City, Hyogo Prefecture).

森博達は1999年の『日本書紀の謎を解く』において、「十七条憲法の漢文の日本的特徴（和習）から7世紀とは考えられず、『日本書紀』編纂とともに創作されたもの」とした。
Hiromichi MORI commented in 'Nihon shoki no nazo o toku' (Solving the Enigma of the Chronicles of Japan) published in 1999 as follows: 'Considering the grammatical deviations affected by Japanese (washu) in the kanbun (Chinese classics) used in The 17-Article Constitution, it is unlikely that the Constitution was established in the seventh century, and it was created at the time when the 'Nihonshoki' was compiled.'

20世紀初頭まで続いた李氏朝鮮では、各国王一代の編年記録（実録）が編纂されつづけ、『朝鮮王朝実録』と呼ばれているが、紀伝体による李氏朝鮮王朝の正史は作られていない。
During the era of the Joseon dynasty, which lasted until the beginning of the twentieth century, the chronological accounts (veritable records) of each king's reign continued to be compiled into what is called the 'Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty', but no official history in the biographical annal format was ever created for the Joseon dynasty.

8世紀初頭に成立した律令制のもとでは、公田のうち口分田を班給した後に余った乗田を国衙が百姓らに貸し付けて、収穫物の2割を納入させる賃租の規定があった（「田令公田条）。
Under the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code) established at the beginning of the 8th century, there was a provision of chinso (land taxes under the Ritsuryo system) that, after hankyu (allotment) of kubunden (the field given to each farmer in the Ritsuryo system), kokuga (provincial government offices) lent peasants joden (rest of the field after kubunden was given) from the remaining koden (fields administered directly by a ruler) and charged 20 percent of their harvest as jishi (according to 'Denryo-koden-jo).

5世紀後期の作成とされる江田船山古墳出土の鉄剣銘に「治天下□□□□□大王」とあり、□□□□□の部分は「ワカタケル」と訓ずると推定されており、雄略天皇に比定されている。
The phrase 'amenoshita shiroshimesu □□□□□ okimi' is seen on the iron sword excavated at the Eta Funayama Tumulus, which is believed to have been constructed in the late fifth century, and it is presumed that the portion of □□□□□ can be read as 'Wakatakeru,' who is assumed to be the Emperor Yuryaku.

倭の五王による南朝への奉献以来約1世紀を経て再開された遣隋使の目的は、東アジアの中心国・先進国である隋の文化の摂取が主であるが、朝鮮半島での影響力維持の意図もあった。
The dispatch of envoys to China was resumed one century after the tributary envoys to the Southern Dynasty sent by the five kings of Wa (Japan), with the primary purpose of learning about Sui culture, as they were a key and leading country in East Asia, but also with the intention of maintaining Japanese influence over the Korean Peninsula.

文芸の面では、751年（天平勝宝3年）に現存最古の漢詩集『懐風藻』が編集され、弘文天皇、大津皇子、文武天皇、長屋王などの作品を含む7世紀後半以降の漢詩をおさめている。
In the field of literature, the oldest existing collection of Chinese poems 'Kaifuso' (Fond Recollections of Poetry) was edited in 751, containing Chinese poems from the latter half of the seventh century and on, including poems by the Emperor Kobun, Prince Otsu, the Emperor Monmu, and Prince Nagaya.

645年（皇極4年）の乙巳の変で、天智天皇・中臣鎌子（藤原鎌足）らが宮中（板蓋宮）で蘇我入鹿を暗殺し、蘇我蝦夷を自殺に追いやり、半世紀も続いた蘇我氏の体制を滅ぼした。
In 645, Prince Naka no Oe (later, Emperor Tenji) and Kamako NAKATOMI (later, Kamatari FUJIWARA) assassinated Iruka SOGA at the Imperial Court, drove Emishi SOGA to suicide and annihilated the Soga clan, in what is known as the The Isshi Incident, or Incident of 645.

日本の税体系は，10世紀頃の籍帳支配崩壊に伴う公地公民制の崩壊をうけて，課税が個別的人身賦課方式から土地賦課方式へ転換されるまで，人頭税を財源の中心とするものであった。
Jintozei (primitive taxes which were imposed individually) were the core financial resources in the tax system of Japan until around the 10th century, when the taxation system was converted from an individual tax imposition system to a land tax imposition system: this conversion was triggered by the collapse of the system of complete state ownership of land and citizens, after the managing system based on the family register and Keicho (the yearly tax registers) had collapsed.

10世紀頃から、律令制で規定していた古代の戸籍制度・班田収授による租税制度がほぼ崩壊し、現地派遣の筆頭国司である受領へ租税納入を請け負わせる国司請負制へと移行し始めた。
Since around the 10th century, the tax system consisting of the ancient family registration system and handen shuju sei (a system of periodic reallocations of rice land) stipulated by the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code) had almost collapsed, gradually shifting into the kokushi ukeoi system, which made Zuryo (the head of Kokushi [provincial governors] who was sent to local provinces to administer) undertake tax collection in their provinces.

寛政年間（1690年代）頃から農村や漁村へも広がりを見せ始め、江戸時代中期（18世紀）以降に益々増加し、特に江戸時代後期の天保年間（1830年代）前後に著しく増加した。
From the 1690s, it spread to agricultural and fishing villages, and became even more widespread after the middle of the Edo period (eighteenth century), especially around the Tenpo era (1830s) during the late Edo period.

厳復が『天演論』（1898年刊）というタイトルで翻訳紹介したこの思想は、瞬く間に世紀末の中国を席巻し、「弱肉強食」「適者生存」「優勝劣敗」ということばが流行語となった。
Yan Fu introduced the thought by his translation, titled '天演論' (translation of 'Evolution and Ethics' by T.H. HUXLEY) (published in 1898), and it dominated China in end of the century making phrases such as 'The best always win' (弱肉強食), 'the survival of the fittest' (適者生存)' and 'struggle for existence' (優勝劣敗) famous.

19世紀後半の清の駐英大使であった薛福成は中華と夷狄を区別する「華夷隔絶」の「天下」から中華と外国が対等に関係を維持する「中外連属」の「天下」へと転換したと述べている。
Xue Fucheng, Qing's ambassador to Britain in the latter half of the 19th century, said that 'Tenka' based on 'kai kakuzetsu' (distinction between the Chinese and barbarians) changed to 'Tenka' based on 'chugai renzoku' (cooperation between China and foreign countries) under which China and foreign countries maintain the relations on an equal basis.

鹿児島神社の割註に「兼右云。」とあることから、吉田兼右の在世である16世紀頃に成立したであろうこと、吉田家あるいは吉田家に近い人物が編纂に係わっていることが推測できる。
From the note for the Kagoshima-jinja Shrine, 'Kanemigi said', it is presumed that the book was written about the sixteenth century which Kanemigi YOSHIDA had been alive, with the cooperation from the Yoshida family or a friend of the family.

743年の墾田永年私財法などによって、開墾した田畑の私有が認められるようになると、田染郷でも雨引神社や宇佐神宮によって水田が開墾され、11世紀前半には田染荘が形成された。
Events such as the enacting of the Konden einen shizai Law (a law allowing farmers who cleared new lands to own them permanently) in the year 743 made the private ownership of reclaimed farm land possible, and paddy fields were reclaimed in Tashibu Township by Amabiki-jinka Shrine and Usa-jingu Shrine before the formation of Tashibu Manor in the first half of the 11th century.

4世紀後半からヤマト王権は、武器・農具の原料である鉄資源を求めて朝鮮半島への進出を開始したが、これを契機として朝鮮半島や中国の技術・文物が倭国へ多く流入することとなった。
Starting in the latter half of the fourth century, the Yamato sovereignty began to advance into the Korean peninsula, seeking iron that was needed for making weapons and farm tools, causing many technologies and cultural products in the Korean peninsular and China to be introduced to Wa.

21世紀に入った現代でも、海産物に関しては海から遠い山間部や、また流通の主流が集中する都会から遠い離島や僻地などの地域を中心に食品や生活雑貨一切の行商の仕事が残っている。
Even in our time of the 21st century, peddling of seafood still remains in the mountains far from the seas and peddling of all kinds of food and everyday goods also remains mainly in solitary islands or remote areas far from urban areas where the mainstream of circulation centers.

9世紀以降は土師器工人集団（土師部）と須恵器工人集団（陶部）との交流が活発になり、轆轤土師器、土師質土器などと呼ばれる両者の中間様式の土器が多量につくられるようになった。
From the ninth century, exchange between groups of Haji craftsmen (Hajibe) and Sue craftsmen (Tobe) grew, resulting in the creation of a large volume of earthenware that is midway between the two in terms of design, such as Rokuro-haji and Haji-shitsu pottery.

ロドリゴ・デ・ビベロによって1609年ごろに15万人と伝えられた江戸の人口は、18世紀初頭には100万人を超え、世界一ないしはそれに匹敵する規模であったと推定されている。
The population of Edo, which was reported by Rodrigo de Viveroto be around one-hundred-fifty-thousand in 1609, exceeded the one million mark at the turn of the eighteenth century--prompting many to presume that Edo had become one of the biggest if not the biggest city in the world.

そこで、10世紀後期ごろから、臨時の事業の費用を賄うため、ある国が料国（りょうごく）として指定され、料国の国司は主に公田（国衙領）を対象として臨時雑役を課するようになった。
For this reason, in order to cover the expenses of such incidental events, from the late tenth century, a particular province was designated as a ryogoku and the kokushi (governor) of that ryogoku imposed temporary tasks mainly on the owners of koden (or kokugaryo - territories governed by a provincial government office).

合一が行われるものの、両統迭立の約束が守られることはなく持明院統の皇統が続いたため、南朝の遺臣たちによる皇位の回復を目指しての反抗が15世紀半ばまで続き、後南朝と呼ばれる。
After the unification was completed, however, the promise to uphold the alternate succession was broken and the Jimyoin lineage continued to monopolize Imperial succession, and consequently former Southern Court retainers continued their resistance, in their attempts to restore their own lineage to the Imperial throne, into the middle of the fifteenth century, and were later dubbed 'gonancho' (ex-Southern Court forces).

絹本著色不動明王像（黄不動）－滋賀・園城寺（三井寺）に秘蔵される、黄不動像（平安時代前期）を元に制作された画像の1つであり、平安時代末期、12世紀頃の制作と推定されている。
Color painting on silk, a portrait of Fudo Myoo (Ki Fudo (Yellow Cetaka)) - one of the portraits produced based on Ki Fudo Zo (produced in the early Heian period) located in Enjo-ji Temple (Miidera Temple) in Shiga Prefecture, and is estimated to have been produced in around the twelfth century, in the late Heian period.

また一方では、王朝国家と呼ぶべき政治実態は、鎌倉幕府成立後の朝廷にも見られるとして、13世紀の朝廷による支配体制も王朝国家体制期に含める意見（佐藤進一,1983など）もある。
On the other hand, some people assert that the ruling system adopted by the Imperial court in 13th century should be included in the Dynastic polity period on the ground that the regime which should be regarded as the Dynastic polity was seen after the establishment of the Kamakura bakufu (Shinichi SATO, 1983 etc).

この後幕府は、17世紀中葉までに、武家諸法度の発布や参勤交代の義務化、有力大名の改易などを通して、諸大名との主従制を確固たるものとし、朝廷統制を強め、幕府官僚機構を整備した。
After this, the bakufu solidified the master-servant relationship with each daimyo by around the middle of 17th century, through enacting Buke shohatto (laws for the military households), making Sankinkotai (a system under which feudal lords were required to spend every other year in residence in Edo) obligatory, and conducting Kaieki operations (forfeiting the rank of samurai and properties) for powerful daimyo, strengthened control of the Imperial Court, and established its government officer system.

19世紀に成立した阮朝では、中国向けには「越南」を名乗りながらも自称国号においては「大南」を称し、中華世界とは区別された独自の領域としてのヴェトナム世界が規定されるに至った。
The Nguyễn dynasty, which was established in the 19th century, used the nation name of 'Etsunan' to China while calling itself 'Đại Nam,' and the notion of Vietnam's own world, which was distinguished from that of China, was defined.

一方、大宝律令の施行から半世紀が経過して律令国家の定着していく中で、より日本の実情に合わせた律令制への再構築の一環として行われたとして積極的評価をする説（春名宏昭説）もある。
On the contrary, there is also a study which positively evaluates the establishment of Yoro Ritsuryo Code, which says it provided a more suitable and reliable code which adapted to the actual conditions of Japan, through the process of revisions and amendments of Taiho Ritsuryo Code that had been in force for a half century since its enactment (the theory released by Hiroaki HARUNA).

しかし、熊本県の江田船山古墳から出土した鉄剣・鉄刀銘文などによれば5世紀後期ごろには国内に対して「ヤマト大王」（アメノシタシロシメスオホキミ）と称していたことが判明している。
According to the iron swords and inscriptions on the swords which were excavated at the Eta Funayama Tumulus in Kumamoto Prefecture, however, they used the title of 'Yamato Okimi' (amenoshita shiroshimesu okimi) (literally, the Grate King of Yamato) inside Japan around in the late fifth century.

以後の倭国王たちも治天下大王の称号を代々継承しているが、このことが背景となって、7世紀初頭に倭国王が隋皇帝への親書に「日出処天子」と自称した事件につながったと考えられている。
The successive kings of Wa used the title of amenoshita shiroshimesu okimi, and this fact led to the incident which occurred at the beginning of the seventh century in which Wakokuo called himself 'Hiizurutokoro no tenshi' in the letter he sent to the Emperor of Sui.

ドイツ帝国に宣戦布告したことにより、日清戦争後の三国干渉によってドイツが中国から得た膠州湾租借地、19世紀にスペインから得た南洋諸島を、日本は参戦後瞬く間に攻略して占領した。
By declaring war against the German Empire, Japan, in no time after its entrance into war, captured and occupied the leased territory of Jiaozhou which Germany had gained from China in the Triple Intervention after the Sino-Japanese War, and the South Sea Islands which had been gained from Spain in the 19th century.

信州善光寺本尊　阿弥陀三尊像－寺伝によれば、6世紀に百済の聖明王から当時の日本へ献上された日本仏法最初の仏像が、さまざまな経緯で長野に運ばれたものが善光寺の本尊であるという。
Amida triad statue, the principle image of Shinshu Zenko-ji Temple; according to a record kept by the temple, the first Buddhist image presented to Japan by Sho Myoo (the King of Kudara, an ancient Korean kingdom) in the 6th century was somehow carried all the way to Nagano to become the principal image of the temple.

八世紀末、仏教が国教となるのにともない、仏典翻訳は王国の国家事業となり、隣国インドより網羅的、体系的に仏典を収集し、翻訳する作業が開始され、数十年の短期間で一挙に完遂された。
In accordance with the ascendance of Buddhism as the national religion at the end of the eighth century, the translation of Buddhist scriptures became a national project of the kingdom; thus the work of collecting and translating Buddhist scriptures from India encyclopedically and systematically was begun and completed in the space of just a few decades.

下向井らの議論は、武士の成立を王朝国家論・荘園公領制論などと整合的・有機的に結びつけるものであり、21世紀初頭において、武士成立に関する最も有力な説の一つに位置づけられている。
The theory by Shimomukai and others connects the establishment of samurai to the dynastic nation theory and the shoen koryo sei (The System of Public Lands and Private Estates) theory consistently and systematically, and in the early 21st century, has been positioned as one of the most promising theories concerning the establishment of samurai.

『今昔物語集』の「摂津守満仲出家せる語」には500との数もあるが、それは『今昔物語集』が書かれた12世紀初めの段階での当時最大の都の武士団の印象を元にした誇張・文飾だとされる。
The story of Mitsunaka, the lord of Settsu Province' in 'Konjaku Monogatari Shu' stated 500, but it is assumed to be just an exaggeration and flowery words following the impression of bushidan of the biggest capital back in early twelfth century when 'Konjaku Monogatari Shu' was written.

雑賀衆のほかの土豪たちと同様、鉄砲伝来から間もない早い時期に鉄砲を使った戦術を取り入れ、16世紀の半ばには鉄砲で武装したある程度の規模の傭兵的集団として活動していたようである。
Same as the other local clans of Saigashu, the clan adopted guns in its fighting tactics shortly after the arrival of guns to Japan, and by the mid-16th century the clan seems to have been active as a certain sized mercenary force equipped with guns.

また、12世紀以降の不入の権 (日本)を持つ荘園において、荘園内で完結する条里プランが存在したことも確認されており、官だけでなく民においても積極的に活用されていたことがわかる。
In addition, it is confirmed that there existed plan of jori in shoen (manor in medieval Japan) with Funyu no ken (the right to keep the tax agents from entering the property) after the 12th century that is concluded within shoen, which indicates that the plan was actively utilized both by public and private organizations.

蘇我稲目（いなめ）・蘇我馬子（うまこ）・蘇我蝦夷（えみし）・蘇我入鹿（いるか）と蘇我氏が政治上重要な地位を占めた時代が645年（皇極天皇4年）の乙巳の変までの約半世紀間続いた。
SOGA no Iname, SOGA no Umako, Soga no Emishi, and SOGA no Iruka, as four members representing the Soga clan, they continued to occupy important political positions until 'Isshi no hen (the Murder in the Year of Isshi)' in '645', for approximately another half century.

やがて時代が下って北宋・高麗・遼の商人とも交易を行ったが、11世紀には、聖福寺 (福岡市)・承天寺・筥崎宮・住吉神社 (福岡市)ら有力寺社や有力貴族による私貿易が盛んになった。
Trade had been realized with the merchants from the Northern Sung dynasty, the Goryeo dynasty and the Liao dynasty as well, however, private trade developed by influential temples including Shofukuji Temple (in Fukuoka City), Jotenji Temple, Hakozakigu Shrine and Sumiyoshijinja Shrine (in Fukuoka City), and powerful nobles was prosperous in the 11th century.

ところが、12世紀末に鎌倉将軍の荘園・所領に相当する関東御領をはじめとする武家領と既存の公家領・寺社領、更に公領である国衙領の3者間の区別を必要とし、これを「本所領」と呼んだ。
At the end of the twelfth century, however, three of the bukeryo including Kanto goryo (shogun's personal holdings) of the Kamakura shogun (general of the eastern pacification command in Kamakura), corresponding to shoen and shoryo, the existing kugeryo and jisharyo, and kokugaryo (provincial land) koryo (public land) needed to be distinguished from one another, and accordingly, they were called 'honjoryo.'

5世紀後半までに大王・治天下大王（あめのしたしろしめすおおきみ）の称号が成立し、この称号が飛鳥浄御原令の編纂が始まった680年代まで日本国内において用いられたと考えられている。
The title okimi and amenoshitashiroshimesu okimi (the title of the king of Wa) were established at least by the latter half of the fifth century, and it is thought that these titles were used in Japan until the 680s when the compilation of the Asuka Kiyomihara Code began.

後世、村上治世は天皇親政により理想の政治が行われた時代として聖代視され、同じく天皇親政が行われたとする10世紀前期の醍醐天皇の治世（延喜の治）と併せて、延喜・天暦の治と呼ばれた。
Later, Emperor Murakami's reign was highly regarded as the ideal of imperial governance and was called Engi, Tenryaku no Chi (glorious Engi and Tenryaku rules) together with another ideal imperial governance taken by the Emperor Daigo (called Engi no Chi) in the early 10th century.

また、10世紀に入ると次第に刑部省の地位が低下するようになり、強窃二盗（強盗・窃盗）と私鋳銭に関する裁判権は検非違使に、その他の犯罪に関する裁判権は太政官に移されることになった。
In the 10th century, the position of Gyobusho declined and the jurisdictions of robbery and counterfeit coinage were transferred to Kebiishi and the other crimes were transferred to Daijokan.

この死亡帳は同時に出土した20号文書（解文の書止部分）に「嘉承二年」（849年）、21号文書（書状）に「嘉祥三年」（850年）の年紀があることから、9世紀前半のものと判断される。
It is judged that this Shibocho was created in the first half of the ninth century, because a year was described as 849 in Document No. 20 (back matter of a letter), and was described as 850 in Document No. 21 (letter), which were unearthed together.

以上の点から、7世紀中～後半に、大化の改新と同様な改革が行われたことは、比較的見解の一致するところではあるが、その時期を645年よりもっと後に設定するべきであるとの考え方もある。
From the above points, though it is relatively well agreed that there were carried out reforms such as the Taika Reforms in the mid to latter half of the 7th century, there is a point of view that the date should be much later than 645.

11世紀の侍階層出現の頃より現れて公家の家政機関に奉仕する役目を担うが、四位・五位へ昇進する諸大夫より下位に置かれて、基本的には六位に置かれていた（稀に五位に昇る者が存在した）。
The position first appeared in around the 11th century when the samurai rank system was created, and it fulfilled the role of serving the household institution of court nobles, however, it ranked under Shodaibu (aristocracy lower than Kugyo) who would raise to Shii (Fourth Rank) or Goi (Fifth Rank), mainly placed at Rokui (Sixth Rank) (rarely, some rose to Goi).

こうした中で6世紀末、幾つかの紛争に勝利した推古天皇、聖徳太子、蘇我馬子らは強固な政治基盤を築きあげ、冠位十二階や十七条憲法の制定など官僚制を柱とする王権の革新を積極的に進めた。
At the end of the sixth century, Empress Suiko, Prince Shotoku, and SOGA no Umako, after emerging victorious from several conflicts, established firm political foundations and actively reformed the polity by basing it on bureaucratic systems such as Kan'i junikai (twelve cap rank system) and the Seventeen-Article Constitution.

これらの動きは、中世を通じて社会体制であり続けた荘園公領制の出現を意味するものであり、これと相前後して開始した院政と併せて、11世紀後期には既に中世に入っていたと見ることもできる。
These movements implies the arrival of shoen koryo sei (the system of public lands and private estates), which was the social structure throughout the medieval age, and based on this fact together with the advent of cloister government, we can consider that the medieval age already arrived in late 11th century.

だが、10世紀中期に書かれたと考えられている源高明の『西宮記』には弘文院は既に荒廃に帰している事が記されていることから、道真の時代からそれ程時間を置かずに廃絶したと考えられている。
From the description in 'Saikyuki' (record of court practices and usage written in Chinese style) written by MINAMOTO no Takaaki supposedly written in the mid tenth century that the Kobunin had been already ruined, it was estimated that the Kobunin was defunct shortly after the days of Michizane.

4世紀にキリスト教が公認されると、キリスト教発祥の地であるパレスチナ、ことにキリストの生地であるベツレヘム、受難の地であるエルサレムへ、その遺構に参拝する信者が旅行するようになった。
In the fourth century, when Christianity became official, the birthplace of Christianity, Palestine, especially, the birthplace of Jesus Christ, Bethlehem, and the site of the Passion, Jerusalem, were destinations for followers to travel and worship.

ルイス・フロイスの言を借りると十六世紀後半の紀伊は神道・仏教への信仰が強く、四つか五つの宗教がそれぞれ「大いなる共和国的存在」であり、いかなる戦争によっても滅ぼされることはなかった。
According to the words of Luis FROIS, the people in Kii Province in the latter part of the 16th century had a strong belief in Shinto and Buddhism, and all of the four or five religions were 'big existences like a republic,' which was not destroyed by any war.

一方で15世紀後半以降、畠山氏の分裂と抗争が長期間続いたことが大きく響き、また複数の強力な寺社勢力の存在もあって、武家勢力の中から紀伊一国を支配する戦国大名が成長することはなかった。
On the other hand, the split and conflicts among the Hatakeyama clan had lasted for a long time after the latter part of the 15th century, and there were some strong temple and shrine powers, so that any samurai powers could not grow up to Sengoku daimyo (Japanese territorial lord in the Sengoku period) who controlled the whole Kii Province.

倭の五王の最後の倭武に比定されることの多い、5世紀半ばに在位したワカタケル王（雄略天皇、おおはつせわかたけるのみこと）は、国内において治天下大王の称号を名乗っていたと推測されている。
King Wakatakeru (Emperor Yuryaku), who is often identified as the last wabu of the five kings of Wa, is surmised to have used the title of amenoshitashiroshimesu okimi within Japan.

確かに徳川氏の記録が伝えるように、後北条氏時代の江戸城は最重要な支城とまではみなされず城は15世紀の粗末なつくりのまま残されていたが、関八州の首府となりうる基礎はすでに存在していた。
As the records of the Tokugawa clan reveal, the Edo Castle was not regarded as a vital branch-castle in the time of the Gohojo clan and its modest structure that was constructed in the 15th century remained; However, it should be noted that the foundations that would enable Edo to develop into the capital of eight provinces had already been laid.

その後、12世紀頃に北山（現在の京都市右京区・鹿苑寺付近）に本拠を移し、洛中（現在の京都市上京区・相国寺付近）への移転を経て、現在地に移転したのは明暦2年（1656年）のことである。
Afterward, it moved its base to Kitayama (around present day Rokuon-ji Temple in Ukyo-ku Ward, Kyoto City) in around the twelfth century, moved inside the capital (around present-day Shokoku-ji Temple in Kamigyo-ku Ward, Kyoto City), and it was in 1656 that it moved to its present location.

良源は、第18代天台座主（てんだいざす、天台宗の最高の位）であり、実在の人物であるが、中世以来、独特の信仰を集め、21世紀に至るまで「厄除け大師」などとして、民間の信仰を集めている。
Although Ryogen was the 18th Tendai-zasu (the supreme position in the Tendai Sect) and a real-life person, he has been the target of folk belief since the medieval period and even in the 21st century, he is worshipped as 'Yakuyoke Daishi' (Calamity Dispelling Master).

次第に本百姓の分家や隷属民の '自立' 化が進み、17世紀の半ば以降には、村請制村落が確立していき、(1)田畑や(2)家屋敷地を所持する高持百姓が本百姓であると観念されるようになった。
Gradually, hon-byakusho was branched and subordinate people became 'independent,' and in the middle of the 17th century and thereafter, villages of the murauke system (village-wide, collective responsibility for tax payment) were established and a farmer called takamochi-byakusho (a person managing a farm by employing farm workers) who possessed (1) a field and (2) a house and land came to be recognized, as hon-byakusho.

畿内では古墳時代後期（6世紀中ごろ）に前方後円墳が衰退するとともに、埴輪も次第に姿を消していったが、なおも前方後円墳を盛んに築造した関東地方においては埴輪も引き続き盛んに作られ続けた。
In Kinai region, the Haniwa were disappeared as large keyhole-shaped tomb mounds declined in the late Tumulus period (around the middle of the sixth century), however, in Kanto region, where large keyhole-shaped tomb mounds were built vigorously, the Haniwa still continued to be made.

11世紀になるとこの流れに、各々の国内の荘園・国衙領への一律的な課税（一国平均役）の動きが加わり、荘園と郡、郷、保に再編成された国衙領を個々の収取単位とする体制（荘園公領制）が成立した。
Entering the eleventh century, in addition to this trend, the trend of levying tax evenly on shoen (manors) and Kokugaryo (the territory governed by a provincial government office) (called Ikkoku heikinyaku) was also generated, and the system in which tax was collected from shoen and Kokugaryo, which had been reorganized into Gun, Sato (an area within Gun) and Ho (an area within Sato), (called shoen koryo sei) was established.

また、アメリカ南西部のモゴヨン文化（Mogollon）文化やホホカム文化（Hohokam）文化の人々は、9世紀頃まで、入り口部分を張り出し状にした竪穴住居に住んでいたことが知られている。
The people of Mogollon and Hohokam cultures of southwestern United States are known to have lived in such pit-type dwellings with the entrance protruding outward, until around ninth century.

最初の前方後円墳は3世紀前葉～中葉に出現しているのでヤマト王権の成立をこの時期に求める説が有力だが、この時期はまだヤマト王権に先立つ王権の段階（プレ・ヤマト王権）だったとする見解もある。
As the first keyhole-shaped mounds appeared between the beginning and middle of the third century, the most widely believed theory claims that the Yamato Kingdom was established around this time; however, there is also a theory that this was a different kingdom (the pre-Yamato Kingdom) and that the Yamato Kingdom emerged after this.

名体制を確立するため、現地支配に当たる国司の筆頭者の権限強化が求められるようになり、10世紀中頃には租税収取・軍事警察などの分野で中央政府から現地赴任筆頭国司への大幅な権限委譲が行われた。
As strengthening the authority of the head of kokushi, who were responsible for local administration, was required in order to maintain the above system, a big transfer of authority from the central government to the head of kokushi was made in the mid-10th century concerning tax collection and military police.

遣明船（けんみんせん）は室町時代の応永11年（1404年）から天文 (元号)16年（1547年）まで約1世紀半で17次（のべ84隻）に渡り、日明貿易（勘合貿易）に用いられた船のことである。
Kenminsen means ships dispatched seventeen times to Ming China in the Muromachi period (the total number of ships was eighty-four) during the period of one and a half centuries from 1404 to 1547 for the purpose of Nichi-Ming trade (trade between Japan and the Ming Dynasty, China) (Kango trade).

『日本書紀』には、百済などからの渡来人が製作したの記述がある一方、紀元前1世紀頃、垂仁天皇（垂仁3年）の時代に新羅王子アメノヒボコとその従者として須恵器の工人がやってきたとも記されている。
In the Nihonshoki (Chronicles of Japan), it is written that Sueki was made by toraijin (settlers) and in the meantime, it is also written that the Sueki craftsman visited Japan as a follower of the Prince of Silla Amenohiboko around the first century B.C. during the reign of Emperor Suinin.

能の起源について正確なことはわかってはいないが、7世紀頃に中国大陸より日本に伝わった日本最古の舞台芸能である伎楽や、奈良時代に大陸より伝わった散楽に端を発するのではないかと考えられている。
Although the origin of Noh is not clear, it is generally believed that Noh originated from gigaku (ancient pantomime in which performers wear masks), Japan's oldest theatrical art that was introduced from China during the seventh century, and sangaku (form of theater popular in Japan during the eleventh to the fourteenth century) introduced from the Asian continent during the Nara period.

8世紀初めには、慶雲4年（707年）、和銅元年（708年）、養老元年（717年）と、百日以内に出頭すれば亡命山沢の罪を赦すという詔が出たが、それは大赦の一部で唐の詔を引き写したものである。
In the early 8th century, edicts were issued in 707, 708 and 717 stipulating that an offense of a mountain valley exile would be condoned if the offender handed oneself in within 100 days, but they were part of amnesty and a copy of edicts in Tang Dynasty China.

15世紀後半の応仁の乱ないし明応の政変以降は戦国時代 (日本)とも呼ばれ、それまでの「幕府 - 守護体制」が崩壊するとともに、各地に地域国家が並立するようになり、また、荘園公領制が崩壊した。
Starting in the latter half of the fifteenth century, with the Onin War and the Meio Coup, a roughly hundred-year era known as the Sengoku Period (Period of Warring States) began; during this period, the bakufu-daimyo system in place up until this point collapsed, and all the various provinces essentially became independent states unto themselves, while the shoen-koryo (private estates and public territory) system of land ownership disintegrated.

諸外国では19世紀以来、同様の法律が制定され改正を重ねており、また1919年に採択された国際労働機関第1号条約では1日8時間・週48時間労働を定めるなど、労働条件・労働時間規制が進んでいた。
As foreign countries had revised similar acts repeatedly since 19th century, the first International Labour Conventions adopted in 1919 provided 8-hour workday or 48-hour workweek to promote the standard of work conditions and work hours.

『隋書』によれば7世紀初頭の大業3年（607年）に倭国王（原文「俀國王」）が隋皇帝煬帝への親書に自らを「日出處天子」と称したことも、中国世界と異なる天下概念が存続していたことを物語っている。
According to Suishu (the Book of the Sui Dynasty), the King of Wa called himself 'Hiizurutokoro no tenshi' (literally, the king of the place where the sun rises) in the letter he sent to Emperor Yodai in 607, and this fact also suggests the existence of the different notion of Tenka from the Chinese world.

東アジアから東南アジアにおいて、15世紀には中国の明が海禁政策を行い、また日本の室町幕府との日明貿易（勘合貿易）が途絶した事などにより倭寇（後期倭寇）による私貿易、密貿易が活発になっていた。
Because the Ming Dynasty in China strictly controlled overseas trade in East and South East Asia during the 15th century and the tally trade between the Muromachi shogunate and the Ming Dynasty had been disrupted, wako (koki wako, or 16th-century wako pirate-traders) actively engaged in private and illicit trades.

しかし、11世紀に荘園公領制が成立すると、多くの武士は荘司、郡司、郷司、保司に任命され、荘園、または公領の郡、郷、保を確固たる所領とするようになっていき、田堵負名を自らの支配下に置いていった。
Once the shoen-koryo system was established in the 11th century, however, many samurai were appointed shoji (also known as shokan), gunji, goji, or hoji, and they began to own some manors or the Imperial demesnes such as gun, go, and ho as their settled territories and to have tato and fumyo under their control.

12世紀の中葉に起こった相模国の大庭御厨の濫妨と、下総国の相馬御厨の事件は、当時における在庁官人＝在地領主の変貌と、国司・目代との対立の激しさ、在地領主層の地位の脆弱さと限界を如実に示してる。
An incident that occurred during the mid-twelfth century involving a disturbance at the Obamikuriya estate of Sagami Province and Soma-mikuriya (private estate of Soma ranch) of Shimousa Province realistically depicted the transfiguration of the Zaichokanjin being the local lord at that time, harsh conflicts between governors and mokudai (deputy provincial governor), and the fragility of the lord of the manor class.

現在の亀岡市街地から篠町にかかる地域は4世紀ころまでは湖沼地だったらしいが、秦氏の大堰川（保津川）治水工事などにより利用可能な土地となると、桑田神社や屯倉が建立されたりして人の移住が見られた。
The area from the urban district of Kameoka City to Shino-cho is believed to have been a lake or marsh until the fourth century; however, the Kuwada-jinja Shrine and the Miyake (Imperial-controlled territory) were built and people began to settle in the area, once the Hata clan reclaimed the land through the improvement of the Oi-gawa (Hozu-gawa) River.

倭の五王による中国への冊封要請遣使は、4世紀後期から倭国が朝鮮半島南部の伽耶諸国群へ資源・利権獲得のために介入しようとしたため、その地の冊封を受けて大義名分を得ようとしたものと考えられている。
According to one belief, the five Kings of Wa, who intended to intervene in Gaya, located in the southern part of Korea, for acquiring concessions of natural resources there from the latter half of the fourth century, dispatched an envoy to China to submit to a suzerain-vassal relationship with the Chinese sovereign so that they might make use of such a relationship on the pretext of their intervention in Korea.

柱・梁を基本構造とする日本建築と、煉瓦や石で壁を築いてゆく西洋建築は対照的な存在であり、20世紀のモダニズム建築の時代になると、近代建築の理念を先取りした点があるとして注目されるようになった。
Japanese architecture, which mainly uses posts and beams, differs from Western architecture of bricks and stones, and traditional Japanese architecture gained attention in 20th century architectural modernism since it was ahead of its time in the use of modern architectural concepts.

8世紀初頭に確立した律令制は、個人を徴税単位とする個別人身支配（人別支配）を基本原則としており、高度に体系化された律令法典・官僚制度・地方制度や古代の戸籍制度・計帳などを基盤として存立していた。
The Ritsuryo system, which was established in early 8th century, adopted the principle of people-based governance (ruling individuals) and existed on the basis of the highly systematized Ritsuryo code of law/bureaucracy system/local administration system as well as the family registration system/keicho (yearly tax registers) etc.

だが、加徴を巡って国司と現地の農民との対立が激化するようになり、11世紀中期には一定の基準（官物率法）に従って官物・雑物が徴収されるようになり、それ以外の臨時の賦課を臨時雑物と呼ぶようになった。
However, conflicts between Kokushi and the local farmers over Kacho became serious, and in the middle of the eleventh century, Kanmotsu and Zatsumotsu were collected following a certain standard (Kanmotsu rippo) and other temporary taxation was called Rinjizatsumotsu.

そのためヤマト（倭国）内の農業開発が停滞し、ヤマト王権とその傘下の豪族達の経済力・政治力が後退したと考えられており、6世紀前半までのヤマト王統の混乱はこの経済力・政治力の後退に起因するとされる。
For this reason, it is thought that agricultural development in Yamato (Wakoku) remained stagnant, weakening the Yamato Kingdom and the ruling elite under their jurisdiction, a situation that existed until the beginning of the sixth century.

この死亡帳は、「去年7月」から「今年6月」までの一年間について、秋田城の支配領域（秋田郡周辺）の民について記載したもので、当時の出羽国国府（9世紀初頭に移転）に清書したものを提出したと考えられる。
This Shibocho described citizens in the area (around Akita County) controlled by Akita-jo Castle for one year from 'July of the previous year' to 'June of this year,' and was considered to be a transcript submitted to the provincial office of Dewa Province at that time (transferred in early ninth century).

一方、律令的戸籍制度も次第に行われなくなり、 10世紀には、地方豪族で実力を蓄えた者は、有力な貴族の家人となり、その氏姓を侵すようにさえなり、いわゆる冒名仮蔭（ぼうめいかいん）の現象が一般化した。
On the other hand, family registration system based on the ritsuryo system was gradually phased out; in the tenth century, people who became strong among powerful local clans became the retainers of the influential nobles and invaded clan names and hereditary titles; in essence, the phenomenon of so-called Bomei Kain (misrepresentation of one's clan name and hereditary title) became quite commonplace.

宮家創設から半世紀後、後桃園天皇が崩御し皇継が絶えそうになった際、閑院宮家から典仁親王の第6王子・兼仁王が光格天皇となり、その後、光格→仁孝→孝明→明治→大正→昭和→今上と続き、今日に続いている。
After a half century since the new Miyake was founded, Emperor Gomomozono died and no successor was in Miyake, but prince Tomohito from the Kaninnomiya family, the sixth prince of prince Sukehito, became Emperor Kokaku, and afterwards, continued to Emperor Kokaku, Emperor Ninko, Emperor Komei, Emperor Meiji, Emperor Taisho, Emperor Showa and the present Emperor as of now.

『山海経』（戦国-秦漢期成立）には倭が中国東北部にあった燕_(春秋)国に服属していたという記述があり、紀元前6-4世紀頃のことと考えられているが、同書についても依拠することに慎重な見解が存在する。
There is a description in 'Sengaikyo' (oldest topography of China), written sometime between the Warring States Period and Qin/Han Dynasty) that says Wa was obedient to Yan (Chunqiu period) which was in the northeast of China, therefore it is considered to be in the period from the sixth century to fourth century B.C. but some think the book should also be taken with caution.

当時の日本列島は縄文時代晩期ないし弥生時代初期であり、この時期から日本列島と中国との通交が始まったとする見解もあるが、『論衡』の成立が1世紀であるため、同書に依拠することに慎重な見解が有力である。
The Japanese Archipelago was then in the late Jomon period or early Yayoi period, and some believe that trade between China and Japan began around that time, but since 'Ronko' was written in the first century, it is generally considered that the book should be taken with caution.

当初は民部省に貢進された後で各官司に配分されたが、10世紀に入ると民部省を関与させずに特定の官司に対して特定の国が舂米を直接貢進する形式に替わり、各官司の財政が独立採算制に変わっていく一因となった。
Originally, it was tithed to the Minbusho (Ministry of Popular Affairs) and then distributed to the various Kanji (government official), but in the tenth century, the Minbusho did not intervene, but each province directly tithed shomai to a given Kanji and this became one of the factors that led to each Kanji becoming responsible for their individual finances.

一般には、12世紀後半の源頼朝による鎌倉幕府の設立から、慶応3年（1867年）の徳川慶喜による大政奉還まで、約700年間に渡る武家による政権を指すが、現在は平清盛の平氏政権からとする説が有力である。
The military government was an administration under the control of samurai, which continued for about 700 years from the establishment of the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) by MINAMOTO no Yoritomo in the late 12th century to Taisei Hokan (transfer of power back to the Emperor) lead by Yoshinobu TOKUGAWA in 1867; however, a theory, in which the start was the Taira clan government ruled by TAIRA no Kiyomori, is now widely accepted.

そのうち、天皇のミウチである藤原氏と源氏が議政官（公卿）をほぼ独占し始め、特に藤原北家嫡流は9世紀後半に天皇の政治決定権を受任・代行しうる摂政・関白の地位を獲得し、その地位を世襲することに成功した。
Then, the Fujiwara clan and the Minamoto clan, the relatives of the Emperor, almost created a monopoly of the Giseikan (a legislative organ), and it is worthy to note that the direct descent of the Northern House of the Fujiwara clan achieved the position of Sessho Kanpaku (regent and chief adviser to the Emperor) in the late ninth century, which made them receive and deal with the political discretion of the Emperor; and they were also successful in making the position hereditary.

そのため、20世紀末にかけての3月は、「菜の花の上にお日様無し」、「行楽受難・鬼門の月」、「花見には傘など雨具が必需品」、「卒業式、終業式はいつも雨」などと不名誉なレッテルが貼られたこともあった。
Therefore, March in certain years around the end of the twentieth century were labeled unpleasantly as 'no sun above field mustard,' 'month unfavorable for outdoor amusement,' 'rain apparel such as umbrellas indispensable for cherry blossom viewing party,' 'commencement day ceremony and closing exercises on rainy day' and so on.

もっとも、当時はこうした仏教絵画を制作する僧侶は、仏像そのものの制作にあたる仏師のうちに含まれていたと考えられ、10世紀に活躍した仏教絵画の作家である定豊・平慶・平慶などは全て「仏師」と称されている。
However, at that time it appears that monks who produced such Buddhist paintings were included in busshi (a sculptor of Buddhist statues); therefore, 定豊, 平慶, and 玄朝, who played an active part in the creation of Buddhist paintings in the 10th century, were all called 'busshi.'

なお、当初は暦博士は暦本作成のみを担当し、御暦所や御暦奏には関与しなかったが、9世紀後期より陰陽頭・助と交じって御暦奏に加わる例が見られるようになった（『日本三代実録』仁和2年11月丙子朔（1日）条）。
At the beginning, rekihakase participated only in making calendar books and were not involved in the onkoyomidokoro and goryakuso, but from the late ninth century, he began to participate in goryakuso together with Onmyo no kami and suke (according to 'Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku' dated on December 4, 886).

嘉禄元年（1225年）、鎌倉幕府に評定衆が設置されて以来、重要な政務は評定によって決定されたが、13世紀後期に年始の行事の一環として毎年1月中旬の1日に執権・連署以下を召集して評定始を行うようになった。
Important policies had been decided by the council since 1225 when the hyojoshu was set up in the Kamakura bakufu, and in the late thirteenth century, hyojohajime began as a New Year ceremony convened with a regent, rensho (assistant to regents), and other subordinates on a day of mid-January every year.

19世紀初頭、宗像大社の宮司の一族を称する大野郡土師村の庄屋宗像良蔵が、「神のふみ」として伝わる特殊仮名で書かれた古文書の鑑定を、岡藩を訪れていた京都吉田神学館の玉田永教に依頼したが、偽書と断じられた。
In the early 19th century, Ryozo Munakata, a shoya (village headman) in Haji village, Ono gun, who was purporting to be a family of Guji (chief of those who serves shrine, controls festivals and general affairs) asked Naganori TAMADA of Singakukan, Yoshida, Kyoto who visited the Oka clan, to evaluate the ancient documents written in special Kana handed down as 'Kami no fumi (Letter of God)' and it was decided that the documents were a gisho (apocryphal book).

もちろん令外の官の成立ははやく九世紀にさかのぼるものであり、また摂関政治を通じて貴族身分内部の再編がおこなわれつづけたのであり、律令体制の質的な変化は院政以前にゆっくりとではあるが進行していたものである。
Of course, formation of ryoge no kan dates as early as the ninth century and reorganization within nobles continued through regency, and a qualitative shift of ritsuryo system was going along slowly but steadily before cloister governments.

1世紀中葉になると北部九州（博多湾沿岸）にあったとされる倭奴国が後漢へ朝貢している（『後漢書』）が、これは北部九州における倭人の政治集団の統合が進み、その代表として倭奴国が後漢へ遣使したと考えられている。
In the middle of the first century, 倭奴国, which is thought to have been located in northern Kyushu (the coast of Hakata Bay), paid tribute to the Later Han Dynasty ('Gokanjo' (Historical records of the Later Han Dynasty)), which is thought to indicate that Wajin political groups in Northern Kyushu were consolidated and 倭奴国 sent an envoy to the Later Han Dynasty as the representative.

しかし4世紀後葉になると、東北（仙台平野・会津地方など）から南九州（日向・大隅など）まで前方後円墳の分布が急速に拡大しており、ヤマト王権の支配権がそれらの地域へ伸展していったことの表れだとする見方がある。
However, during the latter half of the fourth century, keyhole-shaped mounds spread rapidly from Tohoku (Sendai plain and Aizu Region) to southern Kyushu, which is seen as evidence of the Yamato Kingdom extending its hegemony in other areas.

これにより、5世紀ごろには簡易な官僚制が形成されていたとして、それまでの王の権威を権力の源泉としていた「ヤマト王権」から王を中心とする政治組織が権力を担う「ヤマト政権」への転換がなされたとする見方もある。
As seen from these organizational changes, it is thought that a simple bureaucratic system was already being formed around the fifth century; there is an opinion that during this time, the 'Yamato Kingdom', where the king's authority was the source of power, was replaced by the 'Yamato administration', where a political organization, with a King at the center, held the power.

19世紀末ロンドンにパーリ聖典協会（Pāli Text Society）が設立されて原典の校訂出版等がなされ、日本では若干の蔵外文献も含めて『南伝大蔵経』65巻（1935年-1941年）に完訳されている。
At the end of the nineteenth century, the Pali Text Society was founded in London and published a revised edition of original sutras, while in Japan the 65 volumes of 'Nanden Tripitaka' (1935-1941), including some Zogai scriptures, were published as a complete translation.

11世紀に入ると、書博士そのものが明経博士を世襲した清原氏・中原氏の一族のための待機ポスト（明経道の職に空きが出来るまで暫時任じられる官職）と化してしまい、学科としての書道は完全に消滅したと考えられている。
In the 11th century, the position of sho hakase became a standby post (a post to which clan members were temporarily appointed until a myogyo-do position became available) for members of the Kiyohara clan and Nakahara clan which inherited the position of Myogyo hakase (Professor of Confucian classics), and it is though that shodo completely disappeared as an area of study.

発展する経済活動と土地資本体制の行政官である武士を過剰に抱える各政府（各藩）との構造的な軋轢を内包しつつも、「泰平の世」を謳歌していた江戸時代も19世紀を迎えると、急速に制度疲労による硬直化が目立ち始める。
The Edo period enjoyed a 'peaceful world,' although there was structural conflict between developing economic activities in a city and the land capital system in the domain economy which held an excessive number of samurai, executive officers of the land capital structure, but early in the 19th century the structual fatigue became apparent rapidly as organizational inflexibility.

11世紀に入ると、仏像を制作する「木仏師」と呼ばれる一般的な仏師に対して、仏教絵画を制作する「絵仏師」という概念が現れるようになるが、「絵仏師」の語が広く用いられるようになったのは鎌倉時代後期とする説もある。
At the beginning of the 11th century, in relation to the general busshi who carved Buddhist statues and were actually called kibusshi (a sculptor of wooden Buddha statues), the concept of ebusshi who produced Buddhist painting first appeared, but there is a theory that it was actually in the latter half of the Kamakura period that the term 'ebusshi' came into wide use.

ただし、10世紀においてはまだ官物の徴収基準がそれぞれの令制国の国例に定められて稲穀（官稲（かんとう））や米（官米（かんまい））、絹、布などの形で徴収されていたが、実際にはそれぞれの国司によって定められていた。
However, in the tenth century, the collection standards for Kanmotsu were still decided by the Kokurei (provincial law) in each Ritsuryo province and it was collected in the form of rice grain (kanto [rice grain owned by the government]) and rice (kanmai [rice owned by the government]), silk, and cloth, but in actuality was decided by each Kokushi (officer in local government).

また10世紀中葉の承平天慶の乱は、当初平氏一族内の私闘と考えられていたものが、のちに国家への叛逆行為と見なされるようになったものであるが、その最大の要因は平将門が常陸国府を包囲・攻略し、官印を奪ったことによる。
In another episode, the Johei and Tengyo War in the middle of the tenth century was originally thought as a duel among the Taira family but later came to be regarded as a treason because TAIRA no Masakado surrounded and captured the local government of Hitachi and stole its kanin.

この方式の火縄銃は16世紀に南欧で生み出されたものの、ばねによって火縄を火皿にたたきつける激発機構は、すぐに火打石を火打ち金にたたきつけて火花を飛ばすフリントロック式銃を生み出し、ごく短い間しか使われなかった。
This type of matchlock was invented in Southern Europe in the 16th century, but the firing mechanism which makes a match strike the flashpan by means of a spring action to the flintlock which produces a spark by striking steel with a flint, and was used only for a short period.

日本書紀の記述から、5世紀後半には吉備や播磨、伊勢などの首長がヤマト王権へ対抗するなどの動きがあったと推測されており、そうした中で登場したワカタケル王は強化した軍事力をもとに各地の首長への支配力を強めていった。
From descriptions in the 'Nihonshoki', it is believed that the chiefs of Kibi, Harima, and Ise rebelled against the Yamato Kingdom sometime around the latter half of the fifth century and it was during this period that King Wakatakeru appeared and strengthened the political power of the Yamato Kingdom over the regional chiefs with its increased military strength.

奈良・西大寺の十二天画像（平安初期、国宝）は、9世紀に描かれた日本最古の十二天像で、京都国立博物館本の各尊が敷物の上に座す形で表わされているのに対し、西大寺本の各尊は、それぞれ水牛、亀などの鳥獣座に乗っている。
The picture of Juniten at Saidai-ji Temple in Nara (beginning of the Heian period, national treasure) is the oldest Juniten image in Japan, and was drawn in the 9th century and each deity sits on birds and animals such as buffalo and turtle, while each deity in the picture in the Kyoto National Museum sits on carpet.

例えば「城郭」は、それまでは「かいだてを掻き、さかもぎを引いて」と言う臨時のバリケードと矢を射かけるための櫓であり、恒常的な設備ではなかったのに対し、15世紀以降から恒常的な施設として「城」が築かれるようになる。
For an example, 'castle' was 'line the shields and pull the spiny ivy' or the emergency barricade tower to shoot arrows from until then and was not a permanent facility in contrast to a permanent 'castle' facility built after fifteenth century.

9世紀前半には律令の研究が興隆した時期であり、讃岐永直・興原敏久・額田今足・惟宗直本など多くの優れた明法家が輩出され、讃岐氏（後に和気氏）・惟宗氏（後に令宗氏）のように数代にわたって明法博士を輩出した一族もあった。
In the early 9th century, the study of ritsuryo flourished and a lot of Myoho experts were produced including SANUKI no Naganao, OKIHARA no Miniku, NUKATA no Imatari, KOREMUNE no Naomoto and also clans of Myoho doctors for generations were produced including Sanuki (future Wake clan) and Koremune (future Yoshimune clan)

13世紀前半の承久の乱以降、新補地頭に対して荘園公領11町当たり1町の給田を与える新補率法が成立すると、実際には1町にとどまらず2町・3町の給田を設定する例が多く見られ、新補地頭による荘園公領侵出を強く後押しした。
After the Jyokyu War in the early thirteenth century, the Shinpo rippo (the regulation regarding new Jito appointments) was established to give 1 cho of kyuden per 11 cho of shoen koryo to newly appointed jito, but in actuality, there were many cases where two or even three cho of kyuden were given, strongly pushing the invasion of newly appointed jito into shoen koryo.

443年を採ると5世紀の半ばには「大王」表記が用いられていたことになるが、紀年銘の異体字をはじめ釈読の定まらない文字が多く、銘文の内容について解釈が多様化しており、「大王」表記の厳密な使用開始年代ははっきりしない。
If you take the theory of the year 443, the notation of 'okimi' would have been used by the middle of the fifth century, but since there are many letters in which the reading is not determined including the variant characters on inscriptions about counting years, there are various interpretations regarding the contents of the inscriptions, which makes it difficult to determine the precise date in which the 'okimi' notation started being used.

２つの絵巻は傍証にしか過ぎないが、武士団の蔓延はいつから、という問いに対しては、ちょうど12世紀に入ろうとする頃から、「保元の乱」、「平治の乱」を第一の節目として、更に源平の争乱においてピークに達したと見られている。
Two picture scrolls were just circumstantial evidence, but the expansion of bushidan started around the time when entering twelfth century and 'Hogen Disturbance' and 'Heiji Disturbance' were the first phrase and reached the peak with the Genpei War if asked about when it started.

当時の王権基盤は未熟な段階にあり、大王の地位が各地域の首長から構成される連合政権の盟主に過ぎなかったことを考慮すれば、直木孝次郎の説くように、5世紀のヤマト政権はまさに「大王と葛城氏の両頭政権」であったと表現出来る。
The foundation of sovereignty was still underdeveloped during those days, and the position of the Okimi was nothing more than that of a leader of chiefs, assigned to each region of the coalition government; the Yamato regime during the 5th century can be described as the 'diarchy of Okimi and Katsuraki clan' as the historian Kojiro Naoki has decribed.

11世紀中期の一国平均役によって、朝廷・国衙の事業に必要な経費分だけが徴税される税制に変更されていくと、貯蔵すべき税収の余剰が出る余地も失われたために、不動穀は制度的な根拠を失って事実上消滅してしまったとされている。
In the middle of the 11th century Ikkoku Heikin Yaku (flat rate tax imposed from time to time) was introduced and tax system was changed so as to collect the tax just to cover the expenses required for the affairs of the Imperial court and its provincial offices; this change removed the possibility of having a tax income surplus to be stored; it is said that due to this loss of basis in the tax system, fudokoku virtually disappeared.

その後17世紀前半（江戸初期）にかけて、キリスト教の布教（キリシタン）と貿易（南蛮貿易）を通じて、日本とスペインの間には盛んな人物の往来が見られ、また衣食住を含む当時の日本の文化や世界観にも影響を与えた（南蛮文化）。
From then till the first half of the 17th century (the early Edo period), people frequently came and went between Japan and Spain through propagation of Christianity (Christian) and trade (with Spain and Portugal), which had an impact on Japanese culture including housing, food and clothing, and its world view.

租税としての「所当」も本来は適切に賦課された官物・雑役・地子などの租税のことを指していたが、12世紀初頭頃より、単に「所当」をもって（公事や臨時雑役などの臨時の賦課に対する）正規の賦課を意味する言葉となったのである。
Shoto,' which meant tax, originally indicated taxes properly levied such as kanmotsu (produce tax), zoyaku (miscellaneous labor services), and jishi (land tax); but from the beginning of the 12th century, 'shoto' solely meant a regular levy (in contrast to such extraordinary levies as kuji and extraordinary odd-jobs).

その後、7世紀後半に至るまで国号の表記は倭国・倭のままであったが、天武天皇に始まる律令制建設の過程で、倭国・倭という表記を忌避する意識が再び高まり、701年前後に日本という表記が採用されることとなったと考えられている。
From then on till the latter half of the seventh century, the name designating the country was still Wakoku or Wa, but in the process of remodeling its state and administrative apparatus on the ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code) by the Emperor Tenmu, there was growing national awareness about the avoidance of using Wa or Wakoku, so that before and after 701, a pair of Chinese characters, 日本, (meaning of 'the land from the sun-rise) came to be used.

それに加えて、18世紀後半の産業革命によって欧米諸国は急速に近代化しており、それぞれの政治経済的事情から大航海時代の単なる「冒険」ではなく、自らの産業のために資源と市場を求めて世界各地に植民地獲得のための進出を始めた。
In addition to the above, western countries modernized rapidly through industrial revolution in the latter half of the 18th century, and for their own political and economic reasons, started debouching into various places around the world to acquire their own colonies for the purpose of seeking resources and markets for their own industries, rather than for the simple purpose of 'adventure' during the Age of Geographical Discovery.

そうした中で新しい国家体制、すなわち律令制の構築が精力的に進められていき、7世紀最末期には新国家体制を規定する大宝律令の編纂がほぼ完了したが、同律令施行直前の701年前後に国号が倭・倭国から日本へ改められたとされている。
Amid this, the construction of a new state system, the Ritsuryo system steadily advanced and by the very end of the seventh century, Taiho Ritsuryo (Taiho Code) which defined the new form of government was completed, and in or around 701just before the enforcement of the ritsuryo, Wa or Wakoku was renamed Nippon or Nihon.

醍醐天皇は摂関を置かず、また延喜格式が編纂されるなど、後世の人々から天皇親政による理想の政治が行われた治世と評価され、同じく10世紀中期に天皇親政が行われたとする村上天皇の治世（天暦の治）と併せて延喜・天暦の治と呼ばれた。
As Emperor Daigo had no Sekkan (regents and advisers) and compiled 'Engi no kyakushiki' (regulations and laws of the Engi era), his reign was considered by succeeding generations as the reign when an ideal politics were carried out by direct rule of the Emperor and his reign was called as Engi and Tenryaku no chi (reign of Emperor Daigo and Murakami) together with the reign of Emperor Murakami (Tenryaku no chi - glorious Tenryaku rule) who also carried out direct rule in the middle of the 10th century.

永原慶二によれば、武士団が成立した12世紀から南北朝時代にかけての在地領主の軍事力は、同族的なイエを単位とするものであり、数十人から200人程度の兵力が単位軍団であり、大地域の軍事的統領はこうしたイエ軍団の連合を組織した。
Keiji NAGAHARA stated that military power of the bushi lord of a manor from the twelfth century to the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (Japan) when the formed bushidan had a house of the same clan as its unit and the army unit cohort consisted of several dozen to two hundred military forces, and many militaristic conquest of a vast area structured the union of house army.

これらを貢納する贄人を初めとする非農業民は、従来「無主」にして「公私共利」の地とされた山野河海の利用により生業をたてていたが、8世紀以降の律令制の解体、荘園公領制の成立とともに、荘園領主による制約を受けるようになってきた。
Non-agricultural people, including those who presented these items, made their living from the mountains, fields, rivers, and the sea that were originally lands 'not owned by anyone' and were 'beneficial publicly and privately,' however, regulations were initiated by Shoen owners after the disbandment of the Ritsuryo system and the establishment of the Shoen-Koryo system from the 8th Century.

しかし、忠平の後に実際に政務をリードしたのは太政官筆頭である左大臣藤原実頼であり、村上治世を天皇親政の理想の時代とするのは、11世紀以降に摂関政治で不遇をかこった中下流の文人貴族による意識的な喧伝だったのだと考えられている。
However, the person who led the governance after Tadahira was the head of Daijokan (Department of State) and also Sadaijin (Minister of the Left) FUJIWARA no Saneyori, and it is thought to have been conscious propaganda to admire Murakami's reign as the ideal of imperial governance by the middle- and lower-ranked literary nobility in and after 11th century.

しかも、それは半ば理想的な数字で、天慶4年の御暦奏には天皇の出御もない上に11巻しか奏進されず、正暦4年の御暦奏に至っては朔旦冬至にも関わらず、遂に頒暦の奏進が0巻で櫃の入場がないという事態となった（いずれも『本朝世紀』）。
But this was a quasi-ideal number and in fact, in the goryakuso in 941, the emperor was not present and only eleven copies of the calendar were presented, and in the goryakuso during 993, Sakutantoji was not celebrated, no copies of the calendar was presented to the emperor and no chest arrived at the court (each according to 'Honcho seiki').

720年(養老4) に、臨時に官戸11人が良民に官奴婢10人が官戸にされたことがあるが、740年(天平 12) の「浜名郡輸租帳」では良民の戸を官戸と称しており、賤民としての官戸は8世紀前半のうちに実態がなくなったと思われる。
A special case occurred in the year 720 when 11 kanko were made ryonin and 10 kunuhi were made kanko but in 'Hamana-gun Yosocho' of 740, the status of ryomin is referred to as kanko, leading to the belief that the status of kanko among the senmin class ceased to exist in the first part of the 8th century.

更に12世紀に入ると、官司の運営とそれに伴う収益、そうした業務の財源として確保されてきた官司領（官衙領）が世襲氏族によって官職そのものを含めた「職の体系」として私的に所有されるようになり、「知行」として行使されるようになった。
Furthermore, in the twelfth century, the management and accompanying profit of Kanji and Kanjiryo that was maintained as the funds for the job (Kangaryo) began to be privately owned by the hereditary clans as part of the job system including the position itself and used as 'Chigyo (enfeoffment).'

5世紀頃には、畿内の及びその周辺の中小豪族をトノモリ（殿守）・モヒトリ（水取）・カニモリ（掃守）・カドモリ（門守）など、宮廷の各種の職務を世襲的に分掌する「トモ」として、大王 (ヤマト王権)のもとに組織する体制が成立していた。
Around the fifth century, a 'Tomo' system was already established under the great king (Yamato sovereignty), in which small and medium local ruling families in the Kinai region (provinces surrounding Kyoto and Nara) and areas around it were divided into various duties of the Imperial Court hereditarily, such as Tonomori, Mohitori, Kanimori, and Kadomori.

平安時代に入ると、蔵人など後宮出入りの職権を持つ官職が登場するようになると、後宮十二司の役割が低下し、10世紀の中頃には内侍司に他の11司の機能が吸収・統合される形で後宮の機構改革が行われながら摂関政治期を迎えることになった。
In the early Heian period, job grades such as kurodo that had authority of comings and goings in the kokyu appeared, which lowered the role of the kokyu junishi, and in the middle of the tenth century, while the structural reform of the kokyu was performed in the form of the functions of eleven tsukasa being absorbed/integrated by the Naishino tsukasa, the Sekkanseiji Period (regency period) made a start.

さらに11世紀に荘園公領制が成立すると、対等な権利主体となった荘園と公領（国衙領）の間に武力紛争が多発し、荘園の現地管理者である荘官、公領の現地管理者である惣司、郡司、郷司、保司には武芸の家の者たる武士が任命されるようになった。
Furthermore, after the shoen koryo sei (the system of public lands and private estates) was established in the 11th century, many armed conflicts arose between the owners of shoen (private estates) and the administrators of koryo (public land, also known as kokugaryo, meaning territory governed by a provincial government office), both of whom now had equal rights; accordingly, Soji (local government officials under the ritsuryo system), Gunji (local magistrates), Goji (local government officials under the ritsuryo system), and Hoji (officers who managed koryo), all of whom were regional administrators of koryo, and Shokan (officers who managed shoen) were all appointed from samurai families.

例えば、『記紀』の記述によると、広開土王碑が伝える朝鮮半島奥深くに侵入しての高句麗との戦闘は一切伝えられていないし、倭の五王の遣使も伝わらない（倭王武の上表文によると5世紀の最も重大な外交問題は対高句麗問題であるにも関わらず）。
For example, the Kiki does not say anything about the battle against Koguryo in the depths of the Korean Peninsula (mentioned in the Gwanggaeto Stele), or about envoys of the Five Kings of Wa (despite the most important diplomatic issue in the fifth century being a relationship with Koguryo as Waobu's johyobun).

以後も長承3年（1134年）に仏教説話を集めて説法の手控えとした『打聞集』、12世紀前半の『古本説話集』、治承3年（1179年）に平康頼によって著された『宝物集』などの説話集が成立し、説話文学の大きな流れは次代に継承されていく。
Thereafter, collections of anecdotes; 'Uchigiki shu' (Collection of Buddhist Tales) in which Buddhism anecdotes were collected for drafts of preaching in 1134, 'Kohon Setsuwa shu' (Collection of Old Tales) in the first half of the 12th century, 'Hobutsu shu' (A Collection of Treasures) written by TAIRA no Yasuyori in 1179, were completed; a big stream of literature of preaching stories were succeeded by subsequent generations.

広隆寺の記録などから、6世紀頃に河内国讃良郡太秦（現在の大阪府寝屋川市太秦）を本拠地とした秦河勝が、現在の桂川 (淀川水系)に灌漑工事として葛野大堰を築き、この地を朝廷より与えられ、直轄領としたかこの地に本拠を移したと考えられる。
A record kept in Koryu-ji Temple and others suggest that HATA no Kawakatsu, who had established his foothold in Uzumasa, Sasarano-kori, Kawachi Province (present-day Uzumasa, Neyagawa City, Osaka Prefecture) during the sixth century, moved his base to this region given by the Imperial Court, because he succeeded in building Kadono Oi River Dam for the irrigation of the present day Katsura-gawa River (Yodo-gawa River system).

7世紀初頭に聖徳太子が建立した法隆寺の金堂薬師如来像の光背銘に、「池邊大宮治天下天皇」（用明天皇）、「小治田大宮治天下大王天皇」（推古天皇）とあり、治天下大王（あめのしたしろしめすおおきみ）の称号が用いられていたことが推定される。
On the inscription on the halo of the statue of Yakushi Nyorai (the Healing Buddha) in the Kon-do (golden hall) of Horyu-ji Temple, erected by Prince Shotoku in the beginning of the seventh century, it says 'Ike no be no omiya amenoshitashiroshimesu tenno' (Emperor Yomei) and 'Owarida no Omiya amenoshitashiroshimesu okimi tenno' (Emperor Suiko), and it can be assumed that the title 'amenoshitashiroshimesu' was used.

特に、5世紀後半の126号墳からは、大量の装飾品とともに、日本史上初の火熨斗（ひのし、炭を入れてアイロンとして使用した金属器）の出土や、中国を経由せず西域から新羅経由でもたらされたと見られる希少なローマンガラス製品の出土があった。
In particular, from No. 126 Tumulus built in the latter half of the fifth century, not only a large quantity of accessories, but also the first hinoshi (metal artifact which had been used as an iron with lighted charcoal in it) in Japanese history, and rare Roman grass products which had been brought to Japan not through China but through Silla from Central and Western Asia were excavated.

従来、この「沙至比跪」と襲津彦を同一人とし、『書紀』紀年を修正して干支2運繰り下げて、壬午年を382年と解釈すると、襲津彦は4世紀末に実在した人物であり、朝鮮から俘虜を連れ帰った武将として伝承化されている可能性などが指摘されてきた。
If we assume that there was a time lag of 2 uns (120 years; 1 un is equivalent to 60 years) of kanshi (Chinese calendrical system) in the year recorded in 'Nihonshoki' and consider Sotsuhiko as the same person as 'Hisachiku,' there is a possibility that Sotsuhiko was a legendized man who existed in the 4th century and was sent to Korea around 382 and brought some prisoners from the war.

14世紀前後の北九州から朝鮮半島、中国沿岸などでは日本人、中国人や朝鮮民族らの多民族構成とする倭寇（前期倭寇）が活発化し、日朝貿易においては朝貢貿易に加えて民間貿易も許可されていたため、東アジアの海上世界は民族雑居状態が存在していた。
Around the fourteenth century, Wako (specifically, the early Wako), a multiethnic group of pirates that included Japanese, Chinese, and Koreans, began increasing their activities in the seas from northern Kyushu in Japan to those around the Korean peninsula and along the coast of China; in addition to the formal tributary trade missions, it was now also permissible for trade to be conducted between Japan and Korea by private merchants, adding a more international flavor to the maritime world of East Asia during this period.

この時期の銀の市場価格の変動は大きくまた下落傾向が顕著であった為、そして、その当時世界経済の主導的地位を占めていたイギリスが既に金本位制に転じていた為、銀本位制諸国は深刻な影響をうけ、19世紀の終りにはほとんどの国が金本位制に転じた。
Since fluctuation of market value of silver during this period was significant and tended to decline remarkably and the United Kingdom, which led the world economy around that time, already shifted to the gold standard, countries which adopted silver standard were seriously affected, so most of the countries shifted to the gold standard in the end of the nineteenth century.

縄文時代（じょうもんじだい）は、年代でいうと今から約16,500年から約3,000年前（紀元前10世紀）、地質時代では更新世末期から完新世にかけて日本列島で発展した時代であり、世界史では中石器時代ないし新石器時代に相当する時代である。
The Jomon period is approximately from 16,500 to 3,000 years ago (the tenth century B.C.) in terms of date, developed from the end of the Pleistocene epoch to the Holocene epoch in the Japanese archipelago in terms of geological age, and is comparable to the Mesolithic period or the Neolithic period in terms of the world history.

伊予国大三島（現今治市）の大山祇神社所蔵の源義経奉納と伝わる「赤糸威鎧」（あかいとおどしよろい）、源頼朝奉納と伝わる「紫綾威鎧」、源義仲奉納と伝わる「熏紫韋威胴丸」（ふすべむらさきがわおどしどうまる）はいずれも12世紀の作とみられる。
The 'Akaito Odoshi Yoroi' (odoshi armor with red strings) that is said to be dedicated by MINAMOTO no Yoshitsune, 'Murasakiaya Odoshi Yoroi' (Violet-twilled-threaded Armor) that is said to be dedicated by MINAMOTO no Yoritomo, and 'Fusube Murasakigawa Odoshi Domaru Armor' that is said to be dedicated by MINAMOTO no Yoshinaka, all of which are possessed by Oyamazumi-jinja Shrine in Omishima Island, Iyo Province (present day Imari city), are regarded to be the creations of the 12th century.

考古学の成果から5世紀ごろから「治天下大王」（あめのしたしろしめすおおきみ）という国内向けの称号が成立したことが判明しているが、これはこの時期に倭国は中華王朝と異なる別の天下であるという意識が生まれていたことの表れだと評価されている。
The title 'Ame-no-shita Shiroshimesu Okimi' known from archaeological studies to have been established around the fifth century is viewed as evidence of the perception that Wakoku was a different 'tenka' (realm, written with the same characters as 'Ame-no-shita') from the Chinese dynasties.

小辺路の生活道路としての形成時期ははっきりしないが、小辺路が通行する十津川村・野迫川村の領域に関係する史料には8世紀にさかのぼるものが見られ、また、周辺に介在する遺跡・史資料などから少なくとも平安時代には開創されていたと考えられている。
The time when Kohechi began to be formed as community road is unknown; however, there is a historical document about Totsukawa Village and Nosegawa Village through which Kohechi passes dates back to the eighth century, besides there remain relics and other historical materials which can be linked to the road, therefore, it is considered that Kohechi was formed in the Heian period at the very latest.

また、その外敵が銅鐸祭祀を否定する集団で、支配下に置いた地域の住民に銅鐸祭祀を放棄させたと考えれば、銅鐸が壊れた状態で出土することや、三世紀に急速に銅鐸祭祀が廃れたこと、銅鐸の用途が全く伝わっていないことなどに説明が付くという説もある。
On the other hand, there is a theory that the hypothesis that the foreign enemy denied worship of dotaku and forced its local subordinates to abandon dotaku can explain the facts: that some dotaku were found broken, that worship of dotaku rapidly declined in the third century, and that the purpose have not been passed down at all.

農学者で思想家の新渡戸稲造は『武士道』（1900）において19世紀末の哲学や科学的思考を用いながら、島国の自然がどのようなもので、四季の移り変わりなどから影響を及ぼされた結果、社会という枠の中で日本人はどのように生きたのかを説明している。
Agriculturist and thinker Inazo NITOBE explained the nature of the island country and how Japanese who lived in society were affected by the four seasons, using philosophy and scientific thinking of the late 19th century in 'Bushido' (1900).

京都・広隆寺の資財についての記録である「広隆寺資財交替実録帳」（寛平2年・890年頃成立）には、同寺金堂本尊の「霊験薬師仏」が鍵のかかる「内殿」に安置されていたことが明記され、この薬師像が遅くとも9世紀末には秘仏扱いされていたことを伺わせる。
According to 'Koryu-ji Temple sizai kotai jitsuroku cho,' an inventory list of Koryo-ji Temple's assets (completed around 890), the principal image of its Kon-do hall, 'Reiken-yakushi-butsu' (the Healing Buddha), was placed in the 'naiden' (inner shrine) that can be locked; this reveals that the Yakushi Buddha image was treated as a hibutsu by the end of the 9th century at the latest.

これは、17世紀末には江戸十組問屋という10の同業者組合ができ、中でも酒、味噌、醤油を扱う「酒店組」には、徳川家康が三河を領していた小大名だったころから松平家に出入りしていた（あるいは、そのように自称する）三河出身者が多くまた繁盛したことによる。
This is due to the following reason: Towards the end of the 17th century, ten guilds called Edo tokumidonya, each for a different kind of business, were established, and in particular, many merchants from the Mikawa Province, who had supplied goods to the Matsudaira family since the era when Ieyasu TOKUGAWA was the daimyo (feudal lord) of the small Mikawa Province (or who said they were such persons), belonged to the 'sake store guild,' which handled sake, miso (fermented soybean paste) and soy sauce, and were prosperous.

鐘については、保延7年（1141年）に大和国（奈良県）の金峯山寺の鐘が勧進僧道寂の勧進によって作られており、国家管理の橋であった山城国（京都府）の宇治橋や近江国（滋賀県）瀬田の唐橋も、12世紀に入ると勧進によって管理・維持がなされるようになっている。
Kinpusen-ji Temple's bell in Yamato Province (Nara Prefecture) was made in 1141 through the kanjin of a kanjin-so called Dojaku, and Uji-bashi Bridge in Yamashiro Province (Kyoto Prefecture) and Seta no karahashi Bridge in Omi Province (Shiga Prefecture) which were under Chotei (Imperial Court) control were repaired and maintained through kanjin in the twelfth century.

18世紀以降には、大坂高麗橋付近に住む氏名不詳の商人による元文3年（1738年）の『熊野めぐり』（以下、『めぐり』と略記）、伊丹の酒造家、八尾八佐衛門の家人による延享4年（1747年）の『三熊野参詣道中日記』（以下、『道中日記』と略記）などが見られる。
As for the diaries about visiting Kumano written after the 18the century, there remain 'Kumano Meguri' (hereinafter quote it as 'Meguri') written in 1738 by a merchant with an unknown name who lived near Korai-bashi Bridge of Osaka and 'San-Kumano Sankei Dochu Nikki' (hereinafter quote it as 'Dochu Nikki') written in 1747 by a retainer of Yazaemon YAO, a brewer of Itami.

その後、軍団が復活すると、健児は軍団の兵士として位置づけられ、10世紀ごろには、健児維持に用するための健児田が設定されたり、全国定員が約3600人（陸奥・出羽・佐渡にも置かれるようになったが、西海道には置かれなかった）とされていたことなどが判っている。
It has been discovered that kondei soldiers were later included in the cohort system once the cohorts were revived, and subsequently, a special tax exemption system called kondei-den was established in order to maintain kondei, and approximately 3,600 kondei soldiers were deployed throughout the country (kondei were deployed in Mutsu, Dewa, and Sado Provinces as well, but not deployed in the Saikai-do Region) as a general rule in the tenth century.

表高は江戸幕府公認の検地によって算定された石高だが、実際の藩内では17世紀に進んだ新田開発や、農業技術（農機具・肥料等）の革新による生産力の増大に基づいた藩内検地、専売制による特産品の税高改定などによって、多くの藩では内高は表高を上回って増大していた。
Omote-daka was calculated based on the land survey officially recognized by the Edo bakufu; however, in many domains the actual uchi-daka was higher than omote-daka and also increasing, thanks to the progress of development of new field in 17th century, the land survey within domains that was based on the increased productivity by innovation of agricultural technique (farming equipments, fertilizer), and tax reform by monopolization of indigenous products.

しかし8世紀末以降、律令による編戸制、班田収授法による公民支配が次第に弛緩していくのと並行して郡司層による民の支配と編成の機構は崩壊し、新たに富豪と呼ばれる土着国司子弟、郡司、有力農民らが出挙によって多くの公民を私的隷属関係の下に置く関係が成立していく。
However, after the late eighth century, as henko-sei (the organization of the people) by the Ritsuryo and domination over the citizens by Handen Shuju ho (the law of periodic reallocations of rice land) gradually loosened, the mechanism of domination and organization of people by the gunji class collapsed, and there were established relations in which children of native kokushi who were newly called the rich and powerful class, gunji, influential farmers and other people turned many citizens into their private slaves by suiko (government loans made to peasants).

寺社造営料唐船（じしゃぞうえいりょうとうせん）は、14世紀前半（鎌倉時代末期から南北朝時代 (日本)にかけて）に、主要な寺社の造営（修復・増築を含む）費用を獲得することを名目として、幕府の認可の下、日本から元 (王朝)に対して派遣された貿易船群のことである。
Jishazoeiryotosen is a group of traveling vessels that were dispatched to the Yuan Dynasty under authorization of the bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) for the purpose of making profits to cover the costs of repair and construction of major temples and shrines in the first half of the 14th century (from the late Kamakura period through the period of the Northern and Southern Courts -Japan).

魏の鏡であるか、それとも日本製なのかについては、どちらの説にも決定的な証拠はないが、近年定説化しつつある年代観からすれば景初三年銘、正始元年銘の三角縁神獣鏡自体は紀年にあるとおり3世紀の鏡として理解できるため、邪馬台国大和説の有力な根拠のひとつとなっている。
Though there is no crucial evidence to determine whether the Sankakubuchi Shinjukyo Mirror was made in the Wei dynasty or in Japan, it is one of the compelling evidences of the Yamato theory of the Yamatai-Koku kingdom because the mirror inscribed with the years 239 and 240 can be considered to be mirrors from the third century as seen when counting years according to the accepted view of chronology in recent years.

またチベットは8世紀より僧伽の設立や仏典の翻訳を国家事業として大々的に推進、同時期にインドに存在していた仏教の諸潮流を、数十年の短期間で一挙に導入、その後チベット人僧侶の布教によって、大乗仏教信仰はモンゴルや南シベリアにまで拡大されていった（チベット仏教）。
In addition, beginning in the 8th Century, Tibet extensively promoted the establishment of sangha and the translation of Buddhist scriptures as national projects, and introduced various Buddhist sects that existed in India at that time in a burst as short as several decades; subsequently, Mahayana Buddhism was extended to Mongolia and South Siberia through propagation by Tibetan monks (Tibetan Buddhism).

7世紀末まで日本列島を代表する政権は九州にありヤマト王権は一地方政権に過ぎなかったとする説もあるが、埼玉県稲荷山古墳と熊本県江田船山古墳から「ワカタケル大王」と推定される銘の鉄剣が出土していること、様々な考古学的遺物などから成立する余地はないと考えられている。
There is an opinion that the main political regime of the Japanese Islands until the end of the seventh century existed in Kyushu and that the Yamato Kingdom was only one regional government, but since iron swords believed to be King Wakatakeru's were found in the Inariyama burial mound (Saitama prefecture) and the Eta Funayama burial mound (Kumamoto prefecture), this theory is not thought to be valid.

こうした弱点を克服する議論として主張されはじめたのが、下向井龍彦らによって主張されているように、出現期の武士が田堵負名としての経済基盤を与えられており、11世紀の後期王朝国家に国家体制が変質した時点で、荘園公領の管理者としての領主身分を獲得したとする議論である。
To overcome such weak points, Tatsuhiko SHIMOMUKAI and so on started to insist that the bushi during the early period were given an economic base as tato fumyo and when the national policy changed to the latter half of the dynasty state during the 11th century, the bushi acquired the lord status as the manager of shoen koryo.

16世紀半ばにゴア州、マラッカ、マカオ等にポルトガルが拠点を築き、同国の保護下にイエズス会のアジア布教が本格化する中で、同時期に東アジア・東南アジアの各地を行き来していた日本人と、イエズス会の布教活動に参加していたスペイン人宣教師が接触する機会が生じたのである。
In the middle of the 16th century, while Portugal created footholds in the Goa State, Malacca, Macao and other places, the Society of Jesus actively promulgated their mission in Asia under state protection, and in the same period, Japanese people coming and going among cities in the East and Southeast Asia had the opportunities to meet Spanish missionaries engaged in missionary work of the Society of Jesus.

12世紀に入ると既存の官物率法に代わって、国衙領の公田のみならず、荘園の年貢に対しても一国平均役・御家人役などの形で公租が賦課されるようになり、これらの賦課による貢納物に対しても官物という言葉が用いられるようになり、南北朝時代 (日本)の頃までこの呼称が用いられた。
In the twelfth century, in place of the previous Kanmotsu rippo, public taxes called Ikkoku heikinyaku (taxes and labor uniformly imposed on shoen manors and provincial lands) and Gokeninnyaku (odd-jobs for vassals) were collected from not only Kokuga owned public fields but also Shoen, and the tithes from these taxes were also called Kanmotsu and this term was used until the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (Japan).

たとえば、17世紀初頭に刊行された『日葡辞書』では、BuxiやMononofuはそれぞれ「武人」「軍人」という訳語が与えられているのに対して、Saburaiは「貴人、または尊敬すべき人」と訳されていることからも、侍が武士階層の中でも特別な存在であったことは窺えよう。
For example, 'the Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam' (Nipojisho, Japanese-Portuguese Dictionary), published in early seventeen century, gave the meaning of the terms Buxi and Mononofu as 'bujin' (warrior) and 'gunjin' (military man), respectively, however, Saburai was translated as 'a nobleman or person to be respected', suggesting that samurai were special people within the bushi class.

東回りでマカオの歴史にまで進出したポルトガルおよびポルトガル人とならんで、西回りで太平洋に進出マニラ・ガレオンを開拓しフィリピンの歴史を植民地としたスペイン帝国およびスペイン人は、16世紀半ば（戦国時代）に日本人が初めて接触したヨーロッパの国・ヨーロッパ人であった。
The Spanish Empire and its people that advanced to the Pacific Ocean via an east-to-west route, developed Manila Galleon and made a colonial period in the history of the Philippines, as well as Portugal and its people that advanced to the history of Macao via a west-to-east route, were the first European country and people Japanese people met in the middle of the 16th century (the Sengoku period [period of warring states]).

卑弥呼-台与の王統を継承しているとする説、壱与で王統が断絶し新たな王統が発生したとする説、初期ヤマト王権の王位は世襲ではなく有力豪族間で継承されたとする説、初期の王統は途中で断絶して4世紀前期ごろにミマキイリヒコ（崇神天皇）が新たな王統を開始したとする説などがある。
Theories about the royal lines of the Yamato Kingdom include that it originated from Himiko and Toyo; that the first royal line ended with Iyo and a new one appeared; that the royal line during the beginning of the Yamato Kingdom was not heredity but was shared between different powerful families; that the first royal line died out and Mimakiirihiko (Emperor Sujin) started a new one around the beginning of the fourth century.

19世紀、欧米列強のアジア侵略に対抗するため、清朝は、朝鮮やベトナム、琉球などの冊封国を保護国あるいは併合することによって中国皇帝を中心としたアジアの伝統的な国際関係をそのまま近代的国際関係へと移行させて清の地位と影響力を保持しようとし、冊封国に対して保護国化を強めた。
In the 19 century, in order to resist the invasion of the western powers in Asia, the Qing dynasty tried to shift the traditional international relationships in Asia to the modern ones with the Qing emperor in the center intactly to maintain the influential status by means of changing the subordinate countries under the tributary system, such as Korea, Vietnam and Ryukyu, to protected states, or merging them, thus promoted to make its subordinate countries protectorates.

天台宗は法華経を所依、つまり根本経典としているため、顕教（釈迦が一般にわかりやすく説いた教え）とされているが、9世紀の中ごろ円仁・円珍が唐に渡って密教を学んだことから日本における天台宗も密教的色彩を濃くし、密教で行う加持を盛んに行うようになり台密と呼ばれるようになった。
Tendai Sect is recognized as exoteric Buddhism (teachings by Shaka which are made easy to understand for general people) because it has Hoke-kyo Sutra (Lotus Sutra) as its basis, or Konpon kyoten (primal scripture), but in the middle of the 9th century when Ennin and Enchin went to Tang and learned Esoteric Buddhism, the Tendai Sect in Japan also began to have the color of Esoteric Buddhism, too, and began to perform incantations of Esoteric Buddhism, and was started to be called Taimitsu.

一方、中央の朝廷（律令政府）もこれを抑止するどころか、8世紀末期の平安京造営と蝦夷討伐の費用の捻出のために不動穀の一部を中央に上供させたり、不動穀の財源である田租の中から国税にあたる年料租舂米・年料別納租穀を抽出したため、結果的に貯蔵に回す稲穀の量は減少することになった。
On the other hand, the Imperial Court in the capital, which was the government based on ritsuryo system, did not suppress this use of fudokoku; the government itself needed funds to build Heiankyo (ancient capital in curent Kyoto) at the end of the eighth century and to send an expedition to subjugate Ezo (northerners), so that it ordered a part of fudokoku to be delivered to the capital; also the government extracted the national taxes of nenryo soshomai (milled rice to be provided to officials) and nenryo betsuno sokoku (rice in the husk to be provided to officials) from the rice field tax that should have been stored as fudokoku; it resulted in a decrease in the amount of rice in the husk to be stored.

幕府は17世紀末の元禄年間以降、貨幣の中に含まれる金を減らし、貨幣の発行量を多くすることによって貨幣発行益を上げて財政を持ち直そうとしたが、いずれも過度のインフレーションを招き失敗に終わっている（徳川綱吉の元禄小判、徳川吉宗の元文小判、徳川家斉の頃の南鐐二朱銀の発行など）。
Since the Genroku era at the end of the 17th century the shogunate government had tried to restore their finances by the issue of coins with low content of gold and silver and the further issue of currency so as to get profits from the issue of coinage, but every case caused hyper-inflation and resulted in failure (the issue of the genroku gold coin [genroku koban] by Tsunayoshi TOKUGAWA, Genbun gold coin [genbun koban] by Yoshimune TOKUGAWA, Nanryo silver coin (nanryo nishu gin) around the era of Ienari TOKUGAWA, and so on).

その成立時期は上記「えぞ」の初見と近い13世紀と見られており、また擦文文化とアイヌ文化の生活体系の最も大きな違いは、日本からの移入品（特に鉄製品）の量的増大にあり、アイヌ文化は交易に大きく依存していたことから、アイヌ文化を生んだ契機に日本との交渉の増大があると考えられている。
It was probably established in the thirteenth century, when the word 'Ezo' can be seen for the first time as mentioned above; however, the greatest difference between the Satsumon culture and the Ainu culture was the increase in imported items (especially ironware), meaning that it should be seen that Ainu had increased negotiations with Japan when the Ainu culture was born, because the Ainu culture was very reliant on trade with Japan.

現代の多くの言語で日本を意味するJapan/Japon/Giappone/Yaponiyaなどの言葉は、一般にジパングが語源とされるが、ポルトガルが到達した16世紀頃の東南アジアで日本のことを中国語からの借用語でJapangと呼んでいたことに由来するという説など、異説もある。
Many words for Japan in modern languages, such as Japan, Japon, Giappone, and Yaponiya, are generally derived from the word 'Zipangu,' but there are also different theories, including one theory holding that the origin of these words was that people in Southeast Asia called Japan Japang in a borrowed word from Chinese language around the 16th century, when Portuguese reached Southeast Asia.

荘園公領制が成立する12世紀には耕作者が公領・荘園のいずれを耕していようとも公領居住者は公民、荘園居住者は荘民であるとする原則、そして国司は公民には令制国の賦役はかけられるが荘民にはそれができないという原則が確立されていた（大治 (日本)4年12月3日 (旧暦)明法家勘文）。
By the twelfth century when the shoen koryo sei (The System of Public Lands and Private Estates) came into force, the rule, in which the residents of koryo were regarded as komin and the residents of shoen were regarded as shomin, regardless of whether the cultivator works in the fields that belong to koryo or shoen, was established; and further, the rule in which the Kokushi (an officer of local government) can impose the fueki (corvee) of the province on komin, but not on shomin, was founded on January 21, 1130, according to Myobo-ke kanmon (Report by Judicial Officials).

刈田・刈畠行為をめぐる紛争は当初、所務沙汰（不動産に係る民事事件）として扱われていたが、時代が下るにつれ、刈田・刈畠行為が増加していくと、13世紀後期ごろには違法行為のニュアンスを含む「狼藉」、すなわち刈田狼藉と呼ばれるようになり、通常の所務沙汰とは別個の取扱いがなされ始めた。
Initially, karita or karihata related disputes were handled as shomu-sata (civil trials dealing with land-related issues), but the number of karita and karihata acts increased with the times, and around the late thirteenth century, such karita or karihata related disputes began to be called 'rozeki' with the implication of illegal acts, that is, karita-rozeki, and the handling of such disputes was separated from ordinary shomu-sata.

14世紀には、「渡党」（北海道渡島半島。近世の松前藩の前身）、「日の本」（北海道 (地方公共団体)太平洋側と千島。近世の東蝦夷）、「唐子」（北海道日本海側と樺太。近世の西蝦夷）に分かれ、渡党は和人と言葉が通じ、本州との交易に従事したという文献（『諏訪大明神絵詞』）が残っている。
In the fourteenth century the Ezo group was divided into Watari-to (Oshima Peninsula in Hokkaido, the predecessor of the Matsumae domain in modern history), Hinomoto (the Pacific Ocean side of Hokkaido (local public entity) and Chishima (Kurile Islands), or Higashi-Ezo in modern history), Karako (the Sea of Japan side of Hokkaido and Sakhalin, or Nishi-Ezo in modern history); and a record stating that Watari-to could communicate with Japanese and conducted trade with people in Honshu is seen in one document (Suwa Daimyojin Ekotoba).

だが、荘園公領制が解体する14世紀に入ると、生産力の上昇や農民層の抵抗、更に荘園内部でも上級層の没落と下級層の上昇などが発生し、更にその中で上位の者は領主や地侍としての地位を獲得して荘園領主の支配から脱却したり、荘園内外にて独自の経営地及び独自の小作関係の形成を行うようになる。
However, during the fourteenth century, many factors, such as the improvement of productivity, the resistance of the class of peasants, and the downfall of the upper-class together with the advancement of the lower-class, contributed to the demise of the shoen-koryo sei. Further, there were those of the upper-class who attained the position as a landlord or a jizamurai (local samurai) which enabled them to break away from the rule of the manor owners and to establish their own business managing and renting their lands to local peasants.

また、同年八月の条に、犬養部の設置記事がみられるが、現存する屯倉の地名と犬養という地名との近接例も多いことから、屯倉の守衛に番犬が用いられた（番犬を飼養していたのが犬養氏）だということが明らかになっており、屯倉や犬養部の設置時期も安閑天皇の頃（6世紀前半頃）に始まったと推察される。
In an entry for September of the same year, there is an article pertaining to the establishment of inukaibe (corporations of dog keepers) but it is clear from the numerous examples in which surviving miyake place names are located next to inube place names that watchdogs were used to guard miyake (watchdogs were reared by the Inukai clan), and it is surmised that the establishment of miyake and inukaibe also began during the reign of Emperor Ankan (first half of the sixth century).

『徒然草』において、重明親王が元良親王の元日の奏賀の声が太極殿から鳥羽作道まで響いたことを書き残した故事について記されているため、両親王が活躍していた10世紀前半には存在していたとされる（ただし、吉田兼好が見たとされる重明親王による元の文章が残っていないために疑問視する意見もある）。
Since 'Tsurezure gusa' (Essays in Idleness) shows about a historical event that Imperial Prince Shigeakira wrote down that the voice of Imperial Prince Motoyoshi making a ceremonial speech on the morning of the new year was heard from Daigokuden (Council Hall in the Imperial Palace) to Toba no Tsukurimichi, it was considered that the road existed in the early 10th century when the two Imperial princes were active (however, there are opinions that questions this, as the original writings of Imperial Prince Shigeakira which Kenko YOSHIDA is supposed to have seen do not exist).

なお10世紀頃から地理学者イブン・フルダーズ＝ビフ Ibn Khurdādh-Bih などをはじめアラビア語・ペルシア語の地理書において、後のジパングにあたると思われる金山を有する島（国）、ワークワーク（الواقواق al-Wāqwāq, 倭国?）について都度都度言及されている。
Incidentally, around from the tenth century, Waqwaq (الواقواق al-Wāqwāq, 倭国 [Wakoku [Japan]]?) was often referenced in some geography books written in Arabic and Persian languages, including the one written by geographer, Ibn Khurdādh-Bih, as an island (a country) with gold mines, which later evolved into the legend of Zipangu, the land of gold.

18世紀には、主にロシア、イギリス、フランスなど帝国主義時代の欧米列強が日本へも接近し、日本人漂流民の返還のために蝦夷地へ来日したアダム・ラクスマンの来航（寛政4年（1792年））といった諸外国が通商を求める出来事や、1811年（文化8）のゴローニン事件といった摩擦・紛争が起こり始めた。
In the 18th century, the allied western powers of imperialism such as Russia, England and France approached Japan thus some issues and disputes started to occur such as the arrival of Adam Kirillovich Laksman who came to Ezo to return Japanese castaways in 1792 and the Golovnin Incident of 1811.

なお、アンドウの表記について諸史料では主として鎌倉時代から南北朝時代 (日本)にかけての津軽時代には「安藤氏」、室町時代中期以降の秋田時代には「安東氏」とされている例が多いことから、個人名表記は概ね15世紀半ばまでを「安藤」、以降を「安東」とするが、本稿では便宜上、氏族名は「安東」で統一する。
Concerning the writing of its name 'Ando,' in those historical records generally state as, the clan used the denomination of '安藤 (Ando) clan' during the Kamakura period to the period of the Northern and Southern Courts when the clan was settled in Tsugaru region, while it was settled in Akita region in the mid-Muromachi period and after, its denomination came to be written '安東 (Ando) clan,' and therefore, the individual surnames of the clan until mid-15th century will be written as '安藤 (ANDO)' and after that it will be written as '安東 (ANDO),' and for the sake of simplicity, the clans name will be consistently written as the 'Ando' clan.

葛城氏2系統論を支持する研究者の中には、一連の政変で滅びたのは玉田宿禰系のみであって、葦田宿禰系は5世紀末までしばらく勢力を存続させていたと主張する議論もみられるが、それを示唆するような政治活動が記紀に一切記されていないため、蟻臣などもやはり外戚の押磐皇子と運命をともにしたのではないかと思われる。
Some researchers, who hold the theory that the Katsuraki clan had two family groups, view that it was only Tamada no sukune's family who fell with the serial coup and Ashita no sukune's family survived until the end of the 5th century; however, there is no record that supports this view in the Nihonshoki nor the Kojiki, and it is thought that Ariomi followed the same path as his maternal relative, Prince Oshihano.

通説通り辛亥年が471年とするとヲワケが仕えた獲加多支鹵大王とは『古事記』『日本書紀』に出てくる大長谷若建（おおはつせわかたける）命・大泊瀬幼武（おおはつせわかたける）・雄略天皇であり、あるいは『宋書』倭国伝にみえる倭王武であると判断され、大王という称号が5世紀から使われたことの確実な証拠となる。
If the popular theory that the year of Shingai was 471 is true, Wakatakeru no Okimi (the Great King Wakatakeru) whom Owake served would have been Ohatsuse Wakatakeru no Mikoto, Ohatsuse Wakatakeru, Emperor Yuryaku, or Waobu whose name was mentioned in 'Sojo' (Sung Shu) Wakokuden, therefore it is a reliable evidence for the title of Okimi to be used since the fifth century.

釧路市、出雲市、北見市、備前市、長門市、美濃市、伊勢市、豊前市、日向市、和泉市、根室市、土佐市、加賀市、摂津市、播磨町が古い例で、平成年間（20世紀末）からさらに増加し、石狩市、伊豆市、伊豆の国市、甲斐市、下野市、飛騨市、越前市、伊賀市、志摩市、丹波市、淡路市、美作市、阿波市、筑後市、若狭町が加わった。
Early examples include Kushiro City, Izumo City, Kitami City, Bizen City, Nagato City, Mino City, Ise City, Buzen City, Hyuga City, Izumi City, Nemuro City, Tosa City, Kaga City, Settsu City, Harima-cho; during the Heisei era (the end of 20th century) municipalities with old provincial names further increased; the examples include Ishikari City, Izu City, Izunokuni City, Kai City, Shimotsuke City, Hida City, Echizen City, Iga City, Shima City, Tanba City, Awaji City, Mimasaku City, Awa City, Chikugo City, Wakasa-cho.

しかし近代に入ると文献学的研究が進み、仏教思想は段階的に発展したもので、そもそも上座部をも含む仏教の経典全体が数世紀という長時間をかけて徐々に成立してきたものであるだけでなく、北伝・南伝の最古の教典には「如是我聞」の記述が見られないことが日本でも「法華経無内容説」を唱えた富永仲基によって指摘されている。
However, as philological study has developed in modern times, many people have pointed out that, since Buddhist thought developed in stages, entire sutras of Buddhism, including Theravada, were established gradually over periods as long as several centuries to begin with, and that the oldest sutras of Hokuden (Mahayana) Buddhism and Nanden Buddhism (Buddhism that spread from India to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asian countries such as Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia) do not contain description of 'Nyozegamon' (I heard this); Nakamoto TOMINAGA, who dealt with the 'Hokke-kyo Sutra (the Lotus Sutra) has no meaning theory', is one such person.

11世紀以降、非農業民は有力寺社などに生産物を貢納することを理由に、これらに隷属する神人となっていたが、後三条天皇親政下において、内廷経済を充実させるべく山野河海に設定されていた御厨を直轄化するという政策がとられると、蔵人所とその下部組織である御厨所の所管となった御厨の住民が供御人と呼ばれるようになった。
Since the 11th Century, the non-agricultural people became jinin (associates of Shinto shrines) because they presented their products to the major temples and shrines, however, the residents of Kurodo dokoro and mikuriya (manors of Imperial Family and powerful shrines) which was controlled by mikuriya (the place to cook for Emperor) which was under Kurodo dokoro were called Kugonin when a policy of directly controlling mikuriya which had been set in mountains, fields, rivers, and sea to enrich the economy of the court was taken under the administration of Emperor Gosanjo.

しかし11世紀半ばに荘園の一円化が進み、諸国の荘園公領間で武力紛争が頻発するようになると、荘園及び公領である郡、郷、保の徴税、警察、裁判責任者としての荘園の荘官(荘司)や公領の郡司、郷司、保司に軍事紛争に対応できる武士が任命されることが多くなり、これらを領地とする所領経営者としての武士が成立したのである。
However during the middle of the 11th century shoens spread rapidly and the armed conflicts between shoen koryos (public lands and private estates) in various provinces often happened, and many bushi were appointed to shokan (an officer governing shoen) of shoen or gunji (district managers), goji (a local government official under the ritsuryo system) and hoji (an officer governing koryo, or public land) of koryo (public lands) as the managers of tax collection, police activity and justice for shoens or koryo such as gun, go, and ho; consequently the bushi were established as the managers of public lands who owned these lands.

そのために遅くても11世紀中期には公田を賃租・請作した場合の地子に基づいて、1段＝3斗（段別三斗）を「見米」と称して租に替わる基本的な賦課とし、それに庸・調・出挙・雑搖などに替わる地税賦課を「准米」と呼ばれる代物納（一部は絹・布・油などの手工業品を含む）の形で上乗せすることという基本が確立されることになった。
Therefore, in the middle of the eleventh century at the latest, a basic foundation was established based on Jishi (land rent) of Koden that was leased and determined 'Genmai' of 3 to per dan (Dan betsu san to) as the basic tax instead of So, and on top of that, a property tax instead of Yo, Cho, Suiko, or Zoyo called 'Junmai' that was collected in kind (some included manufactured items such as silk, cloth, oil).

しかし、18世紀の末頃から江戸幕府が蝦夷地の直接支配に乗り出し始めると次第に拡大し、東は1800年には野田追（のだおい、現八雲町）、1864年には同長万部（おしゃまんべ、現長万部町）など、後の胆振国山越郡にあたる地域に広がり、西では1865年に後の後志国小樽郡に相当する小樽内（おたるない、現小樽市）に達した。
But from the end of 18th century, the Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) began to control directly the Ezo area, Wajinchi expanded gradually, and in the eastern area, the scope of Wajinchi reached Nodaoi (present Yakumo town) in 1800, and Oshamanbe (present Oshamanbe town, later Yamakoshi County, Iburi Province) in eastern area of Ezo in 1864, and within Otaru area corresponding to later Otaru County, Goshi Province (present Otaru City) in western area in 1865.

これに対して「文章道」という言葉を用いた例も全く無い訳ではない（『菅家文章』元慶8年2月25日付の菅原道真奏状の中に書かれた道（学科）の現状についての件の中で用いられた「文章」は文章道という呼称を用いたものとされている）ものの、過渡的なものであり、10世紀に入ると公的な場においては「紀伝道」のみが用いられるようになる。
In contrast, although we can also find the word 'monjodo' in the records ('monjo' used in SUGAWARA no Michizane's sojo (documents reported to the Emperor) dated March 29, 884 discussing the situation surrounding subjects in 'Kanke bunso' (an anthology of Chinese-style poetry by SUGAWARA no Michizane) is thought to mean monjodo), it was transitional and after entering the 10th century, only 'kidendo' was used in official occasions.

そのために試験も次第に形式的なものとなり、天元 (日本)2年（979年）に方略試を受けた大江匡衡は、事前に出題博士であった菅原文時から問題の出題箇所の通告を受けた（『江談抄』）とされ、更には11世紀に入ると十上制（一定回数試験を受けても合格できなかった者に対して特別に合格を認める制度）さえ導入されるようになっていった。
Following this, the examination gradually became superficial: it is said ('Godansho' (an ancient journal)) that OE no Masahira, who took the horyakushi exam in 979, had been informed what would be on the exam from his examiner, SUGAWARA no Fumitoki, while in the 11th century, even the jujo system (a system in which those who could not pass the exam after taking it a certain number of times would be granted special acceptance) was introduced.

後に「武士」として登場する、関東の開発領主達の11世紀末までの状況がどうだったかといえば、当時はその所領支配は、郡司、郷司などの公的な職の体系を媒介として、開墾を行い、村落を形成することを課題としはじめた頃であり、領地支配、あるいはその拡大において、隣接する開発領主との抗争が日常化するほどの飽和点にはまだ至ってはいない。
The situation of kaihatsu-ryoshu in the Kanto region that later appeared as 'bushi' in the late eleventh century used soryo ruling through gunji, goji, and other public duties to start cultivating and forming villages and was not up to a saturated level to quarrel constantly with neighboring kaihatsu-ryoshu over the ruling and expansion of manors.

11-12世紀の間に、開発領主として発展していったことが豊富な資料で裏付けられる安芸国高田郡の藤原氏、但馬国温泉郷（ゆのごう）の平氏、伊賀国名張郡の丈部（はせつかべ）氏、下総国相馬御厨の千葉氏、その他の例をみても、彼らが当時の「武士の棟梁」と言われた軍事貴族と人格的な主従関係をもっていたと証明することは非常に困難とされる。
It was hard to prove that the Fujiwara clan of Takata County, Aki Province, Taira clan of Yunogo, Tanba Province, Hasetsukabe clan of Nabari County, Iga Province, and Chiba clan of Soma-mikuriya (private estate of Soma ranch), Shimosa Province that developed as the kaihatsu-ryoshu between eleventh-twelfth century, and other examples proven by many historical manuscripts, had master and servant relationships with the military aristocrats called 'toryo of bushi' at that time.

簡単にいえば、武官は「官人として武装しており、律令官制の中で訓練を受けた常勤の公務員的存在」であるのに対して、武士は「10世紀に成立した新式の武芸を家芸とし、武装を朝廷や国府から公認された「下級貴族」、「下級官人」、「有力者の家人中世の家人」からなる人々」であって、律令官制の訓練機構で律令制式の武芸を身につけた者ではなかった。
Simply speaking, military officers were 'government officials (espcially one of low to medium rank) who were armed and a full-time government [public] employee-like officials trained under the Ritsuryo-system,' while the bushi were 'the people who consisted of a 'lower ranking nobles,' 'lower ranking government officials' and 'people from powerful or medieval families' who regarded the new military art established during the 10th century as their iegei and were officially authorized to be armed by the Imperial Court or kokufu (provincial office)' and they did not acquire the military art of the Ritsuryo-system style in the training institution of the organization of the government according to the Ritsuryo codes.

ただし、寺院と神社では支配の傾向に違いがあり、寺院では荘園領主としての権限が複数の職の体系に分割されずに一元的な支配が行われるか、寺院本体とそこに属する院家の間で分割され、他者の参入を防ごうとしたが、14世紀になると武士による侵略に晒されたために、寺院周辺の荘園における直務支配を強化して確実に加地子得分の確保を目指すようになった。
The state of rule differed between the temple and shrine -- In the temples, the right of shoen ryoshu (estate proprietor) was not divided into multiple positions in a system and the estate was put under centralized control, or alternatively, the right was divided between the main temple and inge (temple next in rank of monzeki that had imperial connections), that belonged to the main temple, to prevent an invasion from outside; but in fourteenth century, as the temples were exposed to invasions of bushi, the temples enhanced its direct rule in the shoen near the precinct of the temple to secure its kajishi (additional tax).

中世イスラム世界では、9世紀にイブンホルダーズベが記した「諸道と諸国の書（英名：The Book of Routes and Kingdoms）」や中世に成立した「千夜一夜物語（アラビアンナイト）」などに、中国やインドの東方にある国として「ワークワーク（waqwaq）」という地名が記されており、これは日本のことで「倭国（Wa-qwaq)」のことであると考えられている。
In the Medieval Muslim world, 'The Book of Routes and Kingdoms' written by Ibn Khurdadhbin during the ninth century and the 'Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights)' described the place name of 'waqwaq,' located to the east of China and India, which is believed to have been 'Wakoku (Wa-qwaq)' designating Japan.

だが、実際に『延喜儀式』が朝廷の儀礼など用いられた事が確認できる記録が無く、逸文の初出も延喜年間より100年以上も経た『北山抄』であり、その後は院政期の書物に限られる事から、延喜年間に編纂されたものの『貞観儀式』（『儀式』）の部分的手直しに過ぎないとする説や、完成したが施行されなかったとする説、未完成に終わったとする説、更には延喜期の編纂ではなく11世紀までに成立した延喜期の儀礼に関する記録が儀式と看做された説などが諸説に分かれている。
Yet, from the fact that there were no records to prove that 'Engi Gishiki' was practically used in formalities at the imperial court, that its surviving fragment first appeared in 'Hokuzansho' which was written more than one hundred years after the Engi era, and that it only appeared in documents during the period under the rule of Cloistered Emperors, some said that Engi Gishiki was compiled in the Engi era, but just as a partial improvement of 'Jogan Gishiki' ('Gishiki'), some said that it was completed, but did not come into use, some said that it was not completed, and some said that it was not compiled during the Engi era, but records on the formalities in the Engi era established until the eleventh century were considered to be Gishiki.

更に『兵範記』には久寿元年（1154年）の省試が、予め関白藤原忠通・左大臣藤原頼長・崇徳天皇、そして式部省・大学寮幹部の間で入分（合格）者の枠を配分した後に試験が実施された事実を記しているのである（大幅に時代が下るが、試験が全く形骸化した15世紀に書かれた『桂林遺芳抄』によれば、宣旨分（天皇）2・院御分（上皇・法皇）1・殿下分（摂政・関白）1・省官分（式部大輔・少輔）3・両博士分（文章博士2名）2・判儒分（試験官）3の入分枠が定められていたという）。
Furthermore, 'Heihanki' (diary of TAIRA no Nobunori) tells that in the shoshi exams in 1154, certain numbers of seats had been allotted to Kanpaku (chief adviser to the Emperor) FUJIWARA no Tadamichi, Sadaijin (minister of the left) FUJIWARA no Yorinaga, the Emperor Sutoku, shikibusho and leaders of the daigakuryo beforehand, and they held the exams (a few centuries later, according to 'Keirinihosho' from the 15th century, the seats were allotted as follows: two for Senji (emperor), one for 院御 (the retired Emperor and the Cloistered Emperor), one for Denka (sessho and kanpaku), three for Shokan (Shikibu no taifu and Shikibu shoyu), two for two hakese (monjo hakese) and three for 判儒 (examiners)).

16世紀第4四半期の時点で、安東氏上国家・湊家が秋田郡、南部氏三戸南部氏（盛岡南部氏）が糠部郡、奥州探題大崎氏が大崎地方、葛西氏が登米郡、羽州探題最上氏が最上地方・村山地方、伊達氏が信夫郡・伊達郡・置賜地方・刈田郡・柴田郡・宮城郡を、蘆名氏が会津・耶麻郡・大沼郡・河沼郡・蒲原郡・安積郡・岩瀬郡、二本松氏（畠山氏）が安達郡、田村氏が田村郡、陸奥石川氏・白河結城氏が白河郡、相馬氏が行方郡 (磐城国)・宇多郡・標葉郡、岩城氏が楢葉郡・岩城郡・磐前郡・菊田郡・多賀郡において安堵を実行した発給文書が残っている。
There remain issued documents for approval of a landowner as of the forth quarter of the sixth century, Akita-gun for the Ando clan (Uekuni family and Minato family), Nukanobu region for the Nanbu clan (Sannohe Nanbu clan (or, Morioka Nanbu clan)), Osaki region of the Osaki clan which was Oshu Tandai, Tome-gun for the Kasai clan, Mogami and Murayama regions for the Mogami clan which was Ushu Tandai, Shinobu-gun, Date-gun, Okitama region, Katta-gun, Shibata-gun, and Miyagi-gun for the Date clan, Aizu Yama-gun, Onuma-gun, Kawanuma-gun, Kanbara-gun, Asaka-gun, and Iwase-gun for the Ashina clan, Adachi-gun for the Nihonmatsu clan (Hatakeyama clan), Tamura-gun for the Tamura clan, Shirakawa-gun for the Mutsu Ishikawa clan and Shirakawa Yuki clan, Namegata-gun (Iwaki Province), Uda-gun and Shineha-gun for the Soma clan, and Naraha-gun, Iwaki-gun, Iwasaki-gun, Kikuta-gun and Taga-gun for the Iwaki clan.