世: 1000 Terms and Phrases
- 本朝世紀
- Honcho Seiki
- Honcho Seiki (The Chronicle of Imperial Reigns):
- Honchō Seiki
- 中世以前
- In the medieval period or before
- 近世まで
- Before the early-modern period
- 世直し一揆
- Yonaoshi ikki
- Yonaoshi Ikki (Social reform uprisings)
- 中世の家人
- Kenin in medieval times
- 近世参詣記
- Pilgrimage Records in the Early-modern Period
- 中世期の出挙
- Suiko in medieval Japan
- 中世から近世
- From the Medieval Period to the early-modern times
- 会所 (中世)
- Kaisho (meeting place) (Medieval Era)
- 日本の中世文学史
- The history of medieval literature in Japan
- History of Medieval Japanese Literature
- 正倉院 世界遺産
- Shosoin Repository: A World Heritage site
- 中世日本の被差別民
- People Discriminated Against in the Medieval Japan
- 20世紀からの変動
- Changes that have occurred entering the 20th century
- 中世以前の主従関係
- The relationship between master and vassal until the medieval period
- 春日大社 世界遺産
- Kasuga-taisha Shrine: A World Heritage site
- 平城宮跡 世界遺産
- Heijo Palace Site: A World Heritage site
- 世界遺産登録と再興
- World Heritage Registration and restoration
- 次世代シーケンシング
- next-generation sequencing
- 中世国家における役割
- The role in the medieval state
- 世界史上から見た院政
- Insei seen from the perspective of world history
- 世界遺産を守る取組み
- Efforts to protect world heritage
- 18世紀後半の建築。
- The residence was built in the late 18th century.
- 後世の人歌いて曰く:
- People of succeeding generations would sing:
- ユネスコ世界寺子屋運動
- UNESCO World Terakoya Movement
- 春日山原生林 世界遺産
- Mt. Kasuga Primeval Forest: A World Heritage site
- 久世神社本殿〔城陽市〕
- Honden of Kuze-jinja Shrine [Joyo City]
- 15世紀半ごろまで続いた。
- These relations continued into the middle of the fifteenth century.
- 薬師寺 世界遺産、南都七大寺
- Yakushi-ji Temple: A World Heritage site, one of the seven great temples of Nara
- 元興寺 世界遺産、南都七大寺
- Gango-ji Temple: A World Heritage site, one of the seven great temples of Nara
- 興福寺 世界遺産、南都七大寺
- Kofuku-ji Temple: A World Heritage site, one of the seven great temples of Nara
- 東大寺 世界遺産、南都七大寺
- Todai-ji Temple: A World Heritage site, one of the seven great temples of Nara
- こののち経世論が本格化する。
- After this, the theory of enlightened rule and succor of the people came to be taken seriously.
- 世にいう「婆娑羅大名」である。
- They were called the 'basara daimyo' for their unconventional behaviors.
- 幕末には世直し一揆が起こった。
- At the end of the Edo period, yonaoshi ikki (peasant uprising to reform society) occurred.
- これが中世における地子である。
- This was jishi in the medieval period.
- 本来は、中世と同じ意味である。
- Chuko carries the same meaning as the 'Middle Ages.'
- 唐招提寺 世界遺産、南都七大寺
- Toshodai-ji Temple: A World Heritage site, one of the seven great temples of Nara
- この宇多治世は寛平の治という。
- the Uda administration is called Kanpyo no chi (Glorious Kanpyo rule).
- 延喜は醍醐天皇の治世の元号である。
- Engi is the era name of the reign of Emperor Daigo.
- 天暦は村上天皇の治世の元号である。
- Tenryaku was the era name of the Emperor Murakami.
- 15世紀半ばからしばらく途絶えた。
- Chosen Tsushinshi ceased to come to Japan for some time after around the middle of 15th century.
- 第二次世界大戦後憲法研究会で活動。
- He conducted Kenpo Kenkyu Kai (Constitution Research Group) after the World War Ⅱ.
- 両統迭立は第3世代の時代を迎える。
- Ryoto tetsuritsu entered into its third generation.
- 17世紀後半頃の建築と推定される。
- The residence is estimated to have been built in the late 17th century.
- 寛平は宇多天皇の治世の元号である。
- Kanpyo is the name of the era ruled by Emperor Uda.
- これらの宝物は中世後期に失われた。
- These treasures were lost in the late Middle Ages.
- 幕末の戦闘ほど世に悲しい出来事はない
- There is nothing more tragic than the battles at the end of the Tokugawa shogunate
- 世阿弥は「風姿花伝」で芸道論を著す。
- Zeami published his theories on the performing arts in his 'Fushi kaden.'
- 中世には仏教的な歴史意識が広まった。
- During the medieval period, history became widely understood based upon Buddhism.
- 中世及び近世における日本の軍事政権。
- It had been the Japanese military regime in medieval times and early modern times.
- 近世の蝦夷(えぞ)はアイヌ人を指す。
- 'Ezo' of recent years refers to the Ainu.
- 例えば『世子六十以後申楽談儀』では、
- 'Zeshi rokuju igo Sarugaku Dangi' states that:
- 父親の職は息子が世襲するものとされた。
- The son was supposed to succeed to the profession of his father.
- 古代と中世では意味合いが異なっている。
- Its significance differs in ancient times and medieval times.
- 古都奈良の文化財が世界遺産に登録される。
- The historic monuments of ancient Nara were registered as a World Heritage.
- ただし、山城国造は後世の混同と思われる。
- However, Yamashiro no Kuni no Miyatsuko written as 山城国造 seems to have caused confusion years later.
- 院宮分国制は10世紀初頭から行われていた。
- The ingu bunkoku-sei system existed from the early 10th century.
- 40.瀬田の長橋横に見て ゆけば石山観世音
- 40. I go to Ishiyama Kanzeon (Deity of Mercy) Temple, seeing Seta no Nagahashi Brigde in the side.
- 2005年7月、世界遺産条例が施行された。
- In July 2005, the World Heritage ordinance of Wakayama Prefecture was enforced.
- 幕府-守護体制は15世紀中葉まで存続した。
- The bakufu-Shugo system remained until around the middle of 15th century.
- 具体的には、伝世鏡論と同笵鏡論を展開した。
- He specifically offers two theories - Densei-kyo mirror theory and Dohan-kyo mirror theory.
- 利稲出挙は、中世後期になっても存続していた。
- However, the Rito-Suiko (Suiko managed by using rice plant) remained even in the late medieval period.
- しかし、公営田制は、10世紀までに廃絶した。
- However, Kueiden system was eliminated by the 10th century.
- 第二次世界大戦後における南北朝時代を巡る議論
- Debate on the Nanbokucho Period after World War II
- 曹丕の治世中に雍州西部を分割して秦州とした。
- During the reign of Cao Pi, the west of Yong Zhou was separated to Qin Zhou.
- 汝(なんじ)の治世が幸せな数千年であるように
- So that your reign is thousands of happy years,
- 14世紀頃は南北朝時代 (日本)と呼ばれた。
- The 14th century is called the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (in Japan).
- 18世紀に入ると幕府財政が慢性的に悪化した。
- Entering the 18th the century, the finance of the bakufu became chronically deteriorated.
- 11世紀中葉に、王朝国家体制の変革が行われた。
- In the middle era of the 11th century, the dynastic national system was reformed.
- 第二次世界大戦前は建武の中興と表現されていた。
- The days before the Second World War were referred to by some in Japan as a revival of the Kenmu era.
- 『群書治要』の「保世持家、永全福禄者也」から。
- From '保世持家、永全福禄者也' in 'Gunshi-Chiyo.'
- これらにより初期荘園は10世紀までに衰退した。
- For this reason, shoki shoen declined until the tenth century.
- 武士起源研究は中世の発見と密接に関わっている。
- The study of the origin of bushi is closely related with discovering the medieval times.
- 古代から近世に至るまでの史跡が市内に点在する。
- Historic sites from ancient times up to modern times dot the city.
- またその次の「天世斗命」を壹與と同定している。
- He also identified the next generation, 'Amanoyoto no Mikoto,' with Toyo.
- 中世荘園における勧農は、大きく2つに区分される。
- Kanno in the medieval shoen was roughly divided into two.
- 宗教的宇宙観に基づく諸民族の世界連邦を提唱した。
- He advocated the world confederation of various ethnic groups based on the religious view of the universe.
- 段銭(たんせん)とは日本の中世における税の一種。
- Tansen was a form of tax in Japan's Middle Ages.
- これは、中世的な地子が廃止されたことを意味する。
- This means that jishi in the medieval periods was abolished.
- 9世紀に入ってもそうした状況は改善されなかった。
- In the 9th century, the situation was not improved.
- 農家風の民家で、18世紀中頃の建築と推定される。
- This private residence is built in a farmhouse style, and is estimated to date back to the mid 18th century.
- 12世紀に入ると王朝国家のあり方に変化が生じた。
- Entering the 12th century, the system of the dynastic nation-state began changing..
- 11世紀後期からは、中世に移行したと考えてよい。
- Japan is considered to have moved into the Medieval Ages in the latter half of the 11th century.
- 平安後期以後は安倍氏と賀茂氏による世襲となった。
- After the late Heian period, the position became hereditary in the Abe and Kamo clans.
- (中世当時も惣村・惣という用語が使用されていた。)
- (The term soson or so was also used during the medieval period.)
- 江戸時代以降の近世においては、小作料へと変質した。
- In the early-modern times, namely during the Edo period, the nature of Kajishi changed into kosakuryo (rent paid by tenant farmers).
- 中世の公文書、私文書ともにこの形式を採用している。
- Both official and private documents adopted the style of Ate okonai jo during in the medieval period.
- 基経の威を恐れた博士らの見解は佐世と同じであった。
- In fear of Mototsune's power, hakase etc. submitted the same view as Sukeyo.
- 11世紀中期までは摂関政治がある程度機能していた。
- Up to the middle of the 11th century, the regency functioned to some extent.
- 忠平の死後、10世紀中葉に村上天皇が親政を行った。
- After Tadahira's death, Emperor Murakami conducted direct Imperial rule in the middle of the 10th century.
- 下記は日本、特に中世期の土豪を中心とした説明である。
- The following mainly pertains to dogo in Japan particularly during the middle ages.
- 分国(ぶんこく)とは、日本のに中世おける1国の単位。
- 'Bunkoku' is a unit used to delineate province-sized areas during the medieval period in Japan.
- 寺子屋の起源は、中世の寺院での教育に遡ると言われる。
- The origin of Terakoya is said to be traced to education at temples and shrines during the middle ages.
- この絵巻の成立は、平安時代後期の12世紀頃とされる。
- The set of picture scrolls is said to have been made in the late Heian period, at around 12th century.
- 下人(げにん)とは近世以前の家内隷属民に対する呼称。
- Genin denotes domestically subordinative people in pre-modern society.
- 兵の家の一部は11世紀に入ると軍事貴族へと成長した。
- In the 11th century the tsuwamono no ie evolved into military lords.
- これを理由に、部落の中世起源説を支持する人々もいる。
- Based on the report, some people support the opinion that the Buraku originated from the Medieval Period.
- 中世以後の蝦夷は、アイヌを指すとの意見が主流である。
- The mainstream theories say that 'Ezo' after the Medieval period means 'Ainu.'
- 院政の開始をもって中世の開始とする見解が有力である。
- It is usually interpreted that the initiation of the cloister government signaled the start of the Medieval Age.
- 常世邊に 雲立ち渡る 水江の 浦嶋の子が 言持ち渡る
- Clouds drift away to the land of the dead with Mizunoeno Urashima's message.
- 以後、近世には田地へ賦課される地子は見られなくなった。
- After that, jishi that was imposed on rice fields was not seen.
- このため太平の世になると槍足軽は真っ先に暇を出された。
- Therefore, during peaceful times the yari ashigaru members were the first ones to be laid off.
- 11世紀中葉に王朝国家体制が変質(後期王朝国家)した。
- In the mid-11th century the dynastic nation system transformed itself (to the late dynastic nation).
- 夷俘は周辺に火を放ち、出羽守藤原興世も逃亡してしまう。
- The Ifu set fire around the castle, and then even Dewa no Kami (Governor of Dewa Province), FUJIWARA no Okiyo was forced to flee.
- その他、京都の中世以降の石庭の多くは河原者の作である。
- Many other rock gardens in and after the Medieval Period in Kyoto are works by the Kawaramono.
- 南西諸島においては、12世紀ごろからグスク時代に入る。
- In the small islands located southeast of the main islands of Japan, the Gusuku period started around the 12th century.
- 8世紀前半は、律令制強化への動きが積極的に展開された。
- In the first half of the eight century, the move to strengthen the Ritsuryo system became active.
- (豊臣秀吉は「針売り」が出世の始めという伝説がある。)
- (There is a legend that the starting point of Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI's success was a 'needle seller.')
- 「能瀬」・「野瀬」・「能世」など複数の表記が存在する。
- Nose' is written in several patterns of kanji such as '能瀬,' '野瀬,' '能世.'
- 常世邊に 雲立ち渡る 多由女 雲は繼がめど 我そ悲しき
- Clouds are drifting into the land of the dead but I can't see her, how sad.
- 世界に、このように素晴らしい都市が他にあるとは思えない。
- It cannot be considered that there would be any other city so splendid as Osaka in this world.
- 摂津国にあった佃 (大阪市)は中世の佃を起源としている。
- Tsukuda in Settsu Province (Osaka City) originated from tsukuda of medieval times.
- 近世の参詣記にもこうした木地師がいた事が伝えられている。
- Some pilgrimage records during the early-modern period also say that such kijishi existed.
- また、村全体の世界遺産登録に向けた計画が具体化している。
- In addition, the plan to register the village on the World Heritage list is taking shape.
- また大台ヶ原は世界的に見ても多雨地帯として知られている。
- In addition, Odaigahara is known as a rainy region from a global standpoint.
- 7世紀前半には聖徳太子らによって『天皇記』が編纂された。
- In the first half of the 7th century, 'Tennoki' (a record of emperors) was compiled by Prince Shotoku as well.
- 北海道においては、13世紀ころからアイヌ文化が成立した。
- In Hokkaido, Ainu Culture was established around the 13th century.
- 秀吉もまた中世的支配体系・支配勢力の排除・抑制に努めた。
- Hideyoshi as well endeavored to remove or suppress the medieval control system and controlling powers.
- 6世紀以前は、各々の豪族が土地と民衆を直接支配していた。
- Before the sixth century, each gozoku (local ruling family) directly governed the land and the people.
- この中で武田遺臣の真田氏など近世大名化した例も見られる。
- Among them, there are cases where a former vassal of the Takeda clan became a modern daimyo like the Sanada clan.
- 雙栗神社本殿(さぐりじんじゃほんでん)〔久世郡久御山町〕
- Honden of Saguri-jinja Shrine [Kumiyama-cho, Kuse County]
- 平安中期には惟宗氏・阿倍氏・賀茂氏などが世業としていた。
- During the mid-Heian period, the task was handed down to the clans such as Koremune, Abe and Kamo.
- 忠次の次男伊奈忠治の系統は旗本となり関東郡代を世襲した。
- The lineage of Tadaharu INA, the second son of Tadatsugu, became a hatamoto (a direct retainer of the shogun) family, inheriting the post of Kanto gundai for generations.
- 中世には木綿の本格的栽培はまだ日本では始まっていなかった。
- In Medieval Japan, full-fledged cultivation of cotton had not yet begun.
- この状況は第2次世界大戦後のインド独立まで続くことになる。
- This situation continued until the independence of India after the World War II.
- しかし次第に沈静化していき、11世紀40年代には終息した。
- However it became increasingly nominal, ending in the 1040's.
- 10世紀後期から現れ始め、藤原道長執政期を中心に頻発した。
- It started to appear in the second half of the 10th century and often occurred particularly when FUJIWARA no Michinaga was an administrator.
- 花山の悲しみは尋常ではなく、出家遁世を考えるほどであった。
- The sadness of Kazan was abnormal and he even thought about becoming a priest and retiring from the world.
- 近江ミッション(近江兄弟社の前身)の社員用の二世帯用住宅。
- A duplex belonging to Omi Mission (predecessor of Omi Brotherhood) used by company employees and their families.
- 今井まちや館 - 本町筋の中央部にある18世紀初期の町家。
- Imai Machiyakan: It is a machiya (a traditional townhouse) building built in the early 18th century around the middle of Honmachi-suji Street.
- 『自家伝抄』は、16世紀初頭に成立したと見られる能の伝書。
- 'Jika Densho' is a noh text that is thought to have been written at the beginning of the 16th century.
- 完新世にあたる1万年前 - 現在までは同3 - 4gである。
- The amount in the period from 10 thousand years ago to today, corresponding to the Holocene epoch, was 3 to 4 g.
- これも中世の日本の一揆とは似て非なるものと言わざるを得ない。
- However, it should be noted that those uprisings may appear similar but are in fact quite different from the ikki that occurred in Japan during the middle ages.
- また、中世後期の一揆の盟約による政治的共同体が武装していた。
- In the later middle ages, the political community formed by a league of ikki would be armed.
- 中世武家社会において荘園などを分譲する際の文章で用いられる。
- This style of document was used in samurai society during the medieval period as a proof of transfer for belongings, such as a shoen (manor).
- 21世紀に入ってからは新たな視点からの議論が展開しつつある。
- After the 21st century began, an argument from a new point of view has been developed.
- 1930年代から日本中世史での学術用語として使用され始めた。
- It was used as an academic term for studies on medieval Japanese History from the 1930's.
- 13世紀中期ごろになると、農村社会に大きな変動が生じ始めた。
- Toward the middle of the 13th century, a far-reaching change started to occur within rural society in Japan.
- 10世紀初頭の朱雀期になって初めて個別人身支配が放棄された。
- The principle of people-based governance was finally abandoned in the Suzaku era, early 10th century.
- 水ヶ峯は近世には宿場を営む集落で、杉の防風林が残されている。
- In the early-modern period, Mizugamine was a village managing lodgings and there still remain the windbreak of Japanese cedars.
- 近世は、太閤検地前後に始まり、明治維新前後に終わるとされる。
- It is said that the early-modern times started in around the era when the taiko kenchi was conducted and ended around the start of Meiji Restoration
- 織田信長軍の中には荒木村重の出世を快く思っていない者もいた。
- There were certain persons in Nobunaga ODA's troops who did not like Murashige ARAKI's advancement.
- 子等に戀ひ 朝戸を開き 我が居れば 常世の濱の 波の音聞こゆ
- In the morning, when I open the door, missing you, I hear the sound of the waves from the land of the dead.
- 中世に穢れ観念が日本に流入した事により大衆から賤視されていた。
- After the concept of kegare (being dirty) was brought to Japan in the medieval period, these people became treated with contempt.
- しかし中世当時は必ずしも明確に区分されていたわけではなかった。
- However, they were not exactly classified in medieval age.
- この功績により、次世代における藤原北家台頭の足がかりができた。
- This achievement became a foothold for the rise of the Northern House of the Fujiwara clan in the following generation.
- 6月、師直は直義の要請で執事を解任される(後任は甥の高師世)。
- In June, Moronao was fired as steward by the request of Tadanao (his successor was his nephew, KO no Moroyo).
- 第二次世界大戦中に造られた複雑な防空壕があることでも知られる。
- It is famous for a complex air-raid shelter constructed during the World War II.
- そのため、白河による院政開始をもって中世の起点とする事もある。
- Therefore, in some cases the commencement of Insei by Shirakawa is considered to be the start of the medieval age.
- 琵琶湖に面しており、中世においては水運の拠点として栄えていた。
- katata faces Lake Biwa and was prosperous as a center of water transportation system in the Middle Ages.
- 近世期の合理的・実証的歴史認識の一つの到達点が富永仲基である。
- The peak of the rational and fact-based recognition of history in the early-modern times was reached by Nakamoto TOMINAGA..
- 大正期から続いた不景気に世界恐慌が直撃し、社会不安が増大した。
- The recession having continued from the Taisho period was hit by the world depression directly, significantly destabilizing society.
- 第二次世界大戦後の民法改正による家制度廃止まで戸籍に記載された。
- It was indicated in the family registries until the Civil Code was amended and the family system was abolished after World War II.
- 色平哲郎(1989年卒・医) 卒業後は地域医療の世界に飛び込む。
- Tetsuro IROHIRA (class of 1989, medicine): He entered the world of community medicine after graduation.
- この事件により基経は藤原氏の権力の強さを世に知らしめたのである。
- Taking advantage of this incident, Mototsune made people realize the strong power of the Fujiwara clan.
- 中世には朝鮮半島や大陸との交易で栄え、日本海交易が発達していた。
- During the Medieval Period, these Sanshin-shichiso flourished through trading with the Korean Peninsula and the Chinese continent when the Japan Sea Trade was active.
- 職業としての「酒屋」への移行に関しては「中世以前」を参照のこと。
- For how the 'sakaya' business started, refer to the section of 'In the medieval period or before.'
- このように、小辺路における信仰のあり方は近世的なものなのである。
- For that, the beliefs in Kohechi can be said to have had the specific characteristics of the Edo period.
- また、近世以前の古道跡が不明になっている箇所もしばしば見られた。
- And many sections of the older road which had been used before the early-modern period had collapsed and were not found.
- これら院の近臣は上皇との個別の主従関係により出世し権勢を強めた。
- Such aides of the In succeeded in their careers through their individual relationships as aides serving under the Joko, and thereby increased their power.
- 世界各国の大半の城郭都市は、城壁に囲まれた中に城と街が存在する。
- Most walled cities in the world have a castle and town area surrounded by castle walls.
- また、江戸時代における会所については会所 (近世)を参照のこと。
- For Kaisho during the Edo period, please refer to Kaisho (early modern times).
- こうして、東北地方では12世紀には蝦夷としての独立性は失われた。
- In this way, the Emishi lost their independence in the Tohoku region by the twelfth century.
- が、その後も中世を通して存続し嫡宗家は代々「開田氏」とも称した。
- The clan nevertheless had survived through the Medieval Period, and the official family lineage to succeed the clan also called themselves 'the Kaida clan' for generations.
- しかし、18世紀に入ると減産、枯渇の傾向がみられるようになった。
- New Regulations on Ships and Trade (a trade restriction policy)
- 以降、問注所執事は鎌倉・室町期を通じて三善氏が世襲することとなる。
- From then on, the members of the Miyoshi clan served as the head of the Monchujo for generations during the Kamakura and Muromachi periods.
- 12世紀に入る頃から、国衙は本格的に荘園拡大対策に取り組み始めた。
- From the beginning of the twelfth century, kokuga began to put in serious efforts to tackle the expansion of shoen.
- 王朝国家体制期には後の中世社会の基礎となる要素が多数生まれている。
- Lots of elements which later became the base of medieval society are included in the Dynastic polity.
- 11世紀以降の土地・民衆支配は、荘園と公領の2本の柱によっていた。
- The governance of the land and people after the eleventh century consisted of the two: the shoen and koryo.
- 伏見学校は、足利学校第9世の三要元佶を招請して創建したものである。
- The ninth head of the Ashikaga School, Genkitsu SANYO, was invited to establish the Fushimi School.
- 古くは興福寺の荘園で、中世の環濠集落を母体として発展した町である。
- Being a private estate of the Kofuku-ji Temple in olden times, the town developed from a medieval village surrounded by a moat.
- (ただし中世の蝦夷はアイヌのみならず後に和人とされる渡党も含む。)
- (However, these theories include some opinions stating that the Ezo in the Medieval period were not simply Ainu but latter-day Japanese.)
- 世阿弥自身の直談に拠ったものであり、最も信頼しうる根本資料である。
- This was based on talks held with Zeami himself and is one of the most trustworthy fundamental resources.
- 世阿弥晩年の著で、永享4年(1432年)7月以前の成立と見られる。
- Written by Zeami in his final years and likely published before July and August of 1432.
- やがて、18世紀には農村工業として問屋制家内工業が各地に勃興した。
- Before long, in the 18 century domestic industries by wholesale and subcontract systems began to appear in rural area all over the country.
- また平壌の江西(こうせい)大墓は7世紀の壁画古墳として有名である。
- In addition, Kosei Taibo in Pyongyang is famous for wall paintings of the seventh century.
- 出挙(すいこ)は、古代~中世の日本に見られた利子付き貸借を指す用語。
- Suiko (government loans made to peasants) was a term that indicated the loans carrying interest observed in ancient and medieval Japan.
- これに見るとおり、一円知行は中世後期から加速度的に進行したのである。
- As described above, ichien chigyo was exponentially developed from the end of the Middle Ages.
- 8世紀に施行された律令に初めて「出挙」の語が現れた(養老律令雑令)。
- The word 'Suiko' first appeared in the Ritsuryo codes enforced in the eighth century (Yoro-ritsuryo-zoryo [a chapter in the code promulgated in the Yoro period dealing with miscellaneous materials]).
- 室町時代・戦国時代 (日本)を中心とした中世後期の日本社会を考える。
- Consider the Japanese society of the later middle ages around the Muromachi and Sengoku periods (the Warring States period).
- しかし10世紀中期頃、国衙行政は在庁官人の手で運営されるようになる。
- However, in the middle of the 10th century, zaichokanjin (the local officials in Heian and Kamakura periods) started to manage kokuga (provincial government offices).
- また、古都奈良の文化財の一部として日本の世界遺産にも指定されている。
- In addition, Kasugayama Primeval Forest, as a part of ancient Nara, is designated as a world heritage in Japan.
- 長谷朝倉宮御宇天皇(雄略天皇)の御世、浦島子は小舟に乗り釣りに出た。
- During the reign of the Emperor Hatsuse no Asakura no Miya (the Emperor Yuryaku), Urashima no ko went fishing in a small boat.
- 江戸においては二世浜村蔵六が名人蔵六と呼ばれ、新味を打ち出していた。
- In Edo, Zoroku HAMAMURA II was called Master Zoroku and developed his own new style.
- このため、18世紀以降、倭館交易は衰退するが、断絶することはなかった。
- As a result, wakan trade had dwindled after the 18th century, although it was not terminated.
- 平安時代の京童などを継承する概念で近世、江戸時代の町人へと継承される。
- Representing a concept that inherited Kyowarabe (Kyoto's young people) and the like in the Heian period, Machi-shu was to be evolved into Chonin (townspeople) in the early-modern and Edo periods.
- 新興コンツェルン以外で、昭和初期~第二次世界大戦中に発展した中堅財閥。
- There were some medium-size zaibatsu, other than the emerging zaibatsu, that grew from the early Showa era through the middle of World War II.
- 本朝世紀(ほんちょうせいき)は、平安時代末期に編纂された歴史書である。
- Honcho Seiki refers to the history book compiled during the late Heian period.
- 院宮分国と知行国は、ともに院政期(11世紀後葉以降)に急激に増加した。
- Ingu bunkoku provinces and chigyo-koku provinces increased rapidly in the insei period (during the period of the government by the Retired Emperor) (in the latter half the 11th century and later).
- 11世紀中葉の後期王朝国家の成立以来、国衙軍制は機能停止してしまった。
- After the latter dynastic nation was established in the middle of the 11th century, the kokuga forces system stopped functioning.
- その中心には「宝戒寺二世普川国師入定窟」と伝わる巨大なやぐらがあった。
- And at their center existed a giant cave that was said to be 'the cave in which Fusen, the second chief priest of Hokai-ji Temple, practiced his calm contemplation.'
- 中世日本において武士同士の主従関係は、御恩と奉公により成り立っていた。
- The relationship between lord and vassal in medieval Japan was based on favor and service.
- そして、鎌倉幕府が成立した12世紀末を後期王朝国家の終期においている。
- They also set the end of Dynastic polity period at the end of 12th century when the Kamakura bakufu was established.
- 仏教主義的な作品が減り、代わりに人間中心、現世的な作風が見受けられる。
- Fewer works based on Buddhist themes were produced, with newer works focusing more on human beings and prepared in a more modern style.
- 近世以来、南北朝のいずれが正統かをめぐって南北朝正閏論が行われてきた。
- Starting in more recent years, debate has been raging over which lineage, that of the Southern or Northern Court, is legitimate (called the Nanbokucho seijunron in Japanese).
- Since the start of the modern era, the Nanbokucho-Seijun-ron debate over which of the Imperial Courts, Southern or Northern, was legitimate has continued.
- 長官は鎌倉公方で尊氏の子・足利基氏の子孫が世襲し、関東管領が補佐した。
- The position as chief of this organization was succeeded by the descendant of Motouji ASHIKAGA, a son of Takauji, who served the position of Kanto control (関東管領).
- 近世には八木尾から本宮大社まで、舟で向かう例も見られた(『めぐり』)。
- In the early-modern period, some pilgrims used boats from Yagio to Hongu-taisha Shrine (refer to 'Meguri').
- 11世紀ごろから、中央政府の有力者へ田地を寄進する動きが見られ始める。
- From around the eleventh century, the rice-field donation to the powerful men in the central government started.
- 武士の起源研究は「日本の歴史における中世の発見」と密接に関わっている。
- The study on the origin of bushi is closely related to 'Discovering the medieval times in Japanese history.'
- 押小路烏丸殿(おしこうじからすまどの)は、中世京都にあった邸宅の1つ。
- Oshikoji Karasumadono residence was one of residential palaces in Medieval Kyoto.
- 宇佐山城(うさやまじょう)は滋賀県大津市錦織に残る、中世の山城である。
- Usayama-jo Castle was a yamajiro (a castle built atop a mountain to take advantage of the mountain's topography) constructed in the Medieval Period, and its ruins can be found near Nishikoori, Otsu City, Shiga Prefecture.
- 現在知られている中で最も古い作者付は、世阿弥の著作中にある記事である。
- The oldest known sakushazuke is the description included within a book by Zeami.
- 18世紀の初めころの京都市と大坂はともに40万近い人口をかかえていた。
- Early in the 18th century, the cities of Kyoto and Osaka both had populations close to 400 thousand each.
- 露田は時期が来たら収公されたが、世業田は子孫代々所有することが許された。
- The bare fields were confiscated when the specified time arrived, but it was permitted to inherit segyoden from generation to generation.
- また男子はこれとは別に20畝の桑田を与えられ、これは世襲できるとされた。
- A mulberry field of approx. 0.93 hectares was supplied to each male additionally, and it was specified that this field was inheritable.
- 1488年、加賀国守護 富樫政親を滅ぼすことでその勢力を世に知らしめる。
- In 1488, after the Ikko ikki destroyed the shugo (military governor) of Kaga Province, Masachika TOGASHI, society learned of their great power.
- 近世書写されたものがあるが、これは九条家旧蔵本の系統に属するものである。
- There are manuscripts copied in the early-modern times as well, and they are based on the book formerly kept in the Kujo family.
- 中世以前の武士の主従関係において武門の棟梁に従属する武士を家人と称した。
- Until the medieval period, samurai within a master and vassal relationship who were subordinate to a Bumon no toryo (leader of samurai families) were called Kenin.
- 6世紀中葉には、飛鳥周辺に仏教が伝わって来て、文化の高い所となってきた。
- In the middle of the sixth century, Buddhism was introduced in Asuka which made Asuka become a culturally sophisticated place.
- 更に15世紀後半以後には京都のある山城国国内の御料所化にも着手している。
- Furthermore, since the latter half of the fifteenth century, action was taken to make the Yamashiro Province (within Kyoto) a Goryo-sho.
- 中世の熊野を支配し、熊野詣の先達をつとめたのは天台宗系の本山派であった。
- It was Honzan school of the Tendai sect line which controlled Kumano in the medieval period and served as the leader of pilgrimages to Kumano Sanzan.
- 13世紀前半の承久の乱の結果、公家政権は武家政権に寄生する存在となった。
- As a result of the Jokyu War during the first half of thirteenth century, the Kuge government became a parasite on the back of the military government.
- 極楽世界の荘厳もかくの如きか」と、その飾りつけとともに褒めちぎっている。
- It was as if it was the Shogon of the world of paradise,' and praised it and the decoration to the sky.
- 公儀(こうぎ/くうぎ)とは、中世・近世において公権力を指して用いた言葉。
- Kogi (also referred to as Kugi) is the term used for 'official authority' in the middle and early modern ages.
- また、花賞翫の風習から花合、花競べなど、後世華道に通ずるものも行われた。
- Events that reminded one of later flower arrangement such as hanaawase (a flower card game or waka poetry contest about a flower), and hanakurabe (waka poetry contest about a flower) from the custom of hana shogan (flower appreciation) were performed.
- また、嵯峨治世期には、各種法令の集大成である弘仁格式が編纂・施行された。
- During the reign of Emperor Saga, Konin kyakushiki code (amendments to penal and administrative law compiled in 820), which was the integration of various laws, was compiled and put into practice.
- 世阿弥が『三道』で挙げた能作の模範となる曲について、作者別に並べている。
- The songs that served as a base as the noh plays listed by Zeami in his 'Three Elements in Composing a Noh Play' are arranged for each playwright.
- 近世の倭館交易では日本側は銀、硫黄、金、その他南方物産を朝鮮側に輸出した。
- In the Modern Period wakan trade, Japan exported silver, sulfur, gold, and other products of the south seas to Korea.
- 更にこれが10世紀には諸国の掾への任官を対象とした「道年挙」も開始された。
- Furthermore, in the 10th century, a similar system called 'Donenkyo,' in which the target appointment position was Jo (a provincial governor) was introduced.
- 君手摩を神の名とする初出史料は尚象賢(羽地朝秀)が編纂した中山世鑑である。
- The first historical record referring to Kimitezuri as the name of a god is Chuzanseikan (literally, Mirror of the Ages of Chuzan) compiled by Joken SHO (Choshu HANEJI).
- このように、実際に一揆の盟約によって秩序が達成されていた中世後期があった。
- As such, in the later middle ages the social order was actually secured based on the league of ikki.
- 郎党(ろうとう、ろうどう)は、中世日本の武士社会における主家の一族や従者。
- Roto (郎党; retainer) or rodo was a family member or a follower of his master's house in the samurai society of medieval Japan.
- 充行状(おておこないじょう/あてがいじょう)とは、中世に見られる文章形式。
- Ate okonai jo (also Ote okonai jo or ategai jo) was a style of document used during the medieval period.
- 「輩行」とは「一族のうち同世代の者」という意味で、通常は兄弟のことを言う。
- 'Haiko' carries the meaning of 'people of the same generation within a family,' typically in the case of brothers.
- 大名の家臣団にとって、中世以前と大きく異なるのが、有能な家臣の登用である。
- Unlike their counterparts in the medieval period, Sengoku daimyo actively appointed capable vassals to important positions.
- 近世(江戸時代)において、名主(なぬし)は地方三役の呼び名の一つとなった。
- In the early modern age, and specifically the Edo period, village headmen were called nanushi, which was one of the three official positions of a provincial community.
- 10世紀後期から両者間の対立が国司苛政上訴という形で顕在化するようになる。
- From the late 10th century, such contradictions became obvious in the form of Kokushi kasei joso (appeals or armed struggles against kokushi).
- 両王子は後世の系図では小倉宮の末裔とされているが、同時代史料に証拠はない。
- Both princes are listed in later genealogies as being descendants of Oguranomiya, but there is no evidence for this in historical records of the day.
- 室町、徳川幕府では征夷大将軍の位は君主家たる将軍家の男児に代々世襲された。
- The position of seii taishogun was passed on to male heirs of the families positioned to accede to the shogunate of the monarchy in the Muromachi bakufu and the Tokugawa shogunate.
- 世界遺産に登録されたものが熊野古道の全てではないことに留意する必要がある。
- It must be noted that not all the Kumonoko Roads are registered as a world heritage site.
- このため、10世紀前期に始まった王朝国家体制はより中世的な形態へ移行した。
- The dynasty state, which started in the early 10th century, changed into a more-medieval form.
- 11世紀中期を画期として以前を前期王朝国家、以後を後期王朝国家と区分する。
- The dynasty state before the mid-11th century is noted as the early dynasty state and the period after the mid-11th century as the later dynasty state.
- 作者名が空白となっている曲については、世阿弥自身の作曲であると考えられる。
- Songs, for which the playwrights are not given, are thought to have been written by Zeami himself.
- 地球温暖化による降水量減少が原因で、先進国を中心とした世界全体に責任がある。
- It has been caused by a decrease in rainfall due to global warming, and the responsibility resides in advanced nations.
- 15世紀末、こうした事態に耐えかねた朝鮮王朝は恒居倭に対し強硬姿勢に転ずる。
- At the end of the fifteenth century, since the Korean Dynasty became tired of the situation, they changed their policy and started to take a harder stance towards kokyowa.
- このことは第二次世界大戦後の京大法学部の再建に大きな影を落としたといわれる。
- This is said to have cast a dark shadow upon the rebuilding of the Faculty of Law in Kyoto University after World War II.
- しかしながら、12世紀後半から寺社知行国や武家知行国が行われるようになった。
- However, from the latter half of the 12th century, the chigyo-koku provinces controlled by shrines or temples and those by samurai appeared.
- 中世から見られるが、特に戦国時代 (日本)から江戸時代前期にかけて頻発した。
- Tsujigiri started in the Middle Ages, but it became quite frequent from the Sengoku period (period of Warring States) to the Edo period.
- 第二次世界大戦で馬による兵站輸送を行わなかったのはアメリカ軍ぐらいしかない。
- During the war, only US forces did not conduct coummuncations using horses as a form of transportation.
- 幕藩体制の確立に基づく近世大名への再編成の過程で消滅していったとされている。
- It is believed that Utsuro disappeared during the process of a reorganization in Bakuhan taisei (the feudal system characteristic of the shogunate) with the appearance of Kinsei daimyo (daimyo of the early modern era).
- が、特に平安時代前期(9世紀)に大宰府管内で導入された公営の田地制度を指す。
- Kueiden especially meant the public land system introduced in Dazaifu in the former Heian period (the 9th century).
- こうした歴史像に基づく記述が、21世紀初頭まで一部の辞書などに残存していた。
- Such a historical image remained in some dictionaries until the beginning of the 21st century.
- 東海道の53の宿場(或いは起点終点を含めた55)を描いた歌川広重作の浮世絵。
- The ukiyoe works painted by Hiroshige UTAGAWA depicted 53 posting stations (or 55, including the starting/ending stations).
- 8世紀初頭から末にかけては奈良時代と呼ばれ、奈良に都城(平城京)が置かれた。
- The early eighth century is called the Nara period, because the capital (Heijo-kyo capital) was placed in Nara.
- 同朋衆は、将軍に近侍した時宗をなのる僧で、遁世者の系譜をうけつぐものである。
- The Doboshu was the monk that practiced Jishu (one Buddhist sect), and those who passed down the genealogy of those who escaped from the society to practice Buddhism.
- 両乱で大きな勲功のあった平清盛は異例の出世を遂げ、後白河天皇の院政を支えた。
- TAIRA no Kiyomori, who distinguished himself during these two wars, developed his career and supported Goshirakawa's cloister government.
- 惣掟(そうおきて)は、中世日本において、百姓らが自主的に定めた惣村内部の法令。
- So-okite was a statute defined independently by peasants within a soson (a community consisting of peasants' self-governing association) in medieval Japan.
- この倭館があった場所は倭館洞としてソウルの地名となり、20世紀始めまで続いた。
- The name of the place where this wakan was located later became Waegwan-dong (倭館洞) in Seoul, which remained until the early 20th century.
- 一方、主君より世襲の俸禄(家禄)を受け、名字帯刀などの身分的特権を持っていた。
- On the other hand, samurai received horoku (salary), i.e. karoku (hereditary stipend), from his lord, and had privileges such as Myojitaito (the right to bear a surname and to wear a sword).
- 本項では中世日本の被差別民(ちゅうせいにほんのひさべつみん)について叙述する。
- In this section, people who were discriminated against in the medieval Japan are described.
- 日本の街道を練り歩く使節団の姿は、太平の世にあっては物珍しいイベントであった。
- The procession of an envoy parading along a road was a curious sight in the peaceful era.
- また、丹波康頼の『医心方』にも引用されるなど後世の医学・博物学に影響を与えた。
- In addition, the dictionary influenced medical science and natural history in later ages; for example, it was quoted in 'Ishinho' (an ancient medical book) written by TANBA no Yasuyori.
- 近世には北前船の寄港地として栄えたが、明治維新後、日本海側諸港の殆どが廃れた。
- In the early-modern times, they flourished as ports of call of Kitamae-bune, cargo vessels, but most ports on the Sea of Japan side began to decline after the Meiji restoration.
- 11世紀に入ると、田堵負名は官物・雑役が課税される名田経営を嫌うようになった。
- In the eleventh century, tato fumyo became reluctant to administrate the myoden because it imposed the kanmotsu and the zoyaku as taxes on them.
- 軍忠状(ぐんちゅうじょう)とは、中世日本において、参陣や軍功などを証する書類。
- Gunchujo were documents that proved participation in battles and other military exploits in medieval Japan.
- 日本における近代的な歴史思想の導入は、19世紀後半の明治維新以降のことである。
- Modern historical concepts were introduced in Japan during the Meiji Restoration or later, or during the latter half of the nineteenth century.
- また、中央政治においては11世紀に藤原北家が政権中枢を担う摂関政治が成立した。
- In central politics, Sekkan-seiji (politics based on Sekkan - regent or a top adviser to Emperor), in which the Northern House of the Fujiwara clan played a dominant role, was established.
- 社会の安定と経済の成長は、都市の発展を支え、17世紀後半の元禄文化に結実した。
- The stabilization of society and economical growth supported the development of urban areas, producing Genroku Culture in the latter half of 17th century.
- 明治時代の歴史学者三浦周行らによって日本にも中世があったことが「発見」された。
- Historian Hiroyuki MIURA and so on in the Meiji period 'discovered' that medieval times also existed in Japan.
- 寄合(よりあい)とは、日本の中世以降、郷村制における村の協議機関のことをいう。
- Yoriai is a consultation organization in villages under the goson-sei system (municipal system of small towns and villages) that began in the Middle Ages in Japan.
- 地下請の伝統は、惣村が消滅し、近世村落が成立した江戸時代以降も承継されていった。
- The tradition of jigeuke was passed down in and after the Edo period, when the soson disappeared and early-modern villages took shape.
- 8世紀に成立した大宝律令・養老律令では、神祇令・田令などに神田の規定が置かれた。
- Under the Taiho Ritsuryo Code and Yoro Ritsuryo Code (code promulgated in the Yoro period) established in the eighth century, Shinden was stated in Jingiryo (the part of the code that dealt with all matters relating to Shinto) and Denryo (the law about providing rice fields).
- 723年(養老7)墾田開発のため、三世一身法(さんぜいっしんのほう)を施行する。
- 723: Sanze-isshin Law (a law allowing farmers who cleared new lands to own them for a period of three generations) enacted for the agricultural development of reclaimed land.
- 古代・中世の日本では無官の者を救済する施策として正式な制度として導入されていた。
- In ancient and medieval Japan, the baikan system was introduced as an official system to rescue courtiers without posts.
- 上記に見た王朝国家体制のあり方に、11世紀中期頃から変質が見られるようになった。
- The status of Dynastic polity explained above started to change from the mid-11th century.
- 日本における南北朝時代(なんぼくちょうじだい)とは、中世の時代区分の1つである。
- The Nanbokucho era (the period of the Northern and Southern Courts) in Japan refers to one subsection of medieval Japanese history.
- こうして次第に平安京の本来の範囲より東に偏った中世・近世の京都の街が形作られた。
- This was how the Heian-kyo gradually shifted from the original ambit to the east, to the medieval/modern ages town of Kyoto.
- 中世については、中世通じての社会経済体制であった荘園公領制が時代の指標とされる。
- Concerning the medieval period, it is said that the shoen koryo sei, which existed as the social and economical system throughout the medieval period, provides an index for specifying the period.
- 6世紀中頃ヤマトの出雲征討に伴いヤマト王権の支配下に入っていったと想定している。
- He assumes that the kingdom came under control of Yamato sovereignty along with the conquest of Izumo by Yamato in the mid sixth century.
- 7世紀中ごろの大化の改新も権力集中化の動きの一つであり、一定の進展を見せている。
- The Taika Reforms in around the middle of the seventh century was such a move to strengthen powers, achieving a certain level of advancement.
- 5世紀に入るとヤマト王権は本拠を河内平野へ移し、中国王朝との通交を活発に行った。
- Entering the fifth century, the Yamato sovereignty moved its core site to the Kawachi plain and had active relationships with the Chinese dynasty.
- 近世に『一宮記』が参照された際は、『大日本国一宮記』が用いられることが多かった。
- In the early-modern period, 'Dainihonkoku Ichinomiya-Ki' was usually quoted as the most popular catalog among many 'Ichinomiya-Ki'.
- 作者としてあげられているのは、世阿弥・観阿弥・井阿弥・横越元久・榎並左衛門五郎。
- Zeami, Kanami, Iami, Motohisa YOKOGOSHI and Goro ENAMIZAEMON are listed as authors.
- 近江商人の家訓として「買い手良し、世間良し、売り手良し」の「三方良し」が知られる。
- One of the family precepts of Omi shonin is known to be that of 'Sanpo yoshi' (benefit for all three sides), which teaches that in their business the merchant should take into consideration the benefits for the customer, society, and the vendor at the same time.
- 中世においても、出挙は、単なる利子付き貸借にとどまらず、租税という面も持っていた。
- In the medieval Japan as well, Suiko had characteristics not only of loaning but also of land tax.
- 9世紀には広範囲の国で、公出挙と私出挙を組み合わせた租税徴収方法が模索されていた。
- In the ninth century, many provinces had examined the land tax collecting system by combining the Ku-Suiko with the Shi-Suiko.
- 室町幕府3代将軍の足利義満は、九州へ今川貞世(了俊)を派遣して南朝勢力を駆逐した。
- Yoshimitsu ASHIKAGA, the third Shogun of the Muromachi bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun), sent Sadayo IMAGAWA (Ryoshun) to Kyushu, having him expel the members supporting the Southern Court.
- 検地(けんち)とは中世から近世にかけて行われた田畑の面積と収量の調査のことである。
- The term 'Kenchi' refers to the surveys of field size and size of yield (harvest) conducted during medieval and early modern Japan.
- 以後、中世を通じての社会経済体制である荘園公領制は急速に崩壊していくこととなった。
- Later, shoen koryo sei (The System of Public Lands and Private Estate), the socioeconomic system throughout the medieval period, rapidly disintegrated.
- 長講堂領(ちょうこうどう-りょう)は、中世荘園公領制下における王家領荘園群の一つ。
- Chokodo-ryo was an Imperial family shoen (manor) under the shoen koryo sei (a system of Public lands and Private estates) during the medieval period.
- 同じように格式のある「御簾中」は将軍の世子と御三家の正室を呼ぶときのみに限定した。
- Similarly, the prestigious term 'Gorenju' was limited to the wives of heirs to the Shogun and the Gosanke (three privileged branch families).
- 10世紀前半、東国では寛平・延喜東国の乱、西国では承平南海賊という戦乱が発生した。
- In the early 10th century, Kanbyo Engi Togoku War took place in the east, and Joheinankaizoku (rebellion by pirates in Seto inland sea) in the west.
- 中世を通して、所領支配を指して知行・領知・領掌・進止などと呼ぶ慣習は続いていった。
- The custom of calling territorial control as chigyo, ryochi, ryosho, or shinshi continued throughout the medieval period.
- 河原者(かわらもの)は、河原人とも呼ばれ、中世日本の代表的な被差別民の一つである。
- Kawaramono is also referred to as Kawarabito, and they were a type of people which were discriminated against in medieval Japan.
- 本堂は近世初頭に再建されたもので、平成14年5月23日国の重要文化財に指定された。
- The main hall of the temple was rebuilt in the early modern period and designated as a national Important Cultural Property on May 23, 2002.
- 逮捕当初動機として「世間を騒がせたかった」や「社会への復讐のため」などと供述した。
- At first, he said in a deposition that his motive was to create disorder in society or that he had sought revenge against society.
- しばらく倭国は政治的に安定していたが、2世紀後半に倭国大乱と呼ばれる内乱が生じた。
- For a while, Wa stayed stable politically, but a civil war called the Wakoku War broke out in the latter half of the second century.
- 奈良時代から平安時代初期にかけては、大津氏・弓削氏・滋岳氏などが、世業としていた。
- From the Nara period to the early Heian period, the position was hereditary in the Otsu, Yuge and Shigeoka clans.
- 開発領主は、権利の所在を明記した文書(公験)を大事に保管し、子孫代々伝世していった。
- Kaihatsu-ryoshu carefully stored the documents that clearly stipulated the basis of their rights (kugen [a type of certification authorizing a certain privilege to a person]), handing them down for generations.
- 14世紀末の応安の半済令では、土地自体を半分割して接収する権利が、守護に与えられた。
- Hanzei-rei (literally, Hanzei law) issued in the Oan era in the end of 14th century provided shugo with the authority to confiscate half of the land.
- 近世の「百姓一揆」も peasant uprising と英訳されて紹介されている。
- Moreover, the 'hyakusho ikki' in the early-modern period has been translated and introduced into English as peasant uprising.
- 8世紀には、地中海貿易が壊滅したことで、農村の自給自足体制が急速に確立されていった。
- As the Mediterranean trade collapsed during the eighth century, the self-sufficient system in villages came to be rapidly established.
- 平安時代前期、『伊勢物語』の成立後で、村上天皇の御世、950年ごろと推定されている。
- Accomplishment of this literary work is estimated at around 950 during the reign of the Emperor Murakami, in the early Heian period, following the accomplishment of 'Ise Monogatari.'
- その後、中世・近世を通じて、領主が百姓をはじめとする民衆に課する租税として存続した。
- Throughout the medieval period and the early-modern times, the feudal lords imposed the nengu on the populace including the peasants.
- 近世において武士が町人・百姓らから耐え難い無礼を受けた時は、斬殺しても処罰されない。
- In modern ages, when a warrior put townspeople or farmers to a sword because he was unbearably insulted by them, he was not punished.
- 一国に1人置かれる国追捕使または国押領使は、次第に特定の家系が世襲するようになった。
- The position of the koku (province)-tsuibushi or koku-oryoshi assigned to each province gradually became hereditary, being monopolized by a specific family line.
- 近世にはいると刀狩りによる名主層の否定など、農地に対する重層支配が否定されていった。
- In the early-modern times, the stratified ruling over agricultural land was negated, as exemplified by the rejection of Nanushi (village headman) hierarchy by Sword hunt (to confiscate the weapons of the enemies of the new regime in order to secure the position of a new ruler).
- これは官職やレーエンが世襲化された結果で、大公家門、辺境伯家門、伯家門が形成された。
- This was the result of government positions and fiefdom being assumed on the basis of heredity; families of grand dukes, Markgraf and counts were formed.
- 実仁は、異母兄白河天皇の即位にあたり皇太子に立てられたが即位の機会を得ずに早世した。
- Sanehito became Crown Prince upon the accession of his half brother Emperor Shirakawa, but died early without a chance to ascend to the throne.
- 13世紀には、1274年の文永の役と1281年の弘安の役の二度にわたる元寇があった。
- In the thirteenth century, the Mongols invaded twice, these invasions being called the Bunei engagement of 1274 and the Koan engagement of 1281, so called from the names of the eras in which they occurred.
- これに反発した南朝の後胤や遺臣らは、朝廷や幕府に対する反抗を15世紀半ばまで続けた。
- This led to a rebellion amongst descendants and former court nobles of the Southern Court, and their resistance against the court and bakufu lasted until the mid-15th century.
- 太閤検地の実施を通して荘園公領制・職の体系を消滅させ、これにより中世は終焉を迎えた。
- Through Taiko-kenchi (the land survey by Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI), he abolished shoen koryo sei (The System of Public Lands and Private Estates) and related posts, ending the medieval period.
- 八条院領(はちじょういん-りょう)は、中世の荘園公領制下における王家領荘園群の一つ。
- The Hachijoin-ryo was one of the groups of shoen (manor in medieval Japan) possessed by members of the imperial family under shoen koryo sei (The System of Public Lands and Private Estates) in the medieval period.
- 6世紀後半にはヤマト王権の国内支配が安定し、むしろ王権内部の皇位継承抗争が目立った。
- In the latter half of the sixth century, domestic control by Yamato sovereignty was stable, and feuds over succession to the Imperial Throne were rather conspicuous.
- しかし現在も佐波賀には下志万の姓を持つ世帯があり、下志万水軍の子孫と考えられている。
- However, even today, there are some families that have the family name of Shimojima and they are said to be the descendants of the Shimojima navy.
- 中井敬所は四世浜村蔵六や益田遇所に師事し、高い学識を身につけてこの派の代表といえる。
- Keisho NAKAI, who gained a high level of knowledge from Zoroku HAMAMURA IV and Gusho MASUDA, was the one most representative of this school.
- 上記の本所から転じて中世後期(室町時代)には座の支配権者も本所と呼ばれるようになった。
- Deriving from the above meaning of honjo, a person who assumed control over za (trade association) also came to be called honjo during the later medieval period (the Muromachi period).
- 撰銭を巡る問題は、16世紀の日本に強力な中央政権が存在しなかったことにも起因していた。
- Problems centered on the erizeni act were also generated partially because no strong centralized government existed in Japan during the sixteenth century.
- 8世紀に成立した大宝律令・養老律令では、僧尼令・田令などに寺田に関する規定が置かれた。
- In Taiho Code and Yoro Code established in the eighth century, regulations concerning jiden fields that were specified in Soni ryo (regulations for monks and nuns) and Denryo (regulations for farmland).
- 7世紀後半に律令制が整備され、田地は口分田などの班田収授法の体系に組み込まれていった。
- In the latter half of the seventh century when the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based upon the ritsuryo code) was established, farmland became integrated into the system of Handen Shuju ho (the law of periodic reallocations of farmland), such as kubunden (farmland given to each farmer in the Ritsuryo system).
- 中世日本の経済で大きなウェイトを占めていた農業生産の元手(資本)となるのは農地である。
- Agricultural lands were the sinews (capital) of the agricultural production which carried considerable weight in the economy of medieval Japan.
- 10世紀前期ごろから、人民百姓を戸籍・計帳により把握する律令制的な人別支配が崩壊した。
- Around the former half of the 10th century, the rule over people under the Ritsuryo system was destructed in which people and farmers were controlled with family register and keicho (the yearly tax registers).
- そのため、11世紀中期頃から中央政府は財政収入の確保を図って現実的な政策を採り始めた。
- Therefore, since around the middle of eleventh century, the central government began to adopt realistic policies in order to secure its financial revenue.
- 日本では、8世紀初頭以来、律令に基づいた土地支配・租税収取が政府によって行われてきた。
- In Japan, land had been controlled by the government under the ritsuryo legal codes in order to collect land taxes since the early eighth century.
- 8世紀初年に本格的に始まった日本の律令制は、戸籍・計帳を元にして百姓・人民を把握した。
- The Ritsuryo system, which officially started at the beginning of the 8th century, controlled farmers and citizens based on family registers and the yearly tax registers.
- そうした地方行政の実情を国家体制の基本方針に採用したのが、10世紀初頭だったのである。
- It was early 10th century when the government adopted the actual situation of local administration as the basic policy of the nation.
- 氏族の血統が重んじられた古代・中世において、氏族の秩序は氏長者を中心に維持されてきた。
- In ancient times and during the medieval period when the blood line of a clan was highly regarded, the order within the clan was maintained mainly by the ujinochoja (head of a clan).
- なお、剣豪・塚原卜伝の教えを受けていた義輝の凄まじい奮戦ぶりが、後世に伝えられている。
- The desperate and fierce fight by Yoshiteru, a disciple of master swordsman Bokuden TSUKAHARA, has been spoken of for many generations.
- 3世紀中ごろに機内に出現した前方後円墳とそれに伴う墓制が急速に列島各地に広まっていた。
- Large keyhole-shaped tomb mounds appeared around the middle of third century and the use of this grave style spread rapidly throughout the islands of Japan.
- 11世紀前期には、女真族が北部九州に来襲する事変が発生した(1019年、刀伊の入寇)。
- In the first stage of the 11th century, the Joshin (a people lived in eastern China and northern Korea) attacked Northern Kyushu (Toi invasion in 1019).
- 日本の中世日本における妖怪画は、恐怖と災厄の象徴としての妖怪を描いたものがほとんどだ。
- Most of the ghost pictures drawn during Medieval Japan were intended to be symbols representing terror and disasters.
- 事態の長期化につれて子供を争いを材料にしているとして双方に対する世論の批判も高まった。
- With the prolonged situation, both sides were subjected to criticism that they took advantage of children during the conflict.
- 中世では城郭として活用された古墳もあって、一部改変された古墳(黒塚古墳)などがもある。
- In the Medieval period, some kofun were used as castles and some parts of a kofun were changed (e.g. Kurozuka Kofun).
- 平安時代後期以降、和気氏と丹波氏による世襲となり、典薬頭は専ら丹波氏の小森家が独占した。
- Starting in the late Heian period, appointment to the bureau became a hereditary privilege of the Wake and Tanba clans, and the Komori family of the Tanba clan achieved a complete monopoly over the position of Tenyaku no kami.
- 鐚銭(びたせん)とは、日本の中世後期に流通した銭貨の中で、品質が著しく劣悪なものをいう。
- Bitasen was a coin of very poor quality among those circulated during late Medieval Japan.
- 「悪貨は良貨を駆逐する」という表現で知られる16世紀イギリスの財政家Greshamの説。
- Proposed by Gresham, a financier in England in the sixteenth century, this theory is known from the expression; 'low-quality coins expel high-quality coins.'
- 延喜の治(えんぎのち)は、平安時代中期(10世紀前期)の醍醐天皇の治世を理想視した呼称。
- Engi no chi is an idealized name of the reign of Emperor Daigo during the mid-Heian period (during the first half of the 10th century).
- また、世界的には財政が窮乏した際の増収策の一貫として官位などが売りに出される例もあった。
- In other parts of the world, government posts were sold in order to increase revenue when governments faced a financial predicament.
- 佃(つくだ)は、中世日本の荘園公領制において、荘園領主や荘官・地頭らによる直営田をいう。
- Tsukuda was a rice field directly managed by lord of the manors, shokan (an officer governing manor) or jito (manager and lord of manor) in shoen koryo sei (System of Public Lands and Private Estates) in medieval Japan.
- 12世紀末に、「鎌倉殿」源頼朝が武士の頂点に立ち、全国に守護を置いて、鎌倉幕府を開いた。
- Towards the end of the twelfth century, MINAMOTO no Yoritomo--often called 'Lord Kamakura'--having reached the pinnacle of the warrior's world, began to select and send out the shugo (governors) to all the provinces and created the Kamakura bakufu.
- また、世界遺産登録後、観光客の殺到によって一部の遺産では荒廃が進んでいるとの指摘もある。
- Some people pointed out that some heritages have been further devastated due to rush of tourists since it was registered as world heritage.
- 和漢朗詠集においても、古い写本は「我が君」となっているが、後世の版本は「君が代」が多い。
- Even with respect to Wakanroeishu, it is written as 'wagakimi' in old manuscripts, but, in printed books of the later age, it is written as 'kimigayo' in many books.
- 当時の欧米史学では、中世は欧米特有なもので、近代へ発展するために必須な時代とされていた。
- In the history study of Europe and America in those days, the medieval times were peculiar to Europe and America and indispensable in developing into the modern age.
- 時代的にいえば、武士と言える存在は平安時代中期の10世紀(国風文化の成立期)に登場する。
- In terms of the eras, those who are said to have been bushi appeared during the formative period of the Kokufu Bunka (Japan's original national culture) in the middle of the Heian period of the tenth century.
- 実際の運営は諸官庁の長官を世襲していた公家に任され、更に代官を任じてこれを請け負わせた。
- The actual operation was entrusted to nobles that worked as administrators of inherited government offices, and further undertaken by locally assigned magistrates.
- この場合には、平安中期(10世紀以降)から平氏政権期まで、もしくは下限を院政期以前とする。
- In this case, the term refers to the period between the mid-Heian period (during and after the 10th century) and the Taira clan's administrative period, or before the Insei period (period of cloistered imperial rule).
- 逃散(ちょうさん)とは、日本の中世から近世にかけて行われた農民抵抗の手段、闘争形態である。
- Chosan was means of resistance and forms of struggle waged by farmers in Japan from the middle ages to the early modern period.
- 名田の制度は、11世紀ごろから、当時一円化して領域性を高めた荘園にも採用・吸収されていく。
- In the 11th century, the myoden system was also imported and adopted to manors whose territory had been enhanced because of consolidation around that time.
- 9世紀中葉ごろから、郡司・富豪層が運搬する進納物資を略奪する群盗海賊の横行が目立ち始めた。
- Starting around the middle of the ninth century, robbers and pirates who plundered goods conveyed by the gunji or rich and powerful persons became rampant.
- これを文章博士藤原佐世が「阿衡は位貴くも、職掌なし」と基経に告げたことにより大問題となる。
- As Monjo hakase (professor of literature) FUJIWARA no Sukeyo told Mototsune that 'Ako was a high-ranking position with no jobs,' this phrase developed into a big problem.
- シンボル緑地から向かって正面の防波堤(4連、幅450m)に設けられている世界最大級の噴水。
- One of the world's largest fountains provided on the breakwater (quadruple, 450-meter wide) in front of Symbol green space
- 日本は日英同盟に基づき第一次世界大戦に参戦して勝利し、列強の一つに数えられるようになった。
- Japan entered the First World War based on the Anglo-Japanese Alliance and won the war, becoming counted as one of the great world powers.
- 織田信長が新都市に楽市・楽座をおこない、最終的に豊臣秀吉によって中世の座は解体させられた。
- Nobunaga ODA launched rakuichi-rakuza (free markets and open guilds) in new cities, and Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI ultimately dismantled the za system of the medieval period.
- なお、海保嶺夫(1943年 -)は中世津軽地方の豪族安東氏を俘囚長と同様の存在としている。
- Incidentally, Mineo KAIHO (1943 -) insists that the Ando clan, the Gozoku (local ruling family) in the Tsugaru region in the Medieval period, were ranked at a position equal to a chief of the Fushu.
- 主室が、主に九間の正方形をしていたのは、この世の浄土を目指した阿弥陀堂に起源を持つという。
- The reason why the master guest rooms were mainly square shaped rooms measuring nine ken (one ken is a Japanese unit of measurement equal to just less than two meters) along each side was that their shape was based on that of an Amidado (temple hall containing an enshrined image of Amitabha), which was built in an effort to create heaven on earth.
- 寛平の治(かんぴょうのち)は、平安時代中期(9世紀後期)の宇多天皇の治世を理想視した呼称。
- Kanpyo no chi is the name of the rule by Emperor Uda in the mid-Heian Period (late 9th century) which was largely regarded as ideal.
- 併せて、天皇支配を具現化するために律令制の導入を進め、8世紀初頭の大宝律令制定に結実した。
- In addition, the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based upon the ritsuryo code) was introduced to realize control by the Emperor, producing Taiho Ritsuryo (the Taiho Code) in the early eighth century.
- 11世紀後期からは太上天皇が治天の君(事実上の君主)となって政務に当たる院政が開始された。
- In the latter half of the 11th century, the Cloister Government started, whereby Daijo Tenno (retired Emperor) became the Chiten no kimi (the retired emperor in power) and influenced political affairs.
- 永仁6年(1298年)以前の13世紀後半に二条富小路殿と押小路烏丸殿の相博が行われている。
- During the late 13th century before 1298, soboku (the exchange of territory) between Nijo Tomikojidono residence and Oshikoji Karasumadono was carried out.
- また江戸時代中期の観世元章は、これら先行する作者付を元に『二百十番謡目録』を執筆している。
- During the mid-Edo period, Motoakira KANZE authored 'Nihyakujuban Utai Mokuroku' (Catalog of 210 noh plays) based on these previous sakushazuke.
- 平安時代中期に賀茂保憲が安倍晴明に天文道を伝えて以後、天文博士の職も阿倍氏の世襲になった。
- In the middle of the Heian period, since KAMO no Yasunori taught tenmondo to ABE no Seimei, tenmon hakase also became a hereditary post of the Abe clan.
- 18世紀は北半球が寒冷化した小氷期の時代でもあったため、これが飢饉に拍車をかけたのである。
- The 18th century was also the onset of a little ice age causing temperatures in the northern hemisphere to drop, which worsened the famine.
- 一時は大老井伊直弼の強行弾圧路線(安政の大獄)もあり不満「世論」も沈静化するかに思われた。
- For a short time the oppressive policy of the chief minister (tairo) Naosuke II (the Ansei Purge) seemed to quieten down the public's dissatisfaction.
- 日本では中世頃からこの慣行があり、江戸時代になって法制化され、仇討ち(あだうち)と呼ばれた。
- This practice existed in Japan from around the medieval period; it was legislated in the Edo period and was called Adauchi (revenge).
- 天暦の治(てんりゃくのち)とは、平安時代中期(10世紀中期)の村上天皇の治世を理想した呼称。
- Tenryaku no Chi describes the idealized political reign of the Emperor Murakami in mid-Heian period (in the mid-10th century).
- 12世紀終わりに鎌倉幕府政権が樹立すると、関東の9か国が鎌倉殿の知行国 関東御分国となった。
- When the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) was established towards the end of the 12th century, nine provinces in the Kanto region became chigyo-koku provinces of Kamakura-dono (lord of Kamakura), or provincial territories belonged to the Kamakura bakufu.
- 記録上でも平安時代末期の12世紀初期を最後に姿を消し、このころに廃絶されたと考えられている。
- As the last record concerning Kokugaku was written in the end of the Heian period (early 12th century), it is believed that Kokugaku were abolished around that time.
- だが、平安時代後期以後、紀伝道博士(文章博士)を世襲した大江氏・菅原氏が侍読の役を独占した。
- After the late Heian period, the Oe clan and the Sugawara clan monopolized the position of Jidoku with the hereditary title of Kidendo hakase (chief experts on the history of Japan and China) (Monjo hakase (professor of literature)).
- 知行(ちぎょう)とは、日本の中世・近世において、領主が行使した所領支配権を意味する歴史概念。
- Chigyo is a history-related concept indicating a territory-controlling right executed by territorial lords during the medieval period and early-modern times in Japan.
- 長州奇兵隊を結成した高杉晋作は「太平の世で堕落した武士より戦力になる」と考えていたとされる。
- Shinsaku TAKASUGI who organized the Choshu militia (Choshu Kiheitai) is said to have thought that his soldiers were superior to the samurai who had been corrupted in time of peace.
- これにより「日本は神国」との意識が生まれ、後世の歴史意識に深く刻み込まれていくこととなった。
- It was these victories that first gave rise to the belief that 'Japan is a divine country,' a conviction that was to leave a deep, indelible mark on the historical consciousness of later generations.
- 日本軍はアメリカ軍の物量と通商破壊戦に圧倒され、原子爆弾を投下されて第二次世界大戦に敗れた。
- Japanese troops were overwhelmed by the strength of US's material superiority and trade-disrupting strategy, and with atomic bombs dropped, Japan was defeated in Word War II.
- 江戸時代は文化の担い手が庶民にまで拡がり、歌舞伎、俳諧、浮世絵、お陰参りなどが盛んになった。
- During the Edo period, the general public as well came to participate in cultural activities actively, and Kabuki, Haikai (seventeen-syllable verses), Ukiyoe (Japanese woodblock prints) and Okage mairi (a pilgrimage to the Ise Shrine) became popular.
- 9世紀、移配俘囚は国内の治安維持のための主要な軍事力として位置づけられていた(→国衙軍制)。
- In the ninth century the emigrant Fushu were positioned as a major military force for the maintenance of security in the nation (known as the kokuga forces system).
- 十六世紀初頭(戦国時代中頃)、光村の孫・及川重胤は江刺氏と戦って敗れ、光村の家系は衰退した。
- During the early sixteenth century (the mid-Sengoku (Warring States) period), Mitsumura's grandson Shigetane OIKAWA fought with the Esashi clan but was defeated, and consequently the Mitsumura family line went to ruin.
- 十五世紀中頃(室町時代)、及川定嗣の子孫は葛西家に対して謀叛を起こしたが、光村がこれを鎮圧。
- In the mid-fifteenth century (the Muromachi period), the offspring of Sadatsugu OIKAWA raised a rebellion against the KASAI clan, but Mitsumura suppressed it.
- 当時の江戸と大坂を結ぶ東海道が、18世紀には世界で一番人通りの激しい道だったといわれている。
- It is said that during the 18th century, the Tokai-do Road connecting Edo and Osaka was the busiest in the world.
- 17世紀後半以降にはその老中職なども大老職など例外を除いてほぼ複数制(月番制)となっている。
- For example, since the latter half of the 17th century, several personnel had been took office of senior councillor (roju) (on monthly duty) except chief minister (tairo).
- 惣村(そうそん)は、中世日本における百姓の自治的・地縁的結合による共同組織(村落形態)を指す。
- A soson meant a community (in the form of a village) organized through autonomous, territorial connections among peasants in medieval Japan.
- 第二次世界大戦後君が代の位置づけには議論があったが、法定により日本国国歌として公式に確定した。
- There was debate regarding the relevance of Kimigayo after the World War II but it was officially designated Japan's national anthem by law.
- 唐末期(8世紀末)には、大土地所有が拡大していき、呼応するように徐々に均田制が崩壊していった。
- Towards the end of the Tang era (towards end of the eighth century), persons owning large land areas increased, gradually destroying the equal field system.
- また、10世紀後期には国衙職員と郡司が雑色人(ぞうしきにん)と一体的に呼ばれるようになっいる。
- In addition, officials in kokuga (provincial government offices) and Gunji began to be collectively called Zoshikinin (lower-level functionaries in the provincial government) in the latter half the 10th century.
- 御恩と奉公(ごおんとほうこう)とは、中世日本において、主に武士の主従関係を構成した要素・概念。
- Goon and hoko indicate factors and concepts that constituted master-servant relationships among samurai during medieval Japan.
- 一説によれば、当時の日本の銃の保有量はオスマン帝国と並んで世界最大規模だったと推定されている。
- According to a theory, it is estimated that the number of guns in Japan at that time was largest in the world together with Ottoman Empire.
- 『今昔物語集』は12世紀初頭の成立といわれるが、呼ばれ方は「兵(つわもの)」「豪の者」である。
- The 'Konjaku Monogatari Shu' (The Tale of Times Now Past) is said to have been written in the early twelfth century, but it was called 'Tsuwamono' (written as 兵) or 'rich person.'
- 並行して室町幕府は地方政権化しそれにより15世紀中期からの国内統治は幕府・守護体制とよばれる。
- In parallel with this, the Muromachi bakufu adopted the local government system, and the administration of the nation after the mid 15th century was called the Bakufu-Shugo System.
- 中世以後堅田荘には「堅田三方」(後に1つ増加して「堅田四方」となる)3つの惣組織が形成された。
- After the Middle Ages on, in Katata Sho (manor), three So-soshiki (autonomous organizations of a village) called 'Katata Sanpo' (later, 'Katata Shiho' because of another organization's joinig), were formed.
- 三世一身法・墾田永年私財法などの農地拡大政策もこうした律令制強化の一環だったと考えられている。
- It is considered that the policies to increase arable land, such as Sanze-isshin Law (a law allowing farmers who created new arable lands to own them for a period of three generations) and Konden einen shizai Law (a law allowing farmers who created new arable lands to own them permanently), were for supporting the strengthening the Ritsuryo system.
- 6世紀末、400年ぶりに中国を統一した隋の登場は、東アジア諸国の政治権力の集中化をもたらした。
- Towards the end of the sixth century, the Sui Dynasty unified China in 400 years, centralizing political powers in east Asian nations.
- 地下請(じげうけ)とは、中世日本の村落が、荘園・国衙領への年貢徴収を領主から請け負っていた制度。
- Jigeuke was a system in which village communities of medieval Japan undertook the task of feudal lords to collect nengu (land tax) to be paid to shoen (manor in medieval Japan) or Kokugaryo (territories governed by provincial government office).
- 荘園制(manorialism)という用語は、中世西ヨーロッパを説明する上で最もよく使用される。
- The term shoen-sei (manorialism) is most often used when explaining the medieval west Europe.
- 軍事貴族(ぐんじきぞく)とは、日本の古代後期から中世最初期にかけて出現した軍事専門の貴族をいう。
- The military aristocracy consisted of aristocrats specialized in military affairs who emerged in history in the late ancient period through the early medieval period.
- 検断沙汰(けんだんさた)とは、中世日本で使用された用語であり、刑事関係の訴訟・裁判のことである。
- 'Kendan-sata' is a term used in medieval Japan, referring to lawsuits and trials relating to criminal cases.
- だが、平安時代に入ると律令制度の崩壊とともに国学も衰退し、11世紀に入る頃までにはほぼ消滅した。
- In association with the collapse of the Ritsuryo system in the Heian period, Kokugaku also declined and ceased to exist by the beginning of the 11th century.
- 9世紀後半から見られた里倉負名(りそうふみょう)体制は出挙を富豪の輩に請け負わせる手法であった。
- The riso-fumyo system (a percentage/unit of the yearly land tax yield taken in by the manager of an estate), which appeared after the latter half of the ninth century, awarded the wealthy class a contract for suiko (government loans, often seed rice, made to peasants in Japan from the seventh through twelfth centuries).
- 火縄銃は、世界的に見ても異常な速度で瞬く間に日本全土に普及し、戦国時代の戦闘の形態を一新させた。
- Use of matchlock guns spread at a high speed that was unusual compared even with world standards, and they became used throughout Japan in quite a short time, completely changing fighting styles during the Sengoku Period (Period of Warring States).
- そこで10世紀前期頃から中央政府は、軍事警察権を国司に委任するという現実的な政策を採用し始めた。
- In order to cope with such situations, the central government started to adopt from the early 10th century a realistic policy, meaning the delegation of military and police authorities to kokushi.
- 2004年(平成16年)7月、小辺路は世界遺産「紀伊山地の霊場と参詣道」の一部として登録された。
- In July, 2004, Kohechi was inscribed as a part of a World Heritage site 'holy places and pilgrimage routes in the Kii Mountains.'
- 遺産本体部分やその緩衝地帯、さらには(世界遺産には含まれないが)その周辺地域での損壊が絶えない。
- There are constant damages on the body of heritage, a buffer area, and even the area in the vicinity of the heritage (not included in the world heritage).
- つまり、わずか半世紀の間に涼州と雍州の領域がほぼ入れ替わるという珍妙な現象が起こったこととなる。
- That is, it resulted in a strange phenomenon that the area called Liang Zhou and the one called Yong Zhou had nearly been exchanged each other in only half a century.
- 平安京は後世においては音読みの「へいあんきょう」と読むが、当初は「たいらのみやこ」と訓読みした。
- Heian-kyo was pronounced as 'Heian-kyo' in On-yomi (Chinese readings) by later generations, but it was originally pronounced as 'Taira no Miyako' in Kun-yomi (Japanese readings).
- 明治36年(1903年)にドイツで行われた「世界国歌コンクール」で、『君が代』は一等を受賞した。
- In the 'World National Anthem Contest' held in Germany in 1903, 'Kimigayo' was awarded the first prize.
- この動きは13世紀後半の元寇によって加速し、幕府の対応策は徳政令発布や得宗専制という形で現れた。
- This move was accelerated due to the Mongol invasion attempts against Japan, and the measures taken by the bakufu against this move appeared in the forms of Tokuseirei (ordering the return of land sold and the dissolution of debts) and the tyranny of the patrimonial head of the main branch of the Hojo clan.
- 9世紀に蝦夷に対する朝廷(関西)からの征服活動は、現在の岩手県と秋田県のそれぞれ中部で停止した。
- The conquest of the Emishi carried out by the Imperial Court (Kansai) in the ninth century was discontinued in what is now the area of the mid-Iwate and Akita prefectures.
- しかし、後世の史料であるが「庄内陣記」には義弘・忠恒が共謀し義久が同意を与えたという記述がある。
- However, although it was written later, 'Shonai Jinki' (Shonai war chronicle) has an entry stating that Yoshihiro and Tadatsune had conspired together while Yoshihisa gave his consent to the plan.
- また、中世は身分の流動性が非常に高く、五色の賤や近世部落のような固定化された世襲階級ではなかった。
- Furthermore, during the medieval period, social status was highly mobile, and these people were not confined within fixed hereditary classes, such as the five lowly castes of the ritsuryo system and buraku (communities of discriminated people) in the early-modern times.
- 荘園が一円化して公領(国衙領)と対等な権利地位を獲得した11世紀以降の在地秩序を荘園公領制と呼ぶ。
- The consolidation of manors allowed equal privileges and status with an Imperial demesne (or kokugaryo, a territory governed by a provincial government office) in the 11th century, and the land regularity in and after that century was called the shoen-koryo system.
- 12世紀中期の保元の乱・平治の乱は、朝廷内部の政争が軍事衝突によって解決された画期的な事件である。
- The Hogen War and the Heiji War in the middle of the 12th century were noteworthy incidents since political conflicts inside the Imperial Court were resolved by means of military confrontations.
- 郡は、六世紀の中葉頃の欽明朝に屯倉の設置が拡大されていき、ヤマト政権の地方政治組織となっていった。
- Districts grew from the established miyake during the reign of Emperor Kinmei in the mid-sixth century to become part of the local administration organization of the Yamato Dynasty.
- ところが後になって当時流布していた諸本に対して後世の偽書ではないかとする意見が現れるようになった。
- In later years, however, a hypothesis appeared arguing that the books circulated at that time may have been forgeries.
- しかし、15世紀末から社会体制の流動化が顕著になると、より強固な支配体制を領国に布く必要が生じた。
- With the social system becoming remarkably unstable in the end of the 15th century, it became necessary to apply stricter control system to territories.
- 鎌倉時代の歴史書『愚管抄』は、この乱が「武者ノ世」の始まりであり、歴史の転換点だったと論じている。
- 'Gukansho,' a history book in the Kamakura period, describes this disturbance as the beginning of the 'warrior's world' and a turning point in history.
- 「難太平記」は今川貞世が著した史書で、太平記の誤りを訂正しつつ、今川氏の事績を中心に書かれている。
- The 'Nantaiheiki' (Defects of the Taiheiki) is a historical work written by Sadayo IMAGAWA in which he attempts to correct the errors in the Taiheiki, though its primary focus is on the achievements of the Imagawa clan.
- 峰山町丹波は8世紀始めには丹波国丹波郡丹波里といわれたところで、丹波国の中心地であったと見られる。
- Tanba, Mineyama-cho was called Tanba-sato, Tanba County, Tanba Province in the beginning of the eighth century, and is thought to have been the center of Tanba Province.
- 全体に絵具の剥落・退色が目立つが、現存遺品の少ない平安時代前期、9世紀の仏教絵画の大作として貴重。
- In whole, peeling off and fading of pigment is noticeable, but they are very precious as big pieces of Buddhist painting in the early Heian period, ninth century, for which the number of existing relics is small.
- 南北朝時代_(日本)にも継承されたが、院政の機能が室町幕府に吸収された14世紀末期には形骸化した。
- Although it was still held in the period of the Northern and Southern Courts, hyojohajime of Insei became only a name at the end of the 14th century when the Muromachi bakufu took over the government function of Insei.
- 摂関政治による諸課題への取り組みに成果が見られ始めたのが、11世紀前期~中期にかけての時期である。
- In the early to middle of the 11th century, the regency's approaches of the various problems began to pay off.
- 館に留まること三年経ち、浦島子は郷里の事を思い出し、神仙之堺に居るよりも俗世に還ることを希望する。
- He stayed in the palace for three years, but eventually Urashima no ko missed his hometown and hoped to return to the mundane world instead of being in the heavenly, immortal world.
- 特に11世紀には内裏や大寺社の火災が多く、これらの再建を目的とした臨時課税が困難になる状況を来した。
- Especially in the 11th century, a number of fire disasters occurred in dairi (the Imperial Palace), main temples and shrines, and it was difficult to levy extraordinary taxes for their reconstruction.
- 11世紀中期には官物の税率が公田官物率法により「段別三斗」に固定化され土地税としての性質が強まった。
- The Koden kanmotsu rippo (the law fixing the tax rate of Kanmotsu) fixed the tax rate of the Kanmotsu at 'Danbetsu santo' (54 lit. of rice per 10a) in the mid 11th century, by which Kanmotsu increasingly assumed the characteristics of land tax.
- 14世紀ごろから、百姓名は私的所有の対象とする観念が強まっていき、名主間で自由売買されるようになる。
- From the 14th century onwards, the concept that a hyakusho-myo could be private land increased, and the hyakusho-myo lands started to be traded at will among the myoshu people.
- 守護による国衙支配は、特に東国で顕著であり、15世紀初頭までに守護による国衙掌握がほぼ完了していた。
- Shugo's control over kokuga was so remarkable in Togoku (the eastern part of Japan, particularly the Kanto region) that shugo had almost finished gaining control over the kokuga by the beginning of the 15th century.
- 11世紀頃になると、内裏や大寺社の再建を目的とした臨時課税をするため、たびたび荘園整理令が出された。
- By the 11the century, the manor regulation acts were often enforced in order to impose taxes for the purpose of rebuilding dairi (Imperial Palace) and main temples and shrines.
- 年官(ねんかん)とは、日本の古代・中世前期において、皇族及び貴族が保有していた官職推薦権を指す用語。
- The term Nenkan means the right to recommend a person to an official post that was granted to Imperial families and court nobles in the ancient/early medieval period in Japan.
- 両治世は天皇親政が行われ、王朝政治・王朝文化の最盛期となった理想の時代として後世の人々に観念された。
- In both reigns the emperor ruled directly and this era has been considered by succeeding generations as the golden age of government and culture under the dynasty.
- また11世紀中期頃には、それまでの名田より遥かに大規模な名田=別名(べちみょう)が盛んに設定された。
- In the mid-11th century, myoden which were far bigger than existing ones, called bechimyo, were actively established.
- こうした支配体制を改変する動きは、1040年代を中心とする11世紀中期になって非常に顕著に見られる。
- These reforms of governing structure were actively implemented in the mid-11th century, especially around 1040s.
- また、それまでは輸入に頼るのみであった木綿の栽培も16世紀頃から三河国地方において栽培されはじめる。
- And starting in the sixteenth century or thereabouts, cotton, which heretofore had had to be imported, began to be cultivated locally in Mikawa Province.
- いくつかの近世の旅行記には、水ヶ峯に一軒家があったと記されている(『熊野案内記』および『めぐり』)。
- Some travel journals recorded that there was one house in Mizugamine (refer to 'Kumano Annaiki' and 'Meguri').
- なお、これは「サンティアゴ・デ・コンポステーラの巡礼路」(スペイン)と共に珍しい道の世界遺産である。
- It is a rare example of roads which have been registered as a word heritage site, along with ` Way of St. James' (Spain).
- 町を一望した多聞山城は松永久秀が16世紀半ばに築き、近世城郭のモデルとなった四層の天守を備えている。
- Tamonyama-jo Castle which commands a panoramic view of the town was built by Hisahide MATSUNAGA in the middle of the16th century, and has the four-layered tenshu (main keep or tower of a castle) which became a model for modern castles.
- 兵粮料所(ひょうろうりょうしょ)とは、中世において兵粮米を徴収するために指定された特定の所領のこと。
- Hyoro-ryosho were areas of land set aside during the medieval period and devoted to producing rations and provisions (specifically, rice) for soldiers.
- しかし、権力集中化への最大の契機は、7世紀後半の百済復興戦争における敗北(→白村江の戦い)であった。
- However, the biggest opportunity for centralizing power was provided with the defeat in the Kudara restoration war during the latter half of seventh century (Battle of Hakusonko or the Battle of Baekgang).
- 大型地域集団は次第に政治的な結合を強めていき、倭国連合と呼びうる政治連合体を2世紀初頭頃に形成した。
- The large-sized communities were gradually united and a political confederation that could be called a union of Way nations was established during the early second century.
- しかしながら、一方で善阿弥が将軍に仕えた事に見られるように、近世ほど他身分から隔離されてはいなかった。
- However, as Zenami served the shogun at that time, they were not segregated from people with other social statuses to the extent during the early-modern times.
- その後、通信使は将軍の代替わりや世継ぎの誕生に際して、朝鮮側から祝賀使節として派遣されるようになった。
- After that, Tsushinshi were sent from the Korean side to pay homage to a new shogun or to cerebrate the birth of a heir to a shogun.
- 名主(みょうしゅ)は、日本の古代末期から中世日本にかけて、国衙領・荘園領主から名田の経営を請け負った。
- Myoshu (village headmen) were a class of people who were commissioned to manage the cultivation of farmland called myoden by lords of Kokugaryo (territories governed by provincial government office) and manors during the late Ancient period and the Middle Ages in Japan.
- 一方、9世紀後期頃から、富豪百姓層らが経済力や政治力、さらには私兵を擁しての軍事力すらをもつけてきた。
- From the late 9th century, meanwhile, the wealthy peasant class strengthened not only their economic and political power but also military power with private soldiers at their command.
- 王朝国家(おうちょうこっか)は、日本が律令制から中世国家体制へ移行する過渡期の国家体制を表す歴史概念。
- The term 'Dynastic polity' is the historical notion which refers to Japan's state regime in a transitional period during which it was in the process of transition from the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the Ritsuryo code) to the medieval national polity.
- 家臣団の衆議・意向を無視あるいは軽視した主君は、廃立の憂き目に遭い、世間から下剋上と評されたのである。
- The lords who ignored--or worse yet, despised--the will and inclination of their group of retainers were likely to experience the misery of being deposed and replaced, and judged a fitting target for gekokujo by society.
- 1423年に実子の足利義量に将軍職を譲るが義量が早世し、さらに義持自身も後継者を決めないまま死去する。
- In 1423, he handed the position of Shogun over to his own child Yoshikazu ASHIKAGA, but Yoshikazu died young, and Yoshimochi himself died before he was able to choose a successor.
- 以上のように近世に確立した参詣道であることから、小辺路は信仰の側面においても近世的な特徴を示している。
- Since it was established as a pilgrimage road in the Edo period, as for the aspect of beliefs, Kohechi had the characteristics of the early-modern period.
- もっとも、右京の地は桂川 (淀川水系)の形作る湿地帯にあたるため9世紀に入っても宅地化が進まなかった。
- However, the land of Ukyo did not become developed for dwellings even during the 9th century, due to it being a wetland formed by the Katsura-gawa River (of the Yodo-gawa river system).
- これを背景として、中世中期には、北畠親房により神道的な神国思想をテーマとする『神皇正統記』が著された。
- With such a situation as a background, Chikafusa KITABATAKE wrote, in around the middle of the medieval period, 'Jinno shotoki' (records of the legitimate succession of the divine emperors) whose theme was Shinkoku-shiso (the thought considering Japan as the land of the gods) based on the Shinto religion.
- 君が代は 千尋の底の さざれ石の 鵜のゐる磯と あらはるゝまで かぎりなき 御世の栄を ほぎたてまつる
- We celebrate the prosperity of the reign of Your Majesty and that it has no end and continues until pebbles in the deep sea bed appear on the shore where cormorants live.
- 近世に入ると平和な世の中を反映して、人々は現世利益を求めるようになり、旅行の要素も加わって大衆化した。
- In the modern era, reflecting the peaceful times, people wished for spiritual (material) benefit gained in this world through observance of the Buddhist teachings, and with the added element of traveling, it became a common activity for the masses.
- 12世紀に入ると、有力貴族などが特定の国の租税収取権を保有する知行国制がひろく実施されるようになった。
- In the 12th century, Chigyo kokusei (proprietary province system) was widely performed: in this system, influential aristocrats owned the authority to collect taxes from certain provinces.
- 困窮した零細農民の土地を集積するなど地主的な側面の強くなる近世後期には後者の面を持つものが多くなった。
- In a second half of the early-modern times, as headmen (naushi or shoya) accumulated lands of impoverished petty peasants, their landowner-like character grew, and those with the latter aspcet increased.
- 自検断(じけんだん)とは、中世日本の村落(惣村・郷村など)が、自ら検断(けんだん)を実施することをいう。
- Jikendan (voluntary ruling and judging) refers to rural communities in medieval Japan such as soson (a community consisting of peasants' self-governing association) and goson (autonomous village) that conduct a kendan (trial) by themselves.
- しかし18世紀になって日本でも絹生産の技術が向上すると、中国産品の輸入が減少し、釜山交易に打撃を与えた。
- However, advancement of Japanese silk production technology in the 18th century diminished the imports of Chinese products, which had devastating effects on Busan trade.
- 5世紀に入ると、ゲルマンがローマ帝国の権威を継承したことにより、ローマ人領主は異民族に取って代わられた。
- In the fifth century, as the Germanic peoples succeeded to the authority of the Roman Empire, the lords of Romans were replaced by other ethnic groups.
- 更に20世紀末期頃から、かつて荘園だった史実がその地方のアイデンティティを形成する事例が増え始めている。
- Moreover, from the late twentieth century, the local areas increasingly form the identities by the historical fact that they were formerly shoens.
- 職の体系(しきのたいけい)とは、日本の歴史上、中世日本における、重層的土地支配構造を指し示す用語である。
- The shiki system is the term to indicate the stratified ruling structure in medieval Japan.
- 中世陰陽道研究家の小坂眞二は、現存する六壬勘文や当時の文献等を基に平安時代の六壬神課の復元を行っている。
- Mediaeval Onmyodo researcher Shinji KOSAKA restored Rikujinshinka used in the Heian period based on existent Rikuninkanmon and literature of the time.
- 即ち、中世以前の武家の主従関係は利害を共有することにより成立し、けして絶対的なものではなかったのである。
- As shown above, the relationship of master and vassal among samurai until the medieval period was based only on the common interests of both parties and was not absolute.
- こうした社会状況を受けて、9世紀前期(藤原冬嗣執政期)から土地課税を重視する傾向が次第に強まっていった。
- In response to these social conditions, since the early part of the ninth century (during the period of administration of FUJIWARA no Fuyutsugu), there was a growing tendency to put emphasize on the tax on land.
- しかし、9世紀前期までには、百姓の逃亡・浮浪が著しく増大し、律令制の人別支配は根幹から動揺し始めていた。
- However, by the first half of the ninth century, the rule over people under the Ritsuryo system began to crumble from the ground up because a significant increase in the number of farmers escaping or going missing.
- 中世日本の荘園公領制では、一つの土地に対して、複数の主体がそれぞれ各自の権利を有することが一般的だった。
- Under the shoen koryo sei (social structure of the manorial public territory system) in medieval Japan, it was common for two or more parties to have joint ownership to a piece of land.
- 第二次世界大戦後も南朝が正統とされているが、歴史の実態に合わせて再び「南北朝時代」の用語が主流になった。
- The Southern Court was still officially considered the legitimate Imperial Court after the Second World War, but in harmony with the historical reality, the term 'Nanbokucho period' once again came into widespread use.
- The Southern Court is still considered to be legitimate after World War II, but the term 'Nanbokucho period' entered the mainstream again based on the actual situation of history.
- 中世の被差別民は一般的に非人と称されたが、河原者がその中に含まれるかどうかについて、論争が行われている。
- Although those discriminated in the Medieval Period were generally called Hinin, there is controversy as to whether Kawaramono were included in Hinin.
- これらの職についた中下流貴族らは自らが得た職の確保をはかり、職を「家業」として世襲することに努めている。
- The middle and lower class nobles who gained such positions strived to secure such positions, attempting to make them hereditary or a 'family business.'
- 治承・寿永の乱の時代、つまり12世紀末でも「武者」「弓箭の輩」が多く、「武士」と出てくるのは希であった。
- There were many 'busha' and 'Kyusen persons' (archers) while 'bushi' was rarely mentioned even during the period of the Jisho-Juei Civil War or during the late twelfth century.
- 又中世の血族意識から起こった風俗であるので、主君のように血縁関係のない者について行われることは少なかった。
- Furthermore, since this custom arose out of the sense of blood ties in the medieval period, it was rarely carried out against someone who had no blood relationship, such as one's lord.
- こうした積み重ねにより、11世紀後期の後三条天皇の頃に一国平均役が制度として確立したものと考えられている。
- After these events, it is believed that the ikkoku heikinyaku system was officially established in the late 11th century, around the time of Emperor Gosanjo.
- 8世紀末の桓武天皇は、現状との乖離が大きくなりつつあった律令制を再建するため、大規模な行政改革に着手した。
- At the end of the eighth century, Emperor Kanmu started a large-scale administrative reform in order to reconstruct the Ritsuryo system, which was becoming increasingly distant from the actual conditions.
- 所務沙汰(しょむさた)は、中世日本で使用された用語であり、所領や年貢に関する相論や訴訟・裁判のことである。
- 'Shomusata' is a term used in medieval Japan referring to disputes, suits, and trials over shoryo (territory) and nengu (land tax).
- 近世に入り、中原章純が、天明6年(1786年)に本書の残闕本を各所より収集して、ほぼ現在の形まで編輯した。
- After the early-modern times, Shojun NAKAHARA collected incomplete parts of the book from various places in 1786 and reedited it into the nearly present format.
- 近世では優秀な民間医が典医に登用されると同時に官位を与えられ、地下人の身分となるケースがほとんどを占めた。
- In the early modern times, in most cases, when a private doctor was employed by the Court, he was given an official court rank at the same time and became jigenin (a lower rank of ancient Japanese nobility).
- しかし狩谷はこの下総本の本文を「後世の改竄によるもの」と見なし、「諸本の中で最も劣悪」として認めていない。
- However, KARIYA considered the Shimosa book as 'falsification by the posterity,' and rejects it as 'the most inferior one of the various books concerned.'
- ただし「元和古活字本」は稀覯書で、昭和7年(1932年)に影印復刻されるまではほとんど世に出回らなかった。
- However, 'Genna kokatsuji-bon' was a rare book and was scarcely available in the market until its photo-copy version was published in 1932.
- しかし、早くも8世紀後期頃から百姓の偽籍・浮浪・逃亡が見られ始め、個別人身支配体制にほころびが生じていた。
- However, as early as from late 8th century, the regime of people-based governance started to fray at the edges as the case of peasants' false registration, vagrancy and escape increased.
- 亀山はしばらく在位のまま政務を執り、文永11年(1274年)には皇太子世仁(8歳、後宇多天皇)に譲位した。
- Kameyama attended to government affairs for a short period as Emperor and then abdicated the throne in 1274 to Crown Prince Yohito (aged 8, Emperor Gouda).
- 足利義満の保護を受けた観阿弥・世阿弥元清の親子が鎌倉時代から行われていた猿楽・田楽を能楽として大成させる。
- Kanami and his son Motokiyo ZEAMI, who both enjoyed the patronage of Yoshimitsu ASHIKAGA, were able to take the Sarugaku (a style of comedy) and Dengaku (a musical, rhythmic ritual dancing concerned with rice) that had existed from the Kamakura period and perfect them into Noh theater.
- この堂はかつては宝暦2年(1752年)の建築とされていたが、正しくは前述のように19世紀初頭の建築である。
- It was once told that this hall was built in 1752, but, as described above, it was built in the beginning of the nineteenth century.
- 2004年には、吉野・大嶺を含む紀伊山地の霊場と参詣道が、国際連合教育科学文化機関の世界遺産に登録された。
- In 2004, sacred sites and pilgrimage routes in the Kii mountain range were registered as a World Heritage site by UNESCO.
- 律令制がほとんど形骸化した10世紀には荒廃して本来京内では禁じられている農地へと転用されることすらあった。
- In the 10th century when the Ritsuryo system became a mere façade, the land was desolated and some areas were diverted to farm lands which was, in general, prohibited in Kyo.
- ちなみに、そういった後世の状況の中にあっても、はっきりこの歌の「君」が天子である、とする注釈書も存在する。
- By the way, even under such situations, there was a commentary that definitely concluded that 'kimi' in this waka was the emperor.
- また近衛尚通の日記『後法成寺尚通公記』の永正五年(1508)四月十六日の条に「戦国の世の時の如し」とある。
- In the article for April 16, 1508 in 'Gohojoji Hisamichiko Ki,' a diary of Hisamichi KONOE, it is described as 'Same as in the Zhanguo period.'
- したがって荘園としては未完成であり、完全な不輸権を得た12世紀の領域型荘園の前の過渡的性格のものと言える。
- Thus, the shoen manors exempted from the miscellaneous labor tax were imperfect as the shoen and had a transitional character before the territorial shoen manor of the twelfth century which got the complete right of tax exemption.
- 8世紀に本格的に始まった律令制の根幹は、戸籍・計帳によって人民を把握し、課税の対象とする人別支配であった。
- The foundation of the Ritsuryo system, which officially started in the 8th century, was an individual-controlling system: rulers determined the number of people, according to family register and the yearly tax registers, and taxed those people.
- こうした動きに対し、10世紀後期に登場した花山天皇は権門抑制を目的として荘園整理令などの諸政策を発布した。
- In the latter half of the 10th century, Emperor Hanayama issued several policies including Private estate Regulation Acts in order to control the influential.
- 歴名土代(りゃくみょうどだい/れきめいどだい)とは、中世日本の四位・五位の位階補任(叙位)の記録簿である。
- Ryakumyo dodai (also called rekimei-dodai) was the record book of Ikai-Bunin (directory of Court ranks) of Shii (Fourth Rank) and Goi (Fifth Rank) in medieval Japan.
- 風土記編纂が命じられたのが和銅6年(713年)であるため、原本は遅くとも8世紀中にはできていたと思われる。
- Because Fudoki (the description of regional climate, culture, etc.) was compiled by imperial order in around 713, it seems that the original text came into existence during the middle of eighth century at the latest.
- 作者として挙げられているのは、喜阿弥・観阿弥・観世元雅・金剛権守・金春権守・福来・南阿弥・琳阿弥・山本某。
- Kiami, Kanami, Kanze Motomasa, Gon no Kami KONGO, Gon no Kami KONPARU, Fukurai, Naami, Rinami and Kure YAMAMOTO are listed as authors.
- しかし、8世紀中期に墾田永年私財法が施行されると、有力な大寺社は積極的に墾田を進めて、荘園を確保していった。
- However, during the middle era of the eighth century when Konden einen shizai Law (law allowing farmers who developed new arable land to own it permanently) was enforced, dominant temples and shrines actively developed arable land, acquiring shoen (manors) this way.
- 中世の被差別民は、一般的に非人と呼称されていたが、河原者、宿の者、散所民、声聞師(唱門師)などに分類できる。
- Generally called hinin (literally, not human beings), people discriminated against in the medieval can be classified into kawaramono (literally, people living in river side areas), shuku no mono (literally, people at shuku (inn-clustered towns along a big road)), sanjomin (literally, people at various places), or Shomonji (itinerant performers whose work encompassed both Noh performance and religious rituals) (Shomonji (lower-ranked diviners)).
- 西ヨーロッパ旧帝国内の一定の地域では、古代末期に別荘(villa)システムが確立し、中世世界へと継承された。
- In certain areas of the west European old empire, the villa system was established in the late ancient period and continued into the medieval world.
- その後室町時代前期にかけて『貴嶺問答』・『雑筆往来』、そして中世往来物の代表作とされる『庭訓往来』が現れた。
- Then, by the early Muromachi period, 'Kirei Mondo,' 'Zohitsu Orai' (also called 'Zappitsu Orai') and 'Teikin Orai' (a collection of letters used for family education), which is considered to be the most important work of oraimono from the medieval time, were all written.
- このため国家による租税徴収体制は、律令制的な人的支配の枠組みから中世的な土地支配の枠組みへと移行していった。
- Therefore, the land tax collection system by the ancient government moved from the framework based on the rule over people under the Ritsuryo system into the one on medieval land ruling.
- 両治世を聖代視する考えは、早くも10世紀後半には現れており、11世紀前葉~中葉ごろの貴族社会に広く浸透した。
- This elevated view became apparent as early as the late 10th century and it became prevalent in all parts of noble society in around the first half to the middle of the 11th century.
- 新政府の鎮撫使(世良修蔵)を殺害し、白石口で既に本格的な攻防戦が開始されていたことから軍事同盟へと変化した。
- After the alliance killed Shuzo SERA, the chinbushi (temporary provincial superintendent), and began to engage in full-scale battles in Shiraishi-guchi, the nature of the alliance was changed to a military one.
- 奈良県教育委員会による調査奈良県教育委員会 2002→2005bは、世界遺産登録を念頭に行われたものである。
- Nara Prefectural Board of Education 2002=>2005b,' an investigation conducted by Nara Prefectural Board of Education, was carried out to inscribe the Kumano Road as a World Heritage site.
- そこで政府は11世紀初頭ごろから地方分権的な国家体制改革を精力的に推進し、王朝国家と呼ばれる体制が成立した。
- Therefore, starting in the early eleventh century, the national government actively promoted the reformation of the national system through decentralization, establishing a system called a dynastic nation-state.
- お抱えは、一代限りの雇用の者だが、実際は世襲することも多く、軽輩の者が多いなかで、専門職で侍身分の者もいた。
- Okakae (retainer) was hired only in one generation, but in fact was often inherited, and among many of keihai some of them were professional and in the class of samurai.
- 評定始(ひょうじょうはじめ)とは、中世日本の権門において、年始にその年最初の評定を行う際に行った儀式のこと。
- Hyojohajime was a ceremony held by an influential house of medieval Japan conducted at the first consultation in the New Year.
- 農地のための破壊は歴史を通じて見られ、中世には城砦のために、近代(特に戦後)には宅地のために破壊されてきた。
- Throughout history, kofun were continuously destroyed for agricultural land; in the Middle Ages, kofun were destroyed to build fortresses, and in modern times, kofun are destroyed for residential land (especially after World War II).
- 10世紀後期に入ると、試験問題の出典が予め受験者に通告されたり、権力者による情実の横行などがしばしば行われた。
- In the latter half of the 10th century, it was often the case that entrance exam questions were given to applicants in advance, or that preference was given to particular applicants by influential people.
- しかし15世紀に入ると、徐々に守護請の実施や在庁官人の被官化を通じて、守護による国衙の実効支配が進んでいった。
- However, through the implementation of 'shugo-uke' and 'Hikanization' of zaichokanjin, shugo came to control the kokuga effectively in the beginning of the 15th century.
- 鎌倉時代には毎月2通分の往復書簡で季節感や行事を織り込んだ『十二月往来』が著され、後世の往来物の手本となった。
- 'Junigetsu Orai' (Twelve Months Correspondence), which took the form of two letters per month describing the turning of the seasons as well as seasonal events, was composed in the Kamakura period and became a good example for oraimono that followed.
- 17世紀半ば以降、このような制度は崩れていき、石高を所有し入会地・用水管理などの資格を持つ者が百姓と呼ばれた。
- After the middle of the 17th century, such a system collapsed gradually and those who had their own harvesting lands and were members of the village community's lands and water management, were called Hyakusho.
- その一方で国文学界が鎌倉時代以後を本来は同じ意味である「中世」という語で表現する事に対して疑問も出されている。
- On the other hand, Japanese literature also uses the term 'chusei' to refer to the time period after the Kamakura period which has the same meaning as chuko, and the appropriateness of this practice has been questioned.
- 後者には異論も出されているが、この見解に従えば、中世期の支配・収取のあり方をより具体的に理解することができる。
- Opinions denying the latter were proposed, but according to the latter opinion, the state of the national control and tax-collecting systems during the medieval period could be understood more concretely.
- 兼通は自身の子弟を公卿に昇進させてその世襲化を図ったが、息子達を公卿に任じ終えた直後に病死したために挫折した。
- Kanemichi promoted his sons to court nobles and attempted to make their positions hereditary, but failed due to his death from an illness soon after appointing them as court nobles.
- 熊本以外の藩でも18世紀末頃から熊本藩を見習って、明律を範とした司法改革を行う藩が次々と登場するようになった。
- Outside Kumamoto, many domains followed the Kumamoto Domain and began carrying out judicial reforms modeled after the Ming code since the end of the eighteenth century.
- 後世の「源平盛衰記」には為平親王を東国に迎えて乱を起こし、帝につけようとしていたと書かれているが信用できない。
- According to the 'Genpei Seisuiki' (The Rise and Decline of the Minamoto and Taira Clans) written years later, MINAMOTO no Takaakira intended to invite Imperial Prince Tamehira to the eastern provinces to start a war and then place Prince Tamehira on the throne, but this is not credible but this is not credible.
- 山腹には現世信仰で知られる宝山寺を中心として、滝の修行場や祠など大小さまざまな宗教団体の施設が設けられている。
- Facilities including sites for practicing cold water ablutions by a fall (stand under a waterfall), or hokora (a small shrine) of large and small religious organizations centering on Hozan-ji Temple, which is known for belief in material benefits, are located on the mountainside.
- 侍(さむらい)は、古代から中世にかけての日本における官人の身分呼称、あるいはそこから発展的に生じた武士の別名。
- 'Samurai' is the positional title for officials in Japan from the ancient to middle ages, and an alternative name for 'bushi' (warrior) that was derived from the first meaning.
- 今谷明は立花説の解釈に立脚しながら、信長は朝廷の権威に屈服し中世的権力関係を指向せざるをえなかったとしている。
- Akira IMATANI, supporting Tachibana's theory, presented that Nobunaga bowed down to the Imperial Court's authority because he had to keep the medieval relationship of power with the Emperor.
- ところで、9世紀ごろから関東地方を中心として、富豪層による運京途中の税の強奪など、群盗行為が横行し始めていた。
- From the 9th century onwards especially in the Kanto region, millionaires who brought taxes to Kyoto were assaulted and robbed.
- 同期の江戸は、人口100万人前後に達しており、日本最大の消費都市であるばかりでなく、世界最大の都市でもあった。
- At the same time, Edo, whose population reached around one million, was not only the biggest consumer city in Japan, but also the biggest city in the world.
- 但し、彼らの用いる兵力は殆どなく、18世紀初頭の長崎奉行は10数人、幕末の五条代官所でも30人しかいなかった。
- But, their military strength was almost nil, and early in the 18th century there were only ten soldiers in the Nagasaki magistrate office and at the end of the Edo period only 30 soldiers in the Gojo magistrate's office.
- 官荘には永小作権を有する漢人世襲の荘頭が置かれ、官荘内より租税を集めて生産物(後世にはその代銀)を宮廷に納めた。
- The head of shoen who was descendant of the Han race and had the right of tenant farming was put in the manors and he collected the tax from the manor and paid products (in later times, money) to the imperial court.
- しかし、寺子屋によって実務的な教育が庶民の間に定着しており、明治初期における日本の識字率は世界最高水準にあった。
- However, practical education by Terakoya had been entrenched among the ordinary citizens and the literacy level of the Japanese in the beginning of the Meiji period was among the top in the world.
- 特に東国では9世紀半ばから後半を通じて俘囚の反乱が相次ぎ、群盗の活動の活発化と相まって、治安悪化が顕著であった。
- In particular, in Togoku throughout the era from the middle of the ninth century to the end of the century, barbarians raised rebellions one after another in addition to bandits whose activities had become more active, deteriorating security markedly.
- だが、近世に入って江戸幕府が士農工商を問わずに発令した贅沢を禁じる法令及び命令の一群はその中でも群を抜いていた。
- In the early-modern times, the Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) announced a series of laws and ordinances to ban luxuries for every walk of life, such as samurai, farmers, artisans, and merchants, in Edo society, and a prominent number of such laws and ordnances were issued.
- 東の帳台の西南角に幔を引いて小哥(当世の歌を歌う人)の座、北庇塗籠のうちを大師(舞姫に舞を教える人)の局とする。
- The southwest corner of the east chodai was curtained off for a kouta (a person who sung contemporary songs) and the north nurigome was allocated as the daishi no tsubone (a room for daishi (a teacher of the dancers)).
- また家門の結束のために教会や修道院が建立され、世襲的なフォークタイを家門で所有し、これを家門の最年長者に委ねた。
- Churches and monasteries were established as means to unite each family, which would in turn own its patrimonial bailiwick and entrust it to the oldest person in the family.
- 近世初頭、豊臣秀吉、徳川政権によって固定的な被差別身分が編成された際に、河原者はその中に組み込まれたと言われる。
- It is said that the Kawaramono were included in a fixed discriminated position when the position was organized by Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI and the Tokugawa government in the early modern period.
- したがって、中世の武家法の基礎となった慣習法も、純粋な固有法ではなく、律令法を媒介として成長した固有法であった。
- Thus, the common law which became the basis of medieval samurai law was not a genuine inherent law, but an inherent law which developed from ritsuryo law.
- さらに世界史的には大航海時代を迎えており、ポルトガルやイスパニアなどのヨーロッパ人も東アジアで活動を広めていた。
- Moreover, this period witnessed, in terms of international history, the dawning of the age of exploration, which meant that Europeans, notably the Portuguese and the Spanish, began to be active in East Asia.
- そうした修史の伝統を継承して、律令統一国家が成立した8世紀前半には、日本最初の正史である『日本書紀』が完成した。
- Inheriting such a historical document-compiling tradition, the compilation of 'Nihonshoki' (Chronicles of Japan), the first official document about Japanese history, was completed during the first half of the 8th century when a unified nation based on Ritsuryo codes was established.
- 近代の始期は一般に幕末期〜明治維新期とされるが、18世紀前半の家内制手工業の勃興を近代の始まりとする考えもある。
- It is generally said that modern times started around the end of the Edo period to Meiji Restoration, but there is another opinion that the modern times started in the first half of 18th century when the household-based handcraft industry started.
- 国司請負の流れの中で、10世紀後半ごろから国司は田堵(有力農民層のこと)へ官物や雑役などの租税を賦課していった。
- In the line of kokushi ukeoi, kokushi imposed taxation such as kanmotsu (tribute goods paid as taxes or tithes), zatsueki (odd-job tasks) and so on to tato (cultivators, powerful farmers) since last half of the 10th century.
- しかし、奈良時代後期(8世紀後期)ごろから、課税から逃れたい人民らの偽籍・逃亡・浮浪が次第に顕著となっていった。
- However, it became apparent that many people who wanted to escape taxation began falsifying the register, escaping and wandering about during the latter stage of the Nara period (the latter stage of the 8th century).
- 古代の蝦夷ははじめ「毛人」と書いて「えみし」あるいは「えびす」と読み、7世紀から「蝦夷」と書かれるようになった。
- In ancient times, Ezo was written as '毛人' and read as 'Emishi' or 'Ebisu,' but from the seventh century onward, it was written as '蝦夷.'
- 中世以後においては、「公家御下知違背事也」(『沙汰未練書』)と解され、漠然と天皇の命令に逆らうことと考えられる。
- In and after the Middle Ages, the Ichoku was understood as 'punishing all the violations against judgements issued by court nobles' (according to the book called 'Satamirensho'), and by people, it is ambiguously thought to have gone against an Emperor's command.
- 10世紀前期に従来の租税収取体系が変質したことに伴い、権門層(有力貴族・寺社)は各地に私領(私営田)を形成した。
- With the change in the tax collecting system in the 10th century, influential classes (influential aristocracy, temples and shrines) took over private land (shieiden: lands directly governed by such powers) in many places.
- 大名家における家臣への軍役が貫高基準(貫高制)から近世に入って石高基準(石高制)へと移っていくのも特徴的である。
- The basis for the military service imposed on the vessels in the terrritorial lords's families was changed from the money taxation system to the food taxation system in the Early-Modern period, which is another characteristic of gunyaku system.
- 初期は倹約と藩札発布が主であったが、18世紀中盤になると塩・陶器などの土地産物の専売制がかなりの藩で実施される。
- Initial policies were mainly the order to encourage a frugal life and the issue of local paper currency, but in the middle of the 18th century a monopoly system of local specialties, such as salt and ceramics, was introduced in many domains.
- このようにして、平安中期ごろには、富豪層による地域支配が徐々に拡がり始めていき、これが中世の萌芽へつながっていく。
- Thus, the regional rule by the rich stratum gradually extended in around the mid Heian period, which led to their prosperity in medieval Japan.
- 「楽市楽座は信長が安土城で始めた」という認識があるが、上記のように実際は中世の門前町や六角氏により開始されている。
- It is recognized that 'rakuichi-rakuza were begun in Azuchi by Nobunaga' but, as described above, they were actually first established by temple towns and the Rokkaku clan during the middle ages.
- しかし、7世紀後期に形成していった律令制は、官僚制を原則としており、ある氏族が特定の官職を世襲することを否定した。
- The ritsuryo codes formed in the late 7th century, however, were based on the bureaucracy system and were against the idea of certain clans inheriting specific government posts.
- また10世紀ごろから、国内の公田を名田へ再編成し、田堵に名田経営と租税納入を請け負わせる負名体制へと移行していた。
- In the 10th century onwards, the koden (the field administered directly by a ruler) in the province was reorganized as the myoden, and the fumyo system, in which the tato undertook the management of the myoden and tax, became more and more common.
- ばさらとは、日本の中世、南北朝時代の社会風潮や文化的流行をあらわす言葉であり、実際に当時の流行語として用いられた。
- 'Basara' is a word which expressed the social and cultural trends during the Northern and Southern Courts period (in the Japanese medieval period), which was actually used as a vogue word at that time.
- 荘園絵図を読み解くことは歴史地理学や地図学、歴史学における日本古代・中世史の研究手法の一つであり、研究主題である。
- Close analysis of the shoenezu is not only one of the researching methods but also the subject of research for the ancient and medieval history of Japan in the category of historical geography, cartography and history.
- 国司の代わりに代々国押領使・国追捕使の地位を世襲してきた「一国棟梁」を中心とした軍事力編成がなされるようになった。
- The Ikkoku-toryo' (the provincial leader) who held the offices of provincial Oryoshi and Tsuibushi in place of the provincial officials organized military forces.
- しかし、後世の人々によって、延喜・天暦期の聖代視は意識的に喧伝されていき、平安後期には理想の政治像として定着した。
- However, the Engi and Tenryaku eras were consciously trumpeted by people of succeeding generations and they were firmly fixed as an ideal politic symbol in the latter half of the Heian period.
- 12世紀末に鎌倉幕府が登場すると、特に東国の名主の中には、幕府に帰参して御家人となり、地頭に補任される者も現れた。
- When the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) came to power toward the end of the 12th century, some myoshu farmers, especially those in eastern regions, gained positions in the shogunate government and became gokenin (an immediate vassal of the shogunate in the Kamakura and Muromachi through Edo periods) or were appointed as jito (local landlord).
- ホテル紅葉の演歌調テレビCM(歌手:玉井京子)は、近畿地方に当時在住していた世代の間では今なお語り草となっている。
- Generations that resided in Kinki region at that time still talk about the TV commercial of Hotel Koyo with an enka (Japanese ballad) style theme song sung by a singer Kyoko TAMAI.
- 応仁の乱以降の乱れた世相を、当時の公家が古代中国の「春秋戦国時代」の乱世になぞらえ「戦国の世」と表現したのが語源。
- The word origin was the expression 'sengoku no yo (period of warring states)' by the court nobles at that time comparing the troubled social conditions since the Onin Disturbance to the troubled times in the 'Chunqiu and Zhanguo periods (Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period)' in ancient China.
- 蝦夷と呼ばれた集団の一部は中世の蝦夷(えぞ)、すなわちアイヌにつながり、一部は日本人につながったと考えられている。
- It is thought that a part of the group called Emishi became the medieval Ezo, that is the Ainu, and that another part of them became Japanese.
- 12世紀中期頃には貴族社会内部の紛争が武力で解決されるようになり、そのために動員された武士の地位が急速に上昇した。
- Around the middle of the 12th century, conflicts among the aristocracy were solved by force, which increased the status of warriors who were recruited solely for this purpose.
- 室町期の守護は、当初(14世紀中葉)、室町幕府から数年ごとに補任されており、守護職の交替は比較的頻繁に行われていた。
- The shugo in the Muromachi period were initially (around the mid 14th century) appointed by the Muromachi bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) once in several years, which resulted in the comparatively frequent alternation of the shugo-shiki (the post of shugo).
- 中島飛行機は第二次世界大戦中に急速に発達した財閥で、軍用機の生産から鉱山・貿易・水産などの非飛行機部門にも進出した。
- Nakajima Airplane was a zaibatsu that grew rapidly during World War II and later expanded its business from military aircraft production to non-aircraft businesses such as mining, trade and commercial fishing.
- 11世紀に入ると、ある家系が特定の官職を世襲する「家業の継承」または官司請負制が貴族社会内で次第に確立されていった。
- In the 11th century, the 'family business takeover' or the hereditary government office system, in which certain families inherited certain government positions, was gradually established in the aristocratic society.
- 隋の均田制では、男子に露田80畝と世業田20畝を支給することとされていた(夫人・奴婢・牛への支給は廃止されている)。
- In the equal-field system in Sui, it was specified that a bare field of approx. 3.72 hectares and an inheritable field (segyoden) of approx. 0.93 hectares should be supplied to each male (the system to supply fields to wives, slaves and cattle was abolished).
- 当初は淳和天皇の治世だけに限定して始められたが、結局この制度はその後も存続し、平安時代を通じて定着することとなった。
- Although this system initially started as one which was valid only during the era of the Emperor Junna, it continued to exist and took root throughout the Heian period.
- 中世の武士間の主従関係は、決して片務的なものではなく、主人・従者が相互に利益を与え合う互恵的な関係で成り立っていた。
- The master-servant relationships among samurai during the medieval period were not one-sided but were established based upon mutually beneficial ones in which benefits were not only given by a master and received by his servant, but also given by a servant and received by the master.
- このため、政府は野党や世論に押され、1911年(明治44年)2月4日には帝国議会で南朝を正統とする決議をおこなった。
- Pressured by the opposition and public opinion, at the Imperial Diet meeting on February 4, 1911, the government officially declared the Southern Court legitimate.
- 江戸の天下泰平の世の中(鎖国体制下の社会)を乱されたくない・邪魔されたくないといった心情は、攘夷運動になっていった。
- The feeling that they did not want to have the peaceful world of Edo (society under a system of national isolation) was disturbing and disruptive, and ultimately it led to the movement for the expulsion of foreigners.
- 中世の代表的自治都市である堺は宣教師も「東洋のベニス」と評価する文書を残しており、織田信長に屈服するまで自治を行う。
- Sakai, a representative example of the free cities in the medieval period, was rated by missionaries in some surviving accounts as 'the Venice of the East,' and continued its autonomy until it was later forced to capitulate to Nobunaga ODA.
- さらに、天正4年(1576年)に安土城の築城が始まり天下布武への流れが現実のものになりつつあることを世に知らしめる。
- Furthermore, the start of construction of Azuchi-jo Castle in 1576 announced to the world that the trend toward Tenka Fubu (天下布武) was gradually becoming a fact.
- この成立年代を考えるならば、小辺路の名は早ければ戦国時代 (日本)末期から近世初頭には知られていたことが推測できる。
- For the year of the compilation, it is considered that the name Kohechi had been known as early as the end of the Sengoku period (Period of Warring States, Japan) to the beginning of the early-modern period.
- また、近江商人の商売哲学「三方よし(買い手よし、売り手よし、世間よし)」は、他国での商売を通じて生まれた概念である。
- The regional merchant culture gave birth to the 'Sanpo-yoshi' principle ('good in three directions' meaning that commerce should not only benefit the buyer and the seller but also society as a whole) -- a business concept that emerged from the experiences of the merchants who engaged in trade with other regions of the country.
- 同時期には太上天皇が治天の君として政務に当たる院政が開始しており、この時期が古代から中世への画期であるとされている。
- In the same era, insei in which Daijo tenno (a retired emperor) administered the affairs of state as Chiten no kimi (the retired emperor in power) started, and it is said that in this era, ancient times ended and the medieval period started.
- 朝鮮側の被害は日本の資料では死傷者2500以上、世宗実録ではの記録では死者百数十人、の記録では180人とされている。
- Korean casualties exceeded 2500 dead or wounded according to Japanese sources, while one entry in the Record of Seojong's Reign lists 100 and some dozens more killed, and another later entry lists 180 killed.
- 古代末に発生した武士はその武力で古代を終焉させ、中世社会で主導的役割を果たし、近世で完成された社会体制を築き上げた。
- The bushi who emerged during the late ancient times finished the ancient times by force, played a leading role in medieval society and established the social system in the early-modern times.
- 平安初期の嵯峨天皇治世前後の弘仁・貞観文化は、中央貴族たちの文化だったが、中国(唐)の影響を色濃く受けた文化だった。
- Konin-Jogan culture around the reign of the Emperor Saga in the early Heian Period, was centered around the culture of the central nobles, which was deeply influenced by China (Tang).
- 倭国でも7世紀前半にかけて聖徳太子と蘇我氏により遣隋使派遣・冠位十二階制定・十七条憲法導入などの国政改革が行われた。
- In Wa as well, Prince Shotoku and the Soga clan reformed national politics by sending Japanese envoys to Sui Dynasty China, establishing Kani junikai (twelve grades of cap rank) and introducing a Seventeen-Article Constitution.
- また、歴史学者の網野善彦は、中世日本の社会が荘園と公領から構成されていることに注目して荘園公領制という概念を提唱した。
- Also, the historian Yoshihiko AMINO advocates a concept of shoen koryo sei (The System of Public Lands and Private Estates), focusing on the fact that medieval Japanese society consisted of shoen and koryo.
- これが出挙の前身ではないかと考えられており、少なくとも7世紀中期までに利子の慣行が発生していたことの傍証とされている。
- This is believed to be the predecessor of Suiko, regarded as a corroboration of the opinion that a system charging and paying interest had already existed by the middle of the seventh century at the latest.
- 8世紀初頭に本格運用され始めた律令制においては、国家の軍事組織として全国各地に軍団 (古代日本)を置くこととしていた。
- Cohorts were deployed throughout the country as the national military organization under the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo codes), which began to take full effect at the beginning of the eighth century.
- 9世紀中葉における朝廷・国司は、群盗海賊の制圧のために養老律令の捕亡令追捕罪人条にある臨時発兵規定により対応し始めた。
- In the middle of the ninth century, the Imperial Court and kokushi started taking measures based on specifications of rinji-hatsuhei (the special dispatch of troops) in Tsuibu-zainin no Jo (the article related to catching criminals who had fled) in bumo-ryo code (Penalties on escaping soldiers, Sakimori [soldiers garrisoned at strategic posts in Kyushu in ancient times], slave, and so on) in the Yoro ritsuryo code, to combat these robberies and acts of piracy.
- しかし8世紀後葉、対新羅外交政策を転換したことに伴い、対外防衛・侵攻のための軍団兵士制も大幅に縮小されることとなった。
- However, the government changed its diplomatic policy against Silla in the latter half of the eighth century, and therefore, the scale of the gundan-soldier system for defense and invasion was reduced drastically.
- 江戸時代以降となると、将軍の絶対的な権力の下で直臣たる近世大名と陪臣である家臣団の関係はより絶対的な主従関係となった。
- During the Edo period when the Shogun held absolute authority, relations between Kinsei daimyo (early modern lords), who were Jikishin (great vassals), and their Kashindan, who were Baishin (indirect vassals), became a categorical master-subordinate relationship.
- 10世紀ごろ、朝廷は律令制に由来する人別支配体制を放棄し、土地課税に基礎をおく支配体制(王朝国家体制)へとシフトした。
- Around the tenth century, the Imperial Court abandoned the system of ruling over people which had originated in the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code) and moved to a system based of taxation of land (the system of the dynasty state).
- 田堵負名層が中央政府へ国司の非法を訴える国司苛政上訴は、こうした状況の表れであり、10世紀後期から顕著となっていった。
- Kokushi kasei joso, an appeal made by tato fumyo to the central government against lawless actions of kokushi, was the manifestation of the above situation and became conspicuous after the late tenth century.
- 日本の中世期においては、幕府の地頭、御家人、その郎党といった正規の武士以外に地侍(土豪)、野伏、農民等も武装していた。
- In the medieval period of Japan, not only regular samurai who were jito (land steward appointed by the central military government to each of the estates [shoen] into which the countryside was divided), gokenin (an immediate vassal of the shogunate in the Kamakura and Muromachi through Edo periods) and other roto (retainers) but also jizamurai (local samurai [or dogo: local ruling family]), nobushi (unofficial warrior hidden in a forest) and farmers were armed.
- 中世初期には家門は男子直系の家系に限られていることが主であったが、中世盛期の家門には複数の家系が含まれるようになった。
- Although in the early medieval ages a kamon (family) was usually limited only to the direct male line, during the prime of the medieval ages a kamon (family) would include several families.
- 9世紀中期(855年頃)には肥後で実施された記録が残っており、その後(879年ごろ)、上総でも公営田が施行されている。
- In the middle of the 9th century (about 855), it was recorded the Kueiden system was conducted in Higo Province, and that later (about 879) Kueiden was also tried in Kazusa Province.
- 大伴にも高志との間に恒世親王が生まれていたが、平城は大伴父子の存在を無視してあえて自分の皇子高岳親王を皇太子に立てた。
- Otomo had a son with Koshi called Imperial Prince Tsuneyo, but Heizei ignored the existence of the Otomo father and son and explicitly placed his son, Imperial Prince Takaoka as Crown prince.
- 17世紀後半以降の近世になると畿内近国の町人たちによる参詣記が見られ、小辺路の詳しい様子を知ることができるようになる。
- In the early-modern period, especially after the latter half of the 17th century, the common shopkeepers of Kinai region and the vicinities recorded their pilgrimages, and such records gives the details of Kohechi.
- 旧道は近世ないし明治以降に作られたと言われているもので、古道は2003年(平成15年)に復旧されるまで通行不能だった。
- Kyudo' is said to have been built in the early-modern period or in the Meiji era, and 'kodo' could not be even walked until the re-opening in 2003.
- しかし、8世紀後半に入ると、百姓階層の分化が始まり、百姓の逃亡が増加するなど、律令支配の転換を迫る状況が生じていった。
- However, entering the latter half of the eighth century, farmers became hierarchical, and situations to force the change in control based upon the Ritsuryo system, for example, an increase in the farmers to replace those who fled, were created.
- 群盗の活動は9世紀を通じて活発化していき、朝廷は群盗鎮圧のために東国などへ軍事を得意とする貴族層を国司として派遣した。
- After robbery became more common in 9th century, the Imperial Court sent military aristocrats to Togoku (eastern part of Japan) as kokushi (provincial governors) to discourage such acts.
- しかし、これらの軍役は後世のように所領の大きさや収穫量に基づいたものではなく、動員兵力は各々の御家人に委ねられていた。
- The military services were based neither on the area nor crop yields of of territories, and the military force to mobilize was left to the discretion of each of the immediate vassals of the shogunate.
- また、典薬権助の地位は賀茂別雷神社の社家である藤木家が世襲したが、こちらは実際に鍼を行い、天皇の診察もする家系であった。
- The position of Tenyaku gon no suke (assistant chief of Tenyakuryo) was also hereditary, resting with the Fujiki family, a family of Shinto priests who oversaw Kamo Wakeikazuchi Jinja Shrine, but those holding this position actually performed acupuncture, and were one of the family lineages permitted to perform medical examinations of the Emperor.
- 11世紀に成立した『新猿楽記』という世相を映し出した書物には、以下の内容の記載があり、田堵の実情をよく知ることができる。
- We can learn the reality of Tato from the following descriptions included in the 'Shinsarugakuki,' a book written in the eleventh century reflecting the social conditions at the time.
- 名田(みょうでん)は、日本の平安時代中期から中世を通じて見られる、荘園公領制における支配・収取(徴税)の基礎単位である。
- The term 'myoden' (rice field lot manage by a nominal holder) refers to a basic unit of the governance and (tax) collection in the shoen-koryo system (the system of public lands and private estates), and this existed from the mid-Heian period, throughout the Middle Ages in Japan.
- 地子(じし/ちし)とは、日本の古代・中世から近世にかけて、領主が田地・畠地・山林・塩田・屋敷地などへ賦課した地代を指す。
- Jishi, also called chishi, (land taxes under the Ritsuryo system) referred to the land rent which feudal lords imposed on rice fields, fields (for fruits, vegetables, etc.), mountains and forest, salt fields, or residential areas from ancient and medieval periods to the early-modern times.
- 9世紀末頃からは、「追捕官符」の発布を受けた国司(国衙機構)が自らの裁量で国内の郡司・富豪層を軍事編成するようになった。
- Around the end of the ninth century kokushi (provincial officials) (in the kokuga [provincial office structure]) who received 'tsuibu kanpu' (Warrants of Pursuit and Capture) from the Imperial Court were able to form, at their discretion, troops with gunji and the rich and powerful class.
- そうした中で、中流貴族も上層へある程度昇進していた延喜・天暦期を理想の治世とする考えが中下流貴族の間に広まったのである。
- In these situation, the idea that viewed the Engi and Tenryaku eras as ideal reigns when even the middle class of noblemen could be promoted to higher level to some extent became popular among the middle lower class noblemen.
- 延喜・天暦の治(えんぎ・てんりゃくのち)とは、平安時代中期(10世紀)の醍醐天皇・村上天皇両天皇の治世を聖代視した呼称。
- Engi, Tenryaku no chi is the magnificent imperial reign name for the reigns of Emperor Daigo and Emperor Murakami in the mid Heian Period (the 10th century).
- 10世紀前期、律令官制の再構築を図る醍醐天皇が、延喜格式の編纂事業を開始すると、その一環として交替式の再編纂も行われた。
- In the first half of the tenth century when Emperor Daigo tried to reconstruct the organization of government according to the ritsuryo codes and started the work to compile Engi no kyakushiki (regulations and laws of the Engi era), kotaishiki was recompiled in the work as well.
- 土地課税を重視する考えは9世紀前期の藤原冬嗣執政期の頃から存在していたが、個別人身支配の原則を覆すまでには至らなかった。
- Although the idea of emphasizing tax on land existed in the era when FUJIWARA no Fuyutsugu was in power during the first half of the 9th century, it stopped short of reversing the principle of people-based governance.
- 徳政令(とくせいれい)とは、日本の中世、鎌倉時代から室町時代にかけて朝廷、幕府などが債権や債務の放棄を命じた法令である。
- The 'Tokuseirei' (ordering return of land sold and dissolution of debts) was acts by the Imperial Court and the bakufu (Japanese feudal governments headed by a shogun) during the Middle Ages in Japan, from the Kamakura period to the Muromachi period.
- だが、九十九王子を成立せしめた中世熊野詣の先達たちの影響力は近世にはすでに失われて久しく、九十九王子も既に退転していた。
- However, the influence of the pilgrims who started visiting Kujuku Oji in the Muromachi period already disappeared during the early-modern period, and even the shrines of Kujuku Oji were declining.
- 2004年に「紀伊山地の霊場と参詣道」としてユネスコの世界遺産(文化遺産)として登録されたが、紀伊路は登録されていない。
- In 2004, Kumanokodo Road was registered as a world heritage site (cultural heritage) of UNESCO, as `Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain Range,' but Kiiji route is not registered.
- 翌年(723年)には開墾推進政策の一環として三世一身法が発布され、期限付きではあるが開墾農地(墾田)の私有が認められた。
- In 723, as a part of the land cultivation promotion program, Sanze-isshin Law (a law allowing farmers who cleared new lands to own them for a period of three generations) was promulgated and the private ownership of newly cultivated land was approved though it had a time limit.
- 11世紀後半以降、天皇家の家督者は上皇・院という立場で天皇家を支配し、治天の君と呼ばれ政治の実権を握って院政を展開した。
- After the late eleventh century, the predecessors of the Emperor clan took control of the Emperor clan as a Retired Emperor or a Cloistered Emperor, and were called Chiten no kimi (the retired emperor in power), and held the cloister government by seizing political power.
- 倭館(わかん、왜관)は、中世から近世にかけて、李氏朝鮮(朝鮮王朝)時代に朝鮮半島南部に設定された日本人居留地のことである。
- Wakan (왜관) was a foreign settlement for Japanese people established at the Southern area of Korean Peninsula from the medieval to modern period of Japan, or in the Yi Dynasty Korea period (Korean Dynasties period).
- 一国平均役(いっこくへいきんやく)は、日本の中世において、ある令制国内の荘園・国衙領へ一律的に賦課された租税・課役である。
- Ikkoku heikinyaku refers to land taxes and assignments evenly imposed on shoen (manor) and kokugaryo (territories governed by a provincial government office) of a particular province during the Middle Ages in Japan.
- 記録上は、8世紀=奈良時代を通じて順調に農地の支給(班田)が行われているが、800年の記録を最後に班田は行われなくなった。
- According to the records available, fields were supplied to people (called handen) steadily throughout the eighth century (or the Nara period), but the supply of fields stopped after 800.
- が、8世紀後期ごろから租税負担を回避するために逃亡・浮浪する百姓らが増加していくなど、律令制支配に行き詰まりが生じていた。
- However, from the latter eighth century, more farmers began to leave their land to become wanderers in order to avoid paying tax and the ritsuryo system was confronted with some change.
- また、当初は現地の有力武士が任じられる事が多かった守護の人選も次第に足利将軍家の一族や譜代、功臣の世襲へと変更されていく。
- Moreover, originally the shugo were often selected from the powerful samurais in the local area, but the change was gradually made to select from the descents of the Ashikaga shogun family, the Fudai (hereditary vassals) or the meritorious retainer.
- しかし、近世の大名として残存できた家は、上杉家、京極家、細川奥州家、和泉細川家、小笠原家、島津家、佐竹家、宗家のみである。
- The only families that survived to remain as daimyo in the modern period were as follows: the Uesugi, the Kyogoku, the Hosokawa-oshu, the Izumi-Hosokawa, the Ogasawara, the Shimazu, the Satake and the Soke.
- この複雑な賤民の等級は、唐令の賤民制度の継承であるが、それは中世武家法における賤民制度とちがった律令法の特徴をなしている。
- This complex classification of senmin succeeded the senmin system of torei (codes in the Tang era), and characterizes ritsuryo law as something different from the senmin system under medieval samurai law.
- ヤマト王権が統一国家を形成しようとしていた6世紀には、倭王家の系譜を記す『帝紀』・倭国の神話を記す『旧辞』が、編纂された。
- In the 6th century when the Yamato sovereignty (the ancient Japan sovereignty) was going to form a unified nation, Teiki, which recorded the family tree of the Wa royal family, and Kyuji, in which mythology of Wa was described, were compiled.
- 内閣府政府広報室の世論調査により、君が代を国歌とすることについて大部分の国民に受け入れられていることが明らかとなっている。
- According to an opinion poll carried out by the Public Relations Department of the Cabinet Office, it became clear that a large segment of population has accepted Kimigayo as the national anthem.
- また、多くの物語絵(冊子または絵巻物)が制作されたことが推測されているが、11世紀末以前に制作された作品は現存していない。
- It is estimated that many narrative paintings were created (either in books or scrolls), but no such paintings from before the end of the 11th century remain.
- 七口の関(ななくちのせき)とは、中世に地方より京都に入る7つの街道(京都七口(きょうとななくち))に設置された関所のこと。
- 'Nanakuchi no seki' refers to the checkpoints which were set on the seven roads leading to Kyoto from outlying regions (Kyoto nanakuchi, Kyoto's seven entrances) during medieval times.
- また西方では、中世中期からミラノのキリストの聖骸布、聖杯(聖杯伝説や騎士道物語を生み出す元になった)などの伝承が生まれた。
- In the west, from the mid-Middle Ages, legends such as the Holy Shroud of Milan and the Holy Grail (which became the basis of the Holy Grail Legend and romances) were born.
- 5世紀の中国の歴史書『宋書』倭国伝に、 478年(順帝昇明2年)倭王武が宋 (南朝)に届けた上表文として以下の記述がある。
- In 'Sosho (Sung Shu) Wakokuden,' the Chinese history book of the fifth century, the following sentence is seen as a Johyobun (memorial to the Emperor) delivered from Waobu to Sung (Nan-Dynasty) in 478.
- 歴史的には日野城というが、日野町には中世蒲生氏が築いた音羽城と区別する必要もあり、日野の地域名をとって中野城とも呼ばれる。
- Although it is historically called Hino Castle, it may be called Nakano Castle based on the geographical name in Hino Town, in order to distinguish it from Otowa Castle, which was built by the Gamo clan in the same town during the Middle Ages.
- 傀儡子(くぐつ、傀儡とも言う)とは、9世紀頃から各資料に現れだした、諸国を旅し、芸能によって生計を営んでいた集団の事である。
- Kugutsu were groups of people who traveled around the country and made a living in the performing arts, appearing on the records from around the ninth century.
- しかし、14世紀末ごろになると、一定の氏族がその国の守護職を相伝(世襲)するという守護職の固定化が見られるようになっていた。
- However, in around the end of the 14th century, the shugo-shiki was exclusively possessed by a certain clan that inherited the post of its province, which was called 'monopolization of the shugo-shiki.'
- 12世紀には既に荒廃していたが、付属の荘園群や地方官への推薦権(年挙)は中世まで残り、学館院別当の称号も名誉職として残った。
- Although it was already ruined by the 12th century, affiliated private estates and the chihokan (local official) recommendation (nenkyo) system remained up to the Middle Ages, and also, the title Gakkanin-betto (the chief officer of Gakkanin) also remained to indicate an honorary position.
- 荘園公領制(しょうえんこうりょうせい)とは、日本の中世日本における、荘園と公領を土台とした、重層的土地支配構造のことである。
- The Shoen-Koryo system was a multilayered land governance structure which was grounded in shoen (manors) and lands under the control of the koryo (feudal government) in medieval times in Japan.
- それら整備と復元には、近世以前の古道の復元・復旧だけでなく、公衆トイレの設置といった利用者のための施設の設置も含まれている。
- By the projects, not only old road before the early-modern period was restored and reconstructed, but also facilities for users, such as public restrooms, were built.
- 小辺路の要所に設けられた宿屋・茶店、道標といった交通遺跡が設けられたのも近世のことであり、重要な交通路であったことがわかる。
- The traffic relics which still remain including lodgings, teahouses and guideposts were built at important key of Kohechi in the early-modern period and it is known that Kohechi was an important transport road.
- 10世紀に入ると古代の戸籍制度・班田収授法による租税制度がほぼ崩壊し、国司へ租税納入を請け負わせる国司請負へと移行し始めた。
- In the tenth century, the tax system consisting of koseki system and handen shuju sei in ancient times collapsed and started to transfer to kokushi ukeoi (a system to make local government officials cope with all local taxes in their provinces) which made kokushi (provincial governors) undertake the land tax payment.
- 荘園などを中心とした支配体制である荘園公領制はこの時期に成立し、以後、16世紀まで荘園は貴族たちの収入源として存在し続ける。
- Shoen koryo sei (The System of Public Lands and Private Estates) mainly based on shoen, was established in this period, and after that until the sixteenth century, shoen continued to exist as a source of income for the nobles.
- 嵯峨治世初期は、太政官筆頭だった藤原園人の主導のもと、百姓撫民(貧民救済)そして権門(有力貴族・寺社)抑制の政策がとられた。
- At the beginning of the reign of Emperor Saga, FUJIWARA no Sonohito, the head council of state, lead a policy to rescue farmers (relief of the poor) and control power (influential aristocracy, temples and shrines).
- この邸宅の南側には後世「龍躍池」と呼ばれる広大な池が存在し、池の上には「泉殿」と呼ばれる離れが建てられ、本邸と結ばれていた。
- There was a large pond which was to be called 'Ryuyaku-ike Pond' by the later generation on the south-side of the residence, by the side of which was an outbuilding called 'Izumi-dono,' which was connected to the main building.
- このような7世紀の東アジアの激動を背景として,倭(天武天皇による国号制定以後日本)では中央集権的律令国家建設の必要性が生じた。
- Facing the highly volatile situation in East Asia in the seventh century, there emerged a need for 'Wa' (ancient Japan, 'Wa' was called 'Japan' after the establishment of the name of the country by the Emperor Tenmu) to establish a centralized state under the Ritsuryo system.
- 世界各地の農業社会では、その初期の頃から、播種期に種子を貸与し、収穫期に利子を付けて返済させる慣行が生まれたと考えられている。
- In the agrarian society worldwide, it is thought that a system, in which seeds were loaned to peasants in the planting season to make them pay back the loaned seeds and the born interest in the harvesting season, was launched in the early days.
- これに伴い、平安前期の弘仁貞観期(9世紀)には、政府の租税方針も律令が当初想定していた人への課税から土地への課税へと転換した。
- Therefore, in the Konin-Jogan eras in the early Heian period (the ninth century), the taxes policy of the government was converted from taxation on people, which was the initial policy mapped out under the Ritsuryo codes, to the taxation on lands.
- 戸籍の族籍記載は1914年(大正3年)に撤廃され、第二次世界大戦後の戸籍法改正で表記しないことに定まったが原本には残っていた。
- The practice of describing one's status in family registers was abolished in 1914, and it was determined not to describe one's status after World War II when the Family Registration Law was amended, but the description of the status remained in original family registers.
- 9世紀末頃になると、百姓らの偽籍・浮浪・逃亡が顕著となり、軍事動員の対象となるべき百姓を各戸ごとに把握することが困難となった。
- At the end of the 9th century, false registration, vagrancy, or escape by farmers became prominent; therefore, it was difficult to know for each household who could be mobilized in military affairs.
- そのため、江戸時代を通じて庶民にとっては数十年に一度やってくる異国情緒を持った一種の見世物として沿道の民衆にも親しまれていた。
- Therefore, the procession was accepted favorably by the general public along the road throughout the Edo period, as a kind of exotic show that came once every tens of years.
- 古代・中世の日本において、六位以下の無官の者(散位)に対して救済及び任官、昇叙の機会を得させるために輪番で散位寮に出仕させた。
- In ancient and medieval Japan, the government made post-less courtiers (Sani) with ranks lower than Rokui (Sixth Rank) serve for Saniryo (the office controling Sani, courtier without post) in order to help and give them chances for appointments or promotions.
- 「武士交名」に登載されている武士たちは、承平天慶期に勲功を挙げた者もしくはその子孫であって、武芸を世襲している者たちであった。
- The samurai who were registered in 'bushi-komyo' were those who realized distinguished achievements in the Johei and Tengyo eras and their descendants, or the persons who inherited martial arts from generation to generation.
- また11世紀末期から瘰癧の治癒能力がフランス王権の特権として主張され始め、ノルマン朝のイングランドでも同様の思想が形成された。
- By the end of the eleventh century they had started to claim that the ability to heal the king's evil (scrofula) was the privilege of the French Crown; a similar idea was formed in England under the Norman dynasty.
- 刈田狼藉(かりたろうぜき、かったろうぜき)は、中世日本において土地の知行などを主張するために田の稲を刈り取った実力行使をいう。
- Karita-rozeki or Katta-rozeki (刈田狼藉) means to harvest rice crops illegally in order to claim chigyo (tenure) to land# in medieval Japan.
- 継受法としての律令法が7世紀以降長期にわたって強行されたことについては、国家権力の強大さ、人民一般の政治的無権利が第一にある。
- The primary reason why the adopted ritsuryo law was enforced for a long period of time since the seventh century was the tremendous power of government and the lack of political rights for the general public.
- また、高野参詣道をめぐって村上・山陰が指摘するとおり近世の巡礼では参詣道をたどること自体に信仰上の意味がしばしば失われている。
- As 'Murakami Sanin' pointed out in an article concerning the pilgrimage road to Mt. Koya, during the early-modern period, most pilgrims did not appreciate the religious significance of just walking pilgrimage roads.
- 19世紀中ごろまでに、国内の社会矛盾と国外からの圧力(ロシア、イギリス、アメリカ船の接近)により、幕藩体制は限界を迎えていた。
- Due to domestic social contradictions and pressure from the inside and outside of Japan (for example, ships of Russia, of England, and of US came near to Japan), the bakufu-domain system had reached its limit by around the middle of the 19th century.
- 中世では、その「人々」を構成するものもまた多様であったが、会所内ではその多様さから生まれた身分差を気にせず過ごすことができた。
- There were various things that structured 'people' during the medieval era, but one could spend time within Kaisho without concern for their birth.
- その連歌といえば、鎌倉時代中ごろから約百年、御霊の鎮魂の性格を持つ花の下連歌が無縁の遁世者によってひらかれ、好評を博していた。
- Concerning that renga, the Hananomoto-renga (a form of renga), which had the characteristic of quelling the soul of the dead, performed by unrelated people who entered the priesthood, was performed for about a hundred years from the mid-Kamakura period and became popular.
- 大学別曹としては、和気広世創立の弘文院、藤原冬嗣創立の勧学院、橘嘉智子・橘氏公創立の学館院、在原行平創立の奨学院の4つが有名。
- Kobun-in, established by WAKE no Hiroyo, Kangaku-in, established by FUJIWARA no Fuyutsugu, Gakkan-in, established by TACHIBANA no Kachiko and TACHIBANA no Ujikimi, and Shogaku-in, established by ARIWARA no Yukihira are four of the most famous Daigaku-besso.
- 中世には葛西氏の家臣となって奥州に土着し、三つの家系が交互に興亡して近隣の諸勢力と抗争しつつ、多くの分家庶流を生んで繁茂した。
- In medieval times they were localized in Oshu as retainers of the KASAI clan; the three family lines rose and fell alternately, had conflicts with neighboring forces and spawned many branch families.
- なお、戦後において10-11世紀の国家体制を律令国家体制とは異なる体制(王朝国家体制)とする王朝国家論が唱えられるようになった。
- After World War II, a theory known as the dynastic state theory was developed, and according to this theory, the political system of the regime that held power in the tenth and eleventh centuries was different from that of the Ritsuryo regime (a political system based on the philosophies of Confucianism and Chinese Legalism).
- 惣村が最盛期を迎えたのは室町時代中期(15世紀)ごろであり、応仁の乱などの戦乱に対応するため、自治能力が非常に高まったとされる。
- Soson reached the mature stage in the mid-Muromachi period (around the fifteenth century), and it is said that the self-governing capability was very enhanced so as to respond to conflicts such as the Onin War.
- 醍醐には大勢の皇子がいたが皇太子になったのは、穏子所生の子のみであり後世の摂関政治の基礎が実はこの時期に形成されたことが分かる。
- Daigo had many princes, but there was only one who became a crown prince and that was the child of Onshi and it turned out that the foundation of the later Sekkan government was in fact made during that time.
- 15世紀、朝鮮半島南部に三浦と呼ばれる日本人居留地が存在し、宗氏を始めとする西日本諸勢力は三浦を拠点に朝鮮王朝に通交をしていた。
- In the fifteenth century, there existed a Japanese settlement called Sanpo in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula, and major forces in the western part of Japan such as the So clan maintained amicable relations with the Korean Dynasty using Sanpo as their base.
- 農奴が保有財産を転貸することは珍しくなく、13世紀頃からは領地(領主の直轄地)での労役の代わりに金銭納入が行われるようになった。
- It was not rare for the serfs to sublease their estate, and from the thirteenth century the payment of money began instead of labor services on the land (the land directly controlled by the lords).
- 雑務沙汰(ざつむさた/ぞうむさた)とは、中世日本で使用された用語であり、所領・年貢を除く民事関係の相論・訴訟・裁判のことである。
- Zatsumusata is a term that was used in medieval Japan, referring to civil dispute, suit, and trial except for territory and land tax.
- 成務天皇は13代で、応神天皇(15代)仁徳天皇(16代)や倭の五王よりも遡る4世紀のことで、時代でいうと古墳時代の前期にあたる。
- Emperor Seimu was the 13th emperor of Japan and lived in the 4th century before Emperor Ojin (15th), Emperor Nintoku (16th) and the five kings of Wa (Japan) in what was the first half of the Kofun period.
- 国衙軍制(こくがぐんせい)とは、日本の古代末期から中世初頭にかけて(10世紀 - 12世紀)成立した国家軍事制度を指す歴史概念。
- The kokuga forces system indicates a historical concept of a national military system established in the period from around the end of ancient times to the early medieval period of Japan (the 10th century to the 12th century).
- ところで、王朝国家体制が成立して以来、11世紀中期にかけて、中心的な税目である官物の収納については受領が大きな権限を有していた。
- By the way, in the period from the time when the dynastic nation system was established to the middle 11th century, zuryo had a significant right to collect kanmotsu, a main tax.
- 年爵(ねんしゃく)とは、日本の古代・中世前期において、治天の君及び三宮(太皇太后、皇太后、皇后)が保有していた叙位権を指す用語。
- The term Nenshaku means the right to confer a court rank on a person that was granted to chiten no kimi (the Retired Emperor in power) and sangu (the Three Empresses : Great Empress Dowager, Empress Dowager and Empress) in Japan's ancient/early medieval period.
- この事は近世大名としての伊達氏・仙台藩にとっては一種の後枷となり、伊達騒動・戊辰戦争に至るまで様々な問題も引き起こす事になった。
- Later on, these circumstances became a source of trouble for the Kinsei daimyo of the Date clan and the Sendai Domain, and caused various problems including the Date riot and the Boshin War.
- 所領相論に係る裁判についても、それまで国・郡に裁判権が認められていたのが、11世紀中期以降は、太政官のみが裁判することとされた。
- Also, jurisdiction of shoryo soron, which was given to both the nation and gun up to then, was centralized to Dajokan from the mid-11th century.
- 11・12世紀ごろには城塞の建設に伴っての家門形成が顕著であり、このころ形成された多くの家門の名が支配地や城塞を起源としている。
- In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, many families were formed with the establishment of castles; the names of the families that formed during this period were derived from their territorial lands or castles.
- 信西は、自らの子・成憲と清盛の女(後の花山院兼雅室)の婚姻によって平氏一門との提携を世間に示し、改革は順調に進行するかに見えた。
- Shinzei arranged a marriage between his own son Narinori and Kiyomori's daughter (who later became the wife of Kanemasa KAZANIN), thereby showing society the strong partnership between his own family and the Taira clan,
- 摂関家が統治権を握ることにより、他の家系は出世の見込みがなくなり、特定の業務を担当することで貴族としての生き残りを図っていった。
- Because the regent's house took the power to exercise sovereignty, the other family lines became unable to get ahead and survived as nobles by being in charge of a particular field of work.
- 中世の武家社会において、主君は家臣にとって必ずしも絶対的な存在ではなく、主君と家臣団は相互に依存・協力しあう運命共同体であった。
- In the samurai society of the medieval period, the existence and position of a lord was not necessarily guaranteed or absolute to his retainers; instead, lords and their group of retainers had a shared fate, and their relationship was one of mutual cooperation.
- また、同じ近世以降の熊野参詣道でも文人墨客の道として利用された大辺路などと異なり、小辺路はもっぱら庶民の参詣道として用いられた。
- And unlike Ohechi which was another pilgrimage road to Kumano after the early-modern period and used by mainly writers and artists, Kohechi was used by mainly the common people.
- そうした生活道路が熊野と高野山を結ぶ参詣道として利用されるようになったのは近世以後のことであり、小辺路の名も近世初期に初出する。
- Since the early-modern period, such a local road was used as a pilgrimage route that connected Kumano and Mt. Koya, and the name 'Kohechi' also appeared at the beginning of the early-modern period for the first time.
- 元より半神話の世界なので、正確な比定は困難であるが、現在の川上村 (奈良県)、或いは東吉野村などの吉野川沿いの地域が想定される。
- Needless to say, as it is a story of half-mythical world, it is difficult to identify correctly, a region along Yoshino-gawa River such as present Kawakami-mura (Nara Prefecture) or Higashiyoshino-mura is considered.
- さらに、太平洋戦争での敗戦をもって近代と現代を区分することもある(以上の詳細→古代、中世日本、近世、近代、現代 (時代区分))。
- Furthermore, the timing of the defeat in the Pacific War is sometimes used as the end of the modern times and the start of the contemporary period (for more information, refer to ancient times, medieval Japan, the early-modern times, modern times, or the contemporary period).
- 第二次世界大戦後は、日本の歴史の独自性を主張する立場は大きく後退し、歴史に普遍性を見出そうとする社会科学的な立場が主流となった。
- After World War II, the power of insisting on the uniqueness of Japanese history has become weak, and the power of taking the social science-based views of trying to find universality in history has become major.
- おじいさん、おばあさん、姫、公卿・皇族、職人、商人、天皇、武士と「中世的キャラクター」がこの時代(10世紀)に既に出揃っている。
- All the medieval characters of this period (the 10th century) such as grandfather, grandmother, princess, lords, nobles, craftsmen, merchants, emperors and samurai were already present in this tale.
- だが、室町幕府の征夷大将軍足利義政はこの最中に花の御所を改築し、世事に全く関心を示さず、堪りかねた後花園天皇の勧告をも無視した。
- However, Yoshimasa ASHIKAGA, the seii taishogun (literally, 'great general who subdues the barbarians') of the Muromachi bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun), had no interest in the real world, renovated the Hana-no-gosho residence, and ignored the advice from the Emperor Gohanazono who became concerned with the situation.
- 院政期という比較的早い時期において成立し、有職故実・公事を中心とする題材を後世の説話集に提供したため、説話に分類されることもある。
- Fukego is sometimes classified as a setsuwa (a collection of anecdotes) because it was written in the earlier period, in the times under cloistered rule, and presented such subjects as yusoku-kojitsu (knowledge of court rules, ceremony, decorum and records of the past) and official court events to setsuwa collections of the later period.
- しかし、安土桃山時代になると、太閤検地などを通じて土地所有関係が大きく整理されたため、出挙は近世に入るまでに消滅したとされている。
- However, after the several matters relating to land ownership were drastically controlled through Taiko-kenchi (the land surveys conducted by Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI) and other systems in the Azuchi-Momoyama period, Suiko is believed to have been abolished by the beginning of the early-modern times.
- 以上の記号は、地上実況気象通報式などの形式に変換され、国際的に気象情報を交換する気象通報式として各観測地点から世界中に送信される。
- The above symbols are converted to a format, such as surface synoptic observations, and are transmitted globally from observation points in the meteorological data format for exchanging such data internationally.
- 嘉元2年(1304年)に後深草が62歳で死去、翌嘉元3年(1305年)には亀山が57歳で死去し、両統迭立は第2世代の時代に入った。
- In 1304, Gofukakusa died at 62, and in 1305, Kameyama died at 57, and Ryoto tetsuritsu entered its second generation.
- 室町幕府は今川貞世を九州へ派遣して南朝勢力を鎮圧し、直冬も幕府に屈服したため、足利義満の代には九州も幕府の支配するところとなった。
- Then the Muromachi bakufu dispatched Sadayo IMAGAWA to Kyushu to subjugate the Southern Court forces there, and after Tadafuyu also yielded to the bakufu, Kyushu passed back under the control of the bakufu during the rule of Shogun Yoshimitsu ASHIKAGA.
- 11世紀後半には堅田の漁師達が下鴨社の支配下に入り(堅田御厨)、続いて堅田とその周辺地域に比叡山延暦寺の荘園(堅田荘)が成立した。
- In the late 11th century, fishermen of Katata became under the control of Shimogamo-sha Shrine (Katata Mikuriya) and then manors owned by Enryaku-ji Temple on Mt. Hiei were established in Katata and its neighboring regions.
- 9世紀前半に円仁が中国五台山 (中国)の念仏三昧法を比叡山に伝えており、源信_(僧侶)が『往生要集』を著して天台浄土教を大成した。
- In the first part of the ninth century, Ennin introduced the Nenbutsu Zanmai Ho (method of mental absorption in the Buddhist invocation) of Wutai Shan (in China) to Mt. Hiei and Genshin (priest) perfected Tendai Jodo sect by writing 'Ojoyoshu' (The Essentials of Salvation).
- 国際連盟を脱退し、日本はドイツ、イタリアのファシスト政権と日独伊三国同盟結び、第二次世界大戦(太平洋戦争・大東亜戦争)に突入した。
- Withdrawing from the League of Nations, Japan allied itself with the fascist government of Germany and that of Italy (the alliance of Japan, Germany, and Italy) and entered World War II (the Pacific War/the Greater East Asian War).
- そうした流れの中で16世紀中葉に登場した織田信長は、兵農分離などにより自領の武力を強力に組織化して急速に支配地域を拡大していった。
- Nobunaga ODA who appeared around the middle of the 16th century established a strong fighting organization in his territory, for example, by separating samurai from the farmers, and rapidly expanding his territory.
- 供御人(くごにん)とは、日本中世において、朝廷に属し天皇・皇族などに山海の特産物などの食料や各種手工芸品などを貢納した集団である。
- Kugonin was a group, during the medieval period in Japan, that belonged to the Imperial court who presented food such as special products from the mountains and the sea, and various handicraft products to the Emperor and the Imperial Family.
- 12世紀中期に鳥羽上皇が没すると、治天の君の座を巡って天皇家・摂関家を巻き込む政争が起こり、軍事衝突によって解決した(保元の乱)。
- After the death of the retired Emperor Toba in the middle of the 12th century, a political fight for the seat of chiten no kimi occurred, which involved the Emperor's family and Sekkan-ke, and was resolved after a military confrontation (the Hogen War).
- 中世日朝交易は、通交使節による進上と回賜、朝鮮王朝による公貿易、日朝双方の商人による私貿易の三つの形態が組み合わさったものであった。
- The medieval trade between Japan and Korea consisted of three trading styles: shinjo (courtesy visits with gifts) by trading envoys and kaishi (luxurious return gifts), the public trade by the Korean Dynasty, and private trade by Japanese and Korean merchants.
- しかし、9世紀に入ると支配・収取から逃れるために百姓たちの逃亡・浮浪が顕著となっていき、律令制支配・収取は大きな転換が迫られていた。
- In the ninth century, however, farmers began to flee from their villages and became vagrants in increasing numbers in order to escape government control and taxation, thereby necessitating a major change in the system of administration and taxation based on the ancient ritsuryo legal codes.
- つぎに自由貴族においても官職や位階、領地を基盤として家門形成が進み、中世盛期には下級貴族や都市の支配階級においても家門が形成された。
- In the world of noblemen, a family formation developed based on government positions, court ranks and territorial lands; during the prime of the medieval ages, families were formed among lower-ranking nobles and the ruling class in cities.
- そうした立場からは、古代から中世への過渡期に位置づけられるべき王朝国家体制期は、11世紀中期に終わったのだとする見解も出されている。
- From the above standpoint, some assert that the period of Dynastic polity, which should be regarded as the transitional period from the ancient times to the medieval age, ended in mid-11th century.
- 13世紀中ごろから畿内などでの活動が活発であった悪党や、奥州での安東氏と蝦夷の対立など、政情不安に乗じてのものだとも考えられている。
- It is thought that the movement tried to take advantage of political unrest such as the akuto (people who rebelled against shoen owners and the government) that were active in the Kinki area, and the conflict between the Ando family and Ezo in Oshu around the middle of the 13th century.
- 近世(江戸時代)に入ると、将軍家や大名家は権力を正当化するため、儒教思想を積極的に採用し、歴史の編纂を通じて自らの正当性を主張した。
- Entering the early-modern times (the Edo period), the Shogun family and Daimyo families (feudal lord families) adopted Confucian thought actively to legitimatize their power and compiled their own histories to assert their legitimacy.
- 21世紀を迎え、グローバル化やインターネット社会の拡大なども相まって、戦後一貫して進んできた文化・生活の多様化が、一層進展している。
- The culture and lives have been diversified consistently since the end of the war, but entering the 21st century, they have further diversified together with globalization and the trend of society where the Internet has been used more and more widely.
- 13世紀中期頃から、貨幣経済の浸透と商品流通の活発化、村落の形成、地頭ら武士による荘園公領への侵出など、大きな社会変動が生じ始めた。
- Starting around the middle of the 13th century, the social system started changing drastically: For example, money had become used in the economy, goods were circulated actively, and samurai, such as jito (managers and lords of manors), had advanced into shoen koryo (public lands and private estates).
- 戦史編纂研究所の分析は、世宗実録の敗戦記述を無視して偽使者の言葉のみを取り上げており、意図的に史料を歪曲して解釈している疑いがある。
- But the analysis conducted by the research center that compiles Korean military annals ignores the entry in the True Record of King Sejong's Reign that describes the expedition as a military defeat, focusing exclusively on the words of a man who claimed to be an emissary, leading to doubts about whether they intentionally distorted historical records to support their explanation.
- 宗教については、日蓮宗や浄土真宗といった厭世気分と免罪への求心から発しその後救世への渇望と強い結束を見せた宗派の布教が成功している。
- With respect to religion, propagation of religious schools that started with a pessimistic way of thinking and desire for indulgence and later showed anxiety for salvation and strong solidarity such as the Nichiren sect and Jodo Shinshu (the True Pure Land Sect of Buddhism) succeeded.
- 唯物史観の影響を受け、武士は古代支配階級である貴族や宗教勢力を排除し、中世をもたらした変革者として石母田正らによって位置づけられた。
- Influenced by the materialist concept of history, Tadashi ISHIMODA and others positioned the bushi as the reformer who pushed out the ancient governing class such as the aristocrats and religious power of influence and brought on the medieval times.
- なお、日本美術史では20世紀末頃から「弘仁・貞観時代」という表記をあまり用いなくなり、「平安時代前期」と称することが多くなっている。
- In Japanese art history, the term 'Konin-Jogan Culture' has become less common from the end of the twentieth century, and the term 'early Heian period' is commonly used.
- また18世紀に入ると日本は飢饉が頻発するようになり、天保の大飢饉になると藩によっては収穫ゼロ(津軽藩など)の所も出てくるようになる。
- In the 18th century, famines were frequent in Japan, and after the Tenpo Famine, some domains were unable to yield any crops at all (Tsugaru Domain and so on).
- 中世日本の公家社会における「家」においては経済的基盤である家領と並んで社会的基盤とも呼ぶべき家門が家の存立を支える重要な存在であった。
- In a 'family' in the court nobles' society of medieval Japan, the following two factors were important to support the existence of the family: its territory, which constituted the economic base; and the family, which could be called its social base.
- 代銭納(だいせんのう)とは、中世日本の荘園・国衙領・武家領などにおいて、公事や年貢、地子などの納入を現物に代わって貨幣で納入する制度。
- The term Daisenno means the system of paying kuji (public service), nengu (tribute), and/or jishi (land tax) in cash, instead of in kind, that was introduced in medieval Japan at the shoen (manor), kokugaryo (territories governed by provincial government office), and/or bukeryo (territories of samurai family).
- 10世紀中期頃、国衙行政は在庁官人の手で運営されるようになり、受領の中には任国へ赴任せず、在庁官人へ行政を任せる者も多くなっていった。
- During the middle of the tenth century, the administration of kokuga came to be managed by zaichokanjins, some of the zuryos did not go to their place of assignment and often left administration to the zaichokanjins.
- したがって、少なくとも17世紀半ば、江戸時代前期において、天皇の御世を長かれと祝賀する歌である、とする解釈が存在したことは確かである。
- Therefore, we can say for sure that, at least in the middle of the seventeenth century, namely during the early part of the Edo Period, there was an interpretation that the poem in question was for celebrating the reign of the emperor and wishing his reign would last long.
- また、世間とは公(上位)と私(下位)が交錯する世界であり、そこに対しても(上位権力をも対象に含むことから)公儀と呼称する場合もあった。
- Seken (the world) was a place where Oyake (higher rank) and Watakushi (lower rank) mixed and in some cases it was also called Kogi (because it included the upper authorities).
- 平安後期になると、「家」内部で家業の継承をめぐる紛争が頻発し、12世紀中葉にはその紛争が武力衝突として具現化してしまった(保元の乱)。
- In the late Heian Period, disputes over the succession of family business frequently occurred inside the 'clan,' and in the mid twelfth century, the disputes evolved into tangible forms of armed conflicts (the Hogen war).
- この事件以降、12世紀中葉の平治の乱まで中央の政治抗争は武力を伴わず、死刑も執行されない非武力的な政治の時代が永らく続くこととなった。
- After this incident, until the Heiji War in the middle of 12th century, the non-violent political age continued, during which central political conflicts did not lead to military confrontations or the execution of the death penalty.
- 中世以降、近世の終わりまで一般大衆の動員は工兵・兵站といった後方任務に限られており、彼らの戦闘要員としての動員は非常時にしか見られない。
- From the middle ages to the end of the early modern era, the recruitment of ordinary people was limited to the support roles of kohei (military engineering) and heitan (military logistics) and such individuals were only mobilized for battle in emergency situations.
- 一方で、中世陰陽道研究家の小坂眞二の研究によれば、平安時代に実際に使用されていた六壬神課と『占事略决』の六壬神課には齟齬があるとされる。
- On the other hand, Mediaeval Onmyodo researcher Shinji KOSAKA asserts that there is an inconsistency between Rikujinshinka that was actually used in the Heian period and Rikujinshinka explained in 'Senji ryakketsu.'
- その後、長く不明になっていたが、江戸幕府の医家多紀元簡が紅葉山文庫より上下2巻全18編の古写本を発見して再び世に伝えられるようになった。
- Although it had been lost for a long time since then, an old manuscript of the two-volume dictionary composed of 18 chapters was dug up from the Momijiyama Library by Genkan TAKI, who served as a doctor in the Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun), and it came to be handed down again to posterity.
- 8世紀後半の西大寺 (奈良市)文書や木簡出土例などから「高志公」は古代の越後国頸城郡・古志郡など、越後南部に分布したウジ名と考えられる。
- According to Saidai-ji Monjo (documents of Saidai-ji Temple in Nara City) and unearthed articles of mokkan (a narrow strip of wood on which an official message is written) in the latter half of the eighth century, it is considered that 'Koshi no kimi' was a name of Uji distributed in the southern part of Echigo such as Kubiki County, Koshi County, and so on in Echigo Province in ancient times.
- もう1つは、中世史料を詳細に検討した結果、進止の語が土地支配を意味するのに対し、知行の語は土地からの収益処分を指すものとした見解である。
- The other is as follows; As a result of detailed investigations of historical materials concerning the medieval period, it is considered that the term of shinshi indicated land control, but that of chigyo the right of obtaining profits from land.
- これは保元の乱,平治の乱から治承寿永の乱と続く、戦乱の時代により厭世観(末法思想)が強まり、魂の救済が求められるようになったためである。
- And as the Hogen Rebellion led to the Heiji War, which blossomed in turn into the Genpei War (the war between the Minamoto (Gen) and Taira (Hei) clans, known as Jisho-Juei no ran in Japanese for the two eras in which it occurred), this age of wars and rebellions only reinforced a pessimistic view of the world (based on the idea of Mappo, the final and worst age in Buddhist theology), and led to many seeking salvation for their souls.
- 皇族や貴人の参詣道として利用された中辺路と異なり、小辺路は生活道としてはともかく参詣道としては近世以降に利用されるようになった道である。
- Unlike Nakahechi which had been a pilgrimage road for the imperial family and nobles, Kohechi had been originally a community road for the locals and came to be used as a pilgrimage road after the early-modern period.
- この53の宿場はそれぞれ風光明媚な場所や有名な名所旧跡に設けられている場合も多く、当時浮世絵や和歌・俳句の題材にしばしば取り上げられた。
- Many of the 53 stations are established in places where the scenery is beautiful, or in famous historic spots, and often served as the subjects of ukiyoe or waka/haiku.
- ただ、中世の熊野詣を主導した天台宗系による順峯は、那智山青岸渡寺によって復興され、今日でも行われているので、完全に途絶したわけではない。
- However, junbu by a branch of the Tendai sect which led pilgrimages to Kumano Sanzan in the medieval period was revived by Seigando-ji Temple in Nachi-san Mountain; since this style is still performed today, junbu is not completely stopped.
- 当時日本の近代化のほとんどは当時世界一の大帝国だったイギリスを模範に行っていたため、歌詞もイギリスの国歌を手本に選んだとも言われている。
- It is also said that the words were selected using the British National Anthem as a model because almost all modernization of Japan at that time was carried out after the model of Great Britain, which was the biggest imperial monarchy in the world at that time.
- 戦乱といえば、15世紀前半から南部氏が仙北・鹿角に出兵(この鹿角争奪戦は永禄頃まで続く)、伊達氏の河北地方への侵食など領地争いが目立つ。
- With respect to wars, disputes over territories are prominent as seen in sending troops by the Nanbu clan to Senboku and Kazuno since the first half of the fifteenth century (this war over Kazuno continued until around Eiroku Era) and invasion into the Kahoku region by the Date clan.
- なお、これとは別に中世の前期の頃までは、他者に対して実力による制裁権を行使できる者を公卿クラスを含めて「武士」と言い表す呼称も存在した。
- And apart from this, until the early medieval times, those who could have the right of enforcing sanctions to others on their merits, including the kugyo (the top court officials) class, were called 'bushi.'
- 中世一時的には氏長者の権威が低下する時期もあったものの、氏長者には氏爵といい、朝廷より一門に対する位階任官者推薦の特権が付与されていた。
- Although the authority of the ujinochoja sometimes temporarily declined during the medieval period, the Imperial Court granted the ujinochoja the privilege of ujinoshaku that allowed them to recommend candidates within their clans for the ikai (Court rank).
- 10世紀中葉から後期にかけて、ある官職に伴う権限義務を特定の家系へ請け負わせる官司請負制が中央政界でも地方政治でも著しく進展していった。
- From the middle to the end of the 10th century, the government official contract system developed in the national political arena as well as in regional politics: specific family lines were given contracts to have authority and duties associated with certain government posts.
- 『申楽談儀』同様に世阿弥自身の発言であり極めて重要な資料だが、「○○作」「××曲」の定義については議論が分かれており、注意が必要である。
- Like 'Sarugaku Dangi,' this is an extremely important resource, as it contains the words of Zeami himself; but it should be used with caution because the opinion is divided regarding the definition of 'written by XX' and 'composed by XX' notation.
- 十六世紀中頃(戦国時代末期)、頼高の孫・及川頼家の時、同族間の内紛により主君葛西氏に領地を召し上げられてこの家系も没落し多くは帰農した。
- During the mid-sixteenth century (the late Sengoku period), in the time of Yoriie OIKAWA, a grandson of Yoritaka, they were deprived of the territory by his master, the KASAI clan; subsequently, the family line went to ruin and took up farming again.
- なお、一部の例外を除いて、各藩は藩士への知行体制を18世紀初旬までに地方知行制(現地領主制)から俸禄制(サラリー制)へと変遷させている。
- In addition, with some exceptions, by early in the 18th century, each domain had changed the fief system for retainers to provide a land into the salary system.
- 撰銭(えりぜに、えりせん、せんせん)とは、日本の中世後期において、支払決済の際に、劣悪な銭貨(鐚銭・悪銭とも)を忌避・排除したことをいう。
- Erizeni (also called erisen or sensen) indicates the act of not accepting low-quality coins (called bitasen coins or akusen coins) in payments, carried out in the latter half of the medieval period in Japan.
- 安土桃山時代の16世紀後半から、本所となる伊勢以外にも江戸、大阪、京都などいわゆる三都に出店し日本全国に商売のネットワークを広げていった。
- They expanded the business network across the country by starting in business not only in Ise Province, where their headquarters were placed, but also in the so-called three cities, Edo (now Tokyo), Osaka and Kyoto since the latter half of the 16th century, in the Azuchi-Momoyama period.
- 朝廷では、13世紀後半以降、後深草天皇の子孫(持明院統)と亀山天皇の子孫(大覚寺統)の両血統の天皇が交互に即位する両統迭立が行われていた。
- After the late thirteenth century, the Imperial Court adopted the ryoto tetsuritsu system, a system in which succession to the imperial throne alternated between the two ancestral lines of the imperial family: Emperor Gofukakusa (the Jimyoin line) and Emperor Kameyama (the Daikakuji line).
- これは、渡航前に世宗 (朝鮮王)から「倭の紙、堅籾、造作の法また宜しく伝習すべし」と、日本の技術を導入するように命じられていたからである。
- This is because, prior to starting the mission, he was instructed by Sejong (a Korean king) that 'You should learn how to make paper, how to make hard blades and how to build houses and should bring back the technologies concerned,' or he was instructed to introduce technologies in Japan.
- この枡は、制定後間もなく全国的に流布し、その後は14世紀初頭に至るまで、数多い私枡のなかにあって、一定の権威をもった公定枡として機能した。
- Soon after it was designated, Senjimasu was put into circulation throughout the nation, and until the beginning of the fourteenth century it functioned as an official measure holding constant authority within many private measures.
- 「戸主高志公」(名を欠く)の戸では1年間に6名もの人が亡くなっているが、9世紀前半は日本古代史上でもまれにみる天変地異の続いた時代である。
- In Ko 'headed by KOSHI NO KIMI' (no given name), as many as six members died in one year, because the first half of the ninth century was a rare time in ancient Japanese history when natural disasters occurred continuously.
- この時期は古代律令国家の残滓を見せつつも、次なる中世国家につながる時代性格も併せもっており、まさに古代から中世への過渡期に当たるといえる。
- This period is exactly a transitional period from ancient times to medieval times since it had elements of the precursor to the medieval national polity while keeping the vestiges of the ancient Ritsuryo-based nation.
- しかしながら、呉鎮守府、佐世保鎮守府の整備が優先され、舞鶴の軍港建設費用には日清戦争によって清から支払われた賠償金があてられる事になった。
- However, the improvement of Kure Chinjufu (Kure Naval District) and Sasebo Chinjufu (Sasebo Naval District) was prioritized before Maizuru, and so the monetary compensation for the Sino-Japanese War paid by Ching was to be appropriated for building the naval port in Maizuru.
- 現地派遣の筆頭国司(受領)が前代より大幅に権限委譲された上で、富豪百姓層を通じて地域支配、税の徴収を行う王朝国家体制が10世紀に確立した。
- As a result a system of the dynasty state was established in the 10th century, in which the heads of the provincial governors (Zuryo) who had been sent to each region received much stronger empowerment than their previous generation and ruled the region and collected tax through the rich peasants.
- さらに後世、初句が「君が代は」となり、さまざまな形で世に流布されるにつれ、歌われる場も多様となり、解釈の状況が変わっていくことは後述する。
- In addition, it will be described below that, in later ages, the first line was changed to 'kimigayoha' and, as the waka was disseminated in society in various forms, situations under which the waka was chanted varied and the situations related to interpretation were changed.
- 現在では、考古学からする文化圏の検討と、北東北に分布するアイヌ語地名から、7世紀以降の蝦夷についてアイヌとの連続性を認める説が有力である。
- Nowadays, the leading hypothesis is derived from a theory that considers the issue from the perspective of cultural areas based on archaeology; another theory considers the continuity of Emishi after the seventh century with the Ainu, as examined from the perspective of toponyms of the Ainu language distributed in the northern Tohoku region.
- 中世の倭館交易では日本側は銅、硫黄、金を輸出したが、南方物産である赤色染料のスオウ、コショウなどのスパイス類も琉球経由などで朝鮮に転売した。
- In the Medieval Period wakan trade, Japan exported copper, sulfur, and gold, and also resold the products of the south seas like sappanwood, a red dye, and spices like pepper to Korea via the Ryukyu Islands.
- そのため、16世紀になると室町幕府や守護大名、戦国大名たちは撰銭を禁ずる撰銭令(えりぜにれい)を発令して、円滑な貨幣流通を実現しようとした。
- Thus, in the sixteenth century the Muromachi bakufu, Shugo daimyo (Japanese territorial lord as provincial constable), and daimyo (Japanese territorial lord) during the Sengoku Period tried to officially announce a ban on the Erizeni to achieve smoother money circulation.
- 中世東アジアにおいて倭寇前期倭寇と呼ばれる海上勢力が猛威を奮い、朝鮮王朝は討伐・懐柔・室町幕府への鎮圧要請など、様々な対応を余儀なくされる。
- During the Middle Age, influential maritime forces called zenki-wako (early Japanese pirates) threatened East Asia, and the Korean Dynasty was obliged to take various countermeasures including the dispatch of troops, attempts to conciliate the pirates, and requests for suppression of the pirates sent to the Muromachi bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun).
- 古代のカースト制氏族社会においては自由な土地の売買や譲渡は許されていなかったが、紀元前5世紀前後には社会の発展とともに緩やかになっていった。
- In the ancient caste system clan society, free purchase and sale or transfer of lands were not allowed, but around the fifth century B.C., they were loosely allowed with the development of society.
- 11世紀ごろに武家の棟梁と呼ぶべき指導的な武士(例えば源頼信など)が登場すると、多数の武士が棟梁と主従関係を結んで、棟梁の郎党となっている。
- Around the eleventh century, as leading samurai like MINAMOTO no Yorinobu who should be called toryo (a leader) appeared, many samurai connected master to servant relationships with toryo and become roto for the toryo.
- 使節遵行(しせつじゅんぎょう)とは、中世日本において、不動産をめぐる訴訟(所領相論)に対し幕府が発した裁定を執行するための現地手続きをいう。
- Shisetsu jungyo was a on-site procedure to carry out a judgment which was handed down by the bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) on shoryo soron (litigation over real estate) in the medieval Japan.
- なお、荘園公領制が完全に崩壊するのは、南北朝時代よりも2世紀後の太閤検地によってであるが、この南北朝期に既に大きな転機を迎えていたのである。
- Nevertheless, although the shoen koryo sei (system of controlling private and public lands) did not completely collapse until more than 200 years after the reunification of the Southern and Northern Courts, when the Taiko Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI ordered his great country-wide land survey, land ownership had already reached a major turning point during the period of the Northern and Southern Courts.
- むろん碩学の定信も承知の事であり、これについては「承久の乱や正平一統という非常事態が生んだ産物で太平の世に挙げる先例ではない」と述べている。
- Of course, the great scholar Sadanobu knew of them, and said 'these cases were caused by emergencies, such as the Jokyu Rebellion or Shohei-Itto, and were not a precedent for the piping time of peace.'
- これについても兼実は「夷狄(いてき)」の秀衡を任じたことは「乱世の基」であると非難しているが、これらの施策により日宋貿易は本格化していった。
- Kanezane also wrote regarding this and argued that promoting the 'barbarian' Hidehira was 'the cause of more troubled times,' but these actions led to further developments in Japan-Song trade.
- その記録として「氏子駈帳」なる文書が残されており、1893年(明治26年)まで250年間に渡って計87冊・3万世帯に及ぶ記録が残されている。
- There remains a document which recorded their business; it is titled 'Ujikogaricho' and formed of 87 volumes in total, and it recorded about 30,000 households of kiji-shi for 250 years until 1893 (the year 26 of the Meiji era).
- この四天王像は西大寺四王堂に今も安置されるが、増長天像が足元に踏みつける邪鬼だけが創建当時のもので、その他の像、本体も後世の作、補作である。
- Those statues of Shitenno are enshrined in Shitendo (hall for shitenno) of Saidai-ji Temple even today, but only Jaki (imp) which is downtrodden by statue of Zochoten (guardian of the southern quarter) is the original since establishment and all other statues are manufactured or supplemented in the later period.
- 乙名が惣村の構成員から年功序列で選出されたのに対し、沙汰人は領主・荘官の執行人という職を出自とし、またその地位を世襲していた点で異なっていた。
- A point of differentiation between the Otona and satanin was that the members of the Otona were selected by seniority from among the members of the soson, but the satanin was selected from among people who acted as executers on behalf of a lord or a shokan, and its position was transferred by heredity.
- 兵卒の身分は依然として武士と農民の間に位置して低かったが、功を認められれば侍や特異な例ではあるが豊臣秀吉のように大名にまで出世する者もあった。
- The low status held by ashigaru was intermediate between that of samurai and peasants but there were those such as Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI whose abilities were recognized and who rose to the rank of daimyo (feudal lord), although it was a peculiar case.
- 325年頃にコンスタンティヌス1世が発布した法令は、コロヌスの半奴隷的な地位を規定するだけでなく、法廷における告訴権を保証するものでもあった。
- The law promulgated by Constantinus I in 325 not only ordained the half-slave status of colonus but also guaranteed the right of lawsuit in court.
- なお、奈良時代の日本の人口は約500万人、農地は100万町(約120万ヘクタール、21世紀初頭が約480万ヘクタール)だったと推計されている。
- It is estimated that the population of Japan in the Nara period was approx. five million and the arable land area was approx. 1.2 million hectares (compared with approx. 4.8 million hectares in early 21st century).
- 8世紀後期頃から始まった古代の戸籍制度の崩壊は、平安時代に入っても止まらず、平安時代中期には、国家による直接の人民支配はもはや不可能になった。
- The collapse of the ancient family registration that had begun in the end 8th century did not stop in the early Heian period and the direct control of people by the central government became impossible in the mid Heian period.
- 14世紀中期頃には、荘園・公領内の村落が自治性を高めるようになり、畿内や西国では惣村、東国や九州では郷村とよばれる自治村落へと成長していった。
- Around the middle of the 14th century, villages within manors and government territories increased their autonomy and grew into self-governing communities, which were called soson in Kinai and western regions and goson in eastern regions and Kyushu.
- 安和の変後、冷泉天皇・円融天皇両天皇の外戚であった藤原師輔の子である藤原兼通・藤原兼家兄弟が摂関の座を争って互いにその出世を妨害しようとした。
- After the Anna Incident, FUJIWARA no Kanemichi and his brother FUJIWARA no Kaneie, the sons of FUJIWARA no Morosuke, a maternal relative of both Emperors Reizei and Enyu, competed for the posts of regent and chancellor, and each tried to prevent the other's promotion.
- 武家の政治体制をどうするかが発見できず旧来の政治を行い、その中での平氏一門の贅沢な暮らしや異様な出世、繁栄の誇示などするだけになったのである。
- Kiyomori did not know how to manage the political system of samurai families and thus carried out old-fashioned politics, showing off the luxurious life style, excessive career success and prosperity of the Taira clan.
- 18世紀中頃に作られたと見られる新道と古道の分岐点を左にとって古道を進むと、観音堂の傍を過ぎ、十津川の支流・西川のほとりの西中大谷に降り立つ。
- And the road (the old road) meets a new road which is considered to have been built in the middle of the 18th century, the old road extends to the left, passes beside Kannon-do (a temple dedicated to Kannon), and descends to Nishinaka-Otani near Nishi-kawa River, a branch of Togtsu-kawa River.
- 碁盤目状の旧市街を南北に走る新町通り周辺と永原町通り周辺、北の八幡堀の畔には、商家・町家・土蔵といった近世建築の連続性が高い町並みが現存する。
- In the vicinity of Shinmachi-dori Street and Nagaharacho-dori Street which run from south to north in the old town constructed on a grid and on the dike of Hachiman-bori Canal in the north, townscape with high continuity consisting of premodern buildings such as mercantile houses, traditional townhouses and dozo (storehouse with thick earth walls) exists even today.
- なお、中世の西ヨーロッパ・中央ヨーロッパに見られたmanor(英語)、Grundherrschaft(ドイツ語)の訳語としても用いられている。
- And it is also used as the translation of manor (English) or Grundherrschaft (German) as seen in medieval Western Europe or Central Europe.
- また、宇陀市(旧宇陀郡室生村染田)には、中世から伝統が続く染田天神講の連歌堂があるが、やはり江戸時代に建てられもので、これも内部には何もない。
- Furthermore, there was a Rengado of Someda Tenjinko in Uda City (old Someda, Muro Village, Uda District) that continued its tradition from the medieval era, but was built during the Edo period and had nothing inside.
- 弘仁・貞観文化(こうにん・じょうがんぶんか)とは、日本史において、弘仁・貞観_(日本)年間を中心とする平安時代前期(ほぼ9世紀に相当)の文化。
- Konin-Jogan culture is considered in Japanese history to be the culture that flourished in Japan during the Konin and Jogan era of the early Heian period (about the ninth century).
- 7世紀頃には、蝦夷は現在の宮城県中部から山形県以北の東北地方と、北海道 (地方公共団体)の大部分に広く住み、その一部は日本の領域の中にあった。
- By the seventh century, the Emishi had lived broadly in the Tohoku region (from mid-Miyagi Prefecture through Yamagata Prefecture and to the north) and most of Hokkaido (local public entity), a part of which was included in the Japanese territory.
- もう1つは宮崎市定らの説で均田制の実施を認めない立場から漢代から大土地所有者による荘園開発と貧民を招いた耕作が行われ後世の荘園をその延長とする。
- The other theory by Ichisada MIYAZAKI and so on is from the viewpoint which does not acknowledge the operation of the Equal-field system, the development of shoens by the large-landholders and the cultivation by poor folks were done and led to the shoen in later times from the Han dynasty.
- 9世紀に入り、軍団 (古代日本)が形骸化し実質的に消滅していくと、郡司・富豪層や俘囚が「発兵勅符」に基づいて軍事力として編成されるようになった。
- In the ninth century when the private warrior bands (in ancient Japan) became nominal and effectively disappeared, gunji (district officials), the rich and powerful class, and fushu (the indigenous tribes of the north-eastern Japan who became allies of the Imperial Court) were formed as military forces under 'hatsuhei-chokufu' (an imperial order authorizing the mobilization of soldiers).
- 11世紀中期に見られた体制変化・社会変化は、当時徐々に一円化を進め、著しい増加を見せていた荘園に対抗するための国衙側(公領側)の対応策であった。
- The changes in the governing structure and society that occurred in the mid-11th century were countermeasures taken by kokuga side (public land side) in order to counter shoen (manor in medieval Japan), which were rapidly increasing at the time and proceeding with ichienka (realization of complete ownership).
- かつては10世紀初頭以降の政治状況・社会状況を指して、中央政府が統治権をほとんど放棄し、地方の無秩序状態をきたした状態と評価されたこともあった。
- In the past, political/social situations in the early 10th century was thought of as a society where the central government abandoned almost of its ruling power and invited the state of chaos in the provinces.
- 王朝国家とは、古代律令国家がいかに中世国家へ移行したかを理解するために提示された概念であり、研究者の立場によって様々な位置づけが試みられてきた。
- As the notion of Dynastic polity was proposed in order to understand how the ancient Ritsuryo-based nation shifted to the medieval nation, varieties of views have been asserted by researchers depending on their standpoint.
- 世界遺産への推薦・登録に際して設けられた緩衝地帯は文化財保護法の対象ではないが、その他の法令や県および市町村の条例による保護の下に置かれている。
- The Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties is not applied to the buffer zone which was specified before the recommendation and the registration as a World Heritage site, however, the zone is protected by other laws and ordinances of the local authority.
- 目的は、「鴨川等の安心・安全で良好かつ快適な河川環境を実現するための施策を推進し、もって府民の誇りである鴨川等を後世に引き継ぐ」(前文)にある。
- Its purpose is 'to promote the policy to achieve a peaceful, safe, good and comfortable environment for Kamo-gawa River and other rivers, and to hand down provincial heritage Kamo-gawa River and other rivers to our descendants' (from the preamble).
- なお、中世の法慣習では、支配権を有する領主や地頭などが検断権を持つこととされていたが、支配される側の惣村が検断権を持っていた点に大きな特徴がある。
- A major feature was that the laws and customs of the medieval period specified that a lord or a Jito who had the right to rule should have the right of kendan, but the soson under control had such a right.
- 律令制下の五色の賤との歴史的連続性については、ほぼ否定されているが、江戸時代の近世部落との連続性は、現在、歴史研究の主要な議論テーマとなっている。
- Connections between these people and the five lowly castes of the ritsuryo system were mostly denied, but connections of these people with buraku in early-modern times during the Edo period has become a major theme of historical research.
- 廃仏毀釈運動は明治以降、第二次世界大戦の敗戦まで一部の過激な神道家とこれに追随した一部民衆が行ったものの、一部地域を除き、民衆には普及しなかった。
- Since the Meiji period, the anti-Buddhism campaign had been promoted by some radical Shintoists and some people who followed such ideology until the end of World War II, but it eventually failed to prevail among ordinary people except for some areas.
- こうした古代・中世史研究の深まりとともに、農民ではなく貴族に武士のルーツを求める見方が生まれ、両者を繋ぐ概念として提起されたのが、軍事貴族である。
- A new understanding that the origin of the samurais was aristocrats instead of farmers grew as ancient and medieval studies progressed, and the concept of a military aristocracy was formed as a link between aristocrats and samurais.
- 後に公田そのものが官務を世襲した小槻氏の事実上の所領と化して、そこから地子稲及び地子交易で得られた物資が太政官の経費として捻出されるようになった。
- Later on, Koden became territories of the Ozuki clan who took over the official position, and rice taxes from these territories, as well as commodities obtained through Jishi Koeki were spent as expenses for the Daijokan.
- 8世紀から本格的に開始した日本の律令制は、戸籍・計帳によって人民百姓を把握し、口分田を班給する代わりに租庸調を租税として収取する支配体制であった。
- The Ritsuryo system of Japan, which was officially inaugurated in the eighth century, was an administrative system based on the control over people and farmers by koseki (the household registers) and keicho (the yearly tax registers) and the collection of land tax by Soyocho (a tax system, corvee), which was imposed in exchange for hankyu (allotment) of kubunden (the farm land given to each farmer in the Ritsuryo system).
- 2007年2月1日、東麓遺跡において7世紀前半から中頃のものと見られる建物跡や石垣を発見したと発表され、蘇我氏の邸宅跡ではないかと注目されている。
- It was announced on February 1, 2007 that remains of structures and stone walls, which are estimated to date back from the early to mid-seventh century, were discovered at the Toroku site, and the unearthed objects are drawing attention as possible remains of Soga clan's residence.
- 小辺路を含む熊野参詣道はそれまで文化財保護法による指定を受けておらず、世界遺産への推薦に先行して保存管理の計画を示す必要から登録されたものである。
- Until then the pilgrimage route to Kumano including Kohechi had not been registered by the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties, and the registration was planned for reporting the plan of the preservation and management of the site to obtain the recommendation as a World Heritage site.
- これらの動きは実証的な歴史研究、すなわち18世紀の荻生徂徠や伊藤東涯らによる政治制度史研究へとつながっていき、あわせて国学へも大きな影響を与えた。
- These movements led to fact-based research of history, or the historical research of political systems by Sorai OGYU and Togai ITO, and affected Kokugaku (the study of Japanese classical literature) as well.
- 同様に、例えばミュンヘン一揆のように世界史における庶民や民衆運動による反乱、暴動も日本語訳されるときに一揆の語を当てることが慣用化している面がある。
- Conversely, a riot and a revolt caused by commoners and a popular movement in world history, such as the Munchen Putsch, have been commonly translated into Japanese with the use of the word 'ikki.'
- 山城国一揆(やましろのくにいっき)は、1485年(文明 (日本)17年)、山城国(現在の京都府南部)南半の上三郡(久世郡、綴喜郡、相楽郡)で起きた。
- Yamashiro no kuniikki (the uprising in Yamashiro Province) occurred in three southern counties (Kuse-gun, Tsuzuki-gun and Soraku-gun) of Yamashiro Province (currently the southern part of Kyoto Prefecture) in 1485.
- 估価法(こかほう・沽価法)とは、古代から中世にかけての日本において、朝廷・国衙・鎌倉幕府において、市場における公定価格及び物品の換算率を定めた法律。
- Kokaho (price regulation law) is a law that stipulated the official prices and the conversion rates for goods at the market from ancient times to medieval periods under the Court, kokuga (provincial government offices) and the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun).
- 日本国における古代・中世の荘園や荘園公領制下の村落の領主である権門勢家や在地の地頭たちは、その領域 (国家)を明確にして支配の正統性を主張していた。
- In the ancient and medieval periods of Japan, shoen (manor in medieval Japan) or feudal loads of the villages under the system of public lands and private estates, such as the great and powerful or the local jito (manager and lord of manor) set bounds on their territories (states) and insisted the justice of their domination over such territories.
- 当時は摂関家が政治の上層を独占する摂関政治が展開し、中流・下流貴族は特定の官職を世襲してそれ以上の昇進が望めない、といった家職の固定化が進んでいた。
- At that time, the regency government that Sekkan-ke (the families which produced the Regent and the Chief Adviser to the Emperor) monopolized the highest level of political power was developed and the forming social standing and fixing family business and trade were undergoing so the nobility in the middle lower class only inherited a specific government post and could not ask any more promotion.
- 中世の民衆意識においては何かしら偉業を成し遂げるためには個人的な資質だけなく、血統的な資質もなければいけないというようなことが漠然と考えられていた。
- During the medieval ages, people vaguely thought that not only personal assets but also genealogical assets were necessary in order to accomplish great deeds.
- このため名誉を金銭より重んじるなど、後世において武士道という概念につながるような、武士としての理想や支配者としての価値観としての「士道」が生まれた。
- For this reason, the morality of samurai was born, which was the ideal for bushi and the philosophy of the ruler and later led to the concept of bushido, for example the bushi put their honor before money and so on.
- 安倍氏の分裂状態は室町幕府の支援を受けた安倍有世(泰親の子孫)の元で統一が図られ、土御門家 (安倍氏)と号して天文道・陰陽道を統括する立場となった。
- The divided Abe clan was reunited under ABE no Ariyo (a descendent of Yasuchika), who was backed by the Muromachi bakufu (a Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun); they named themselves the Tsuchimikado family (the Abe clan), and acquired a position from which they could supervise both tenmondo and onmyodo.
- 更に10世紀後期には大学別曹(勧学院・奨学院・学館院)に対しても自己の所属する学生を諸国の掾への無試験任官の推挙を行う「院年挙」を認めるようになった。
- In addition, in the latter half of the 10th century, Daigaku-besso (Kangaku-in colleges, Shogaku-in colleges, and Gakkan-in colleges) were allowed to use the system called 'Innenkyo,' whereby their students were appointed as Jo of provinces by recommendation without examination.
- こうして成立した年貢は、その後の中世・近世を通じて、支配層の主要な財源として位置づけられ、被支配層にとっては年貢を負担する義務が課され続けたのである。
- Through the medieval period and early-modern times, the nengu was the principal financial resource for the ruling class, which the ordinary population continued to bear its burden.
- だが、後世に入ると武士や商人・農民など身分それぞれの必要に合わせた知識や慣習を盛り込んだものや習字用の「字尽し」など書簡形式をとらないものが著された。
- In later years, some oraimono were composed of knowledge and customs necessary for each social status, such as samurai, merchants and farmers, while 'Jizukushi,' which were not in the form of correspondence, were compiled for calligraphy practice.
- 12世紀に入ると、荘園の増大で税収が減り、上級貴族に俸給を払えなくなった朝廷は、彼らに知行国として国を与え、その国に関する国司の任命権と税収を与えた。
- In the 12th century, as a result of the reduction in tax revenue caused by the expansion of the shoen, the Imperial Court was no longer able to pay salaries to high-ranked aristocrats, so it gave these nobles provinces as chigyo-koku (provincial fiefdom), as well as the right to appoint kokushi (provincial governors) and collect taxes.
- そのため、10世紀後半の貴族社会において、承平天慶勲功者とその子孫は軍事に特化した家系、すなわち兵の家(つわもののいえ)として認知されるようになった。
- Therefore, in the noble society in the latter half of the 10th century, Johei Tengyo kunkosha and their descendants came to be recognized as family lines specialized in military affairs, that is, tsuwamono no ie (samurai families).
- 12世紀末の治承・寿永の内乱(源平合戦)を経て、初期鎌倉幕府政権は、国追捕使の権限を継承した惣追捕使を各国に設置することについて、朝廷から承認を得た。
- After the Jisho-Juei Civil War (the Genpei War) towards the end of the 12th century, the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) at its initial stage gained the approval of the Imperial Court to establish Sotsuibushi (government post in charge of police and military roles), inheriting the rights of koku-tsuibushi, in each province.
- なお、御恩と奉公による主従関係について、中世ヨーロッパに見られた封建制(feudalism)との共通点に着目して、封建的主従関係と理解する見解がある。
- By the way, concerning the master-servant relationship based on goon and hoko, there is an opinion that the relationship is interpreted the same as the feudal master-servant relationship, because when it is compared with feudalism found in Medieval Europe, there are some common points.
- 当時の文書において「当国之例」といわれるような慣習法は、このような必要に基づくものであって、それは本所法とならんで、中世の武家法の基盤の一つとなった。
- The common law called 'tokoku no rei' appearing in texts of those days, was based on such necessity, and together with honjo law, became one of the foundations of medieval samurai law.
- 以後、澤宣嘉は外務卿、三条実美は太政大臣や内大臣、三条西季知は参与や神宮祭主、東久世道禧は枢密院副議長や貴族院副議長になるなど明治政府の要職に就いた。
- Later, Nobuyoshi SAWA became the foreign affairs minister, Sanetomi SANJO became the grand minister and the inner minister, Suetomo SANJONISHI became the councilor and the lord custodian of the shrine, Michitomi HIGASHIKUZE became the vice president of the privy council and the vice president of the house of lords, appointed to important positions in the Meiji government.
- タイノ原線の建設は、世界遺産登録へ向けての再調査・整備に先立つ1988年から1997年にかけてのことであったが、小辺路を知る識者からは批判が集まった。
- Tainohara Route was built in 1988 to 1997 before the re-investigations and the maintenances for the inscription of World Heritage site, and the intellects who knew Kohechi bitterly opposed the construction.
- 7世紀には、飛鳥は古代日本の政治と文化の中心地となり、都市機能の整備が行われるなど、宮都の様相を呈していたので、「飛鳥京」とも呼ばれていた(『紀』)。
- In the seventh century, Asuka became a central place of politics and culture in ancient Japan, and it is called 'Asuka no miyako' as it took on the character of a capital with city functions developed ('Ki' [also known as 'Nihonshoki,' or Chronicles of Japan]).
- 家斉の治世は、はじめ質素倹約の政策が引き継がれたが、貨幣悪鋳による出目の収益で幕府財政が一旦潤うと、大奥での華美な生活に流れ、幕政は放漫経営に陥った。
- At the beginning of Ienari's government, the policy of simple and frugal life was succeeded, but when the finance of the shogunate government recovered temporarily by minting new currency with low content of gold and silver, which brought profit margin to the government, administration fell into a lax management at an extravagant expense of the harem (ooku).
- 最終的には、豊臣秀吉による兵農分離(刀狩)と土地所有確認(太閤検地)の結果、惣村という結合形態は消滅し、江戸時代に続く近世村落が形成していったとされる。
- As a result of heinobunri (a separation of the warrior class in this domain from the soil) (Sword Hunt) and the confirmation of land ownership (Taiko-kenchi (the land survey by Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI), which had been implemented by Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI, the style of connection called the soson finally disappeared, and there emerged early-modern villages that survived in the Edo period.
- 経済状況の変化にともなって荘園経済は相当な発展を見せたが、それでも中世後期に至るまで、荘園が全く存在しないか、不完全でしか存在しない地域が残存し続けた。
- With the change of economical situations, the shoen's economy dramatically developed, but until the late medieval period, some regions had continued to remain where shoens had not existed at all or only partially.
- 日本の学界では中国の荘園に対する理解(主に「世界史の基本原則」及び中世ヨーロッパの荘園との対比)について大きく分けると2説に分かれて論争が行われてきた。
- Concerning the understanding on Chinese shoens in Japanese academia (mainly the contrast between 'the basic principle of world history' and European shoens in medieval times), opinions have been divided roughly into two theories and disputed.
- しかしこうして10世紀後期以降、受領と田堵負名層との間に紛争がしばしば見られるようになり、受領の施策に不満の田堵負名層が中央政府へ訴え出ることもあった。
- However, from the late 10th century and onwards, there were frequent conflicts between the zuryo and the tato fumyo, and in some cases, the tato fumyo appealed to the central government about measures taken by the zuryo.
- 中世の中期(鎌倉時代中期・後期)ごろから、商品流通の活発化とそれに伴う貨幣経済の進展が次第に顕著となっていくと、地子を貨幣で納入する事例が増えていった。
- From around the middle of the medieval period (the mid or late Kamakura period), as commercial distribution became more active and the money economy accompanied with it gradually became pronounced, more and more jishi was paid in money.
- 南朝の征西府懐良親王も菊池氏や阿蘇氏、筑後宇都宮氏の武力を背景に大宰府を有して九州を制圧していたが、九州探題として赴任した今川貞世(了俊)に駆逐される。
- The Southern Court Seiseifu (Conqueror of the west) Imperial Prince Kaneyoshi held Dazaifu and controlled Kyushu using the military forces of the Kikuchi clan, the Aso clan and the Chikugo-Utsunomiya clan, but was chased away by Sadoyo IMAGAWA (Ryoshun) who came as the Kyushu Tandai.
- 律令法は、奈良・平安両時代を通じて国家の基本法であることに変りはなかったが、 10世紀の『延喜式』の制定公布の時代前後を境として、重要な変化がみられた。
- Ritsuryo law remained the basic national law throughout the Nara and Heian periods, but important changes occurred around the time when 'Engishiki' (a book of laws and regulations compiled during the Engi era) was established and issued in the tenth century.
- さらに吉野山・高野山から熊野三山にかけての霊場と参詣道が2004年7月、『紀伊山地の霊場と参詣道』として国際連合教育科学文化機関の世界遺産に登録された。
- Sacred sites and pilgrimage routes spreading from Mt. Yoshino and Mt. Koya to Kumano Sanzan (three major shrines, Kumano Hongu-taisha Shrine, Kumano Hayatama-taisha Shrine and Kumano Nachi-taisha Shrine) were also registered as a World Heritage site as 'Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain Range' in July 2004 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
- 中世前期(平安時代~鎌倉時代)までは、民衆(百姓など)を規制する法令は、律令・公家法・本所法・武家法など支配者により定められたものしか存在していなかった。
- Before the early medieval period (from the Heian to Kamakura periods), the general public (peasants etc.) were regulated only by the laws established by rulers, such as the Ritsuryo codes, court noble law, honjo (proprietor or guarantor of manor) law, and samurai law.
- 第二次世界大戦後の1950年代初頭、新たな「国民歌」を作ろうと日本教職員組合と壽屋(現:サントリー)がそれぞれ募集し、別々に「新国民歌」を選定し公表した。
- After World War II, at the beginning of the 1950s, the Japan Teachers Union and Kotobukiya (now Suntory) respectively accepted entries, selected and announced 'Shinkokuminka' (new national anthems), in an attempt to create a new 'kokuminka' (national anthem).
- 律令法は形式、内容ともに主として唐の律令を模範とした法制であって、この時代の東洋で一種の世界法の役割を果たした唐の律令の日本における分枝とみるべきである。
- Ritsuryo law was a legal system modeled mainly upon the Tang ritsuryo in both style and content, and should be seen as a Japan branch of the Tang ritsuryo, which served as world law in the East, at that time.
- 鎌倉時代の三斎市から月に6回定期的に開かれる六斎市など定期市や、都市部での見世棚をもった常設の店舗に、特定商品のみの卸売市場、卸売業を営む問屋も発生する。
- Market types ranged from the Kamakura-period Sansai markets, which were held three times a month, to Rokusai markets that were held regularly, six times a month, and in urban areas many types of stores sprang up, ranging from permanent shops with display shelves to wholesale markets and wholesale stores that sold only one specific product.
- 確実な参詣の記録として最古のものは16世紀にさかのぼり、伊予国の武将土居清良が戦死した父の菩提を弔うために高野山を経て熊野三山に参詣したとするものである。
- The oldest reliable record of pilgrimage to Kumano dates to the 16th century, according to it, Kiyoyoshi DOI, a samurai of Iyo Province, visited Kumano Sanzan after visiting Mt. Koya to perform a memorial service for his father who had died in a battle.
- 古墳時代の4世紀中頃には、網野町に日本海側最大の前方後円墳である網野銚子山古墳(全長198メートル)、丹後町に神明山古墳(全長190メートル)が築かれた。
- Around the middle of the fourth century, in the Kofun period (tumulus period), the largest keyhole-shaped tomb mound on the Japan Sea side, Aminochoshiyama-kofun Tumulus (198 meter in entire length) was established in Amino-cho and Shinmeiyama-kofun Tumulus (190 meter in entire length) in Tango-cho.
- 初めは懐良親王ら南朝勢力の討伐に任じられた今川貞世(了俊)が就くが、了俊が九州で独自の勢力を築くと幕府に警戒され、了俊が解任された後は渋川氏の世襲となる。
- Initially, Sadayo IMAGAWA (Ryoshun), who had been ordered to subdue Nancho powers such as Imperial Prince Kanenaga, assumed the position, but the Bakufu feared that Ryoshun would establish his own power in Kyushu; after Ryoshun was dismissed, descendants of the Shibukawa clan succeeded in the position.
- そのため、天皇は三条西実世(大納言)と中院通勝(中納言)、烏丸光広(近衛府内部官職)の三人を勅使として田辺城の東西両軍に派遣し、勅命講和を命じたのである。
- For this reason, the Emperor sent Saneyo SANJONISHI (Chief Councillor of State), Michikatsu NAKANOIN (Vice-councillor of State) and Mitsuhiro KARASUMARU (Konoefu naibukanshoku (a post guarding inside the palace and imperial families)) as Imperial messengers to both the eastern army and western army at Tanabe-jo Castle in order to propose a royal peace command.
- そして、近世城下町発展の最大の功労者は織田信長で、本格的な兵農分離を意図し武士を城下に集住させるとともに、市街に楽市楽座を設けて商工業の発達を活発にした。
- The most important person in relation to the development of jokamachi in the early-modern times was Nobunaga ODA, and with the idea of serious heinobunri in mind, he gathered bushi (warriors) near his castle and established Rakuichi-rakuza (free markets and open guilds) in the city areas to stimulate the development of commerce and trade.
- 「…にことならず」「…の時の如し」という直喩表現からも明らかなとおり、当時の公家が使った「戦国の世」という語は、直接的には古代中国の戦国時代を指していた。
- As clearly understood from the simile expression such as 'equivalent to' and 'same as,' the word 'sengoku no yo' as used by court nobles at that time directly denoted the Zhanguo period in ancient China.
- そのため、16世紀になると室町幕府や守護大名、戦国大名たちは撰銭を制限し、あるいは禁ずる撰銭令(えりぜにれい)を発令して、円滑な貨幣流通を実現しようとした。
- Therefore, entering the 16th century, the Muromachi bakufu, shugo daimyo (Japanese territorial lord as provincial constable) and daimyo (Japanese territorial lord) during the Sengoku period restricted the erizeni act or issued erizenirei (a ban on the erizeni act) to achieve smooth circulation of the currencies.
- 加地子(かじし)は、日本の中世において、荘園領主・国衙(国司)へ納入する年貢・地子の他に、名主などの在地領主に対して納入した米(作得米)を指す租税の一形態。
- The term Kajishi (加地子) means rice (sakutokumai) delivered as a tax to a resident land-owner like myoshu (owner of rice fields) in the Japanese medieval period on top of nengu (customs)/jishi (land tax) for the lord of shoen (manor)/kokuga (provincial government officials) (kokushi (provincial governor)).
- 更に9世紀後半には、地域の富豪・有力百姓らの私倉を正倉と認め(里倉)、彼らに公出挙運用を請け負わせることで、地方機関の出挙収入の確保が図られるようになった。
- In addition, in the latter half of the ninth century, local administrative organizations attempted to secure income through Suiko by allowing rich people and influential farmers in local areas to undertake the management of Ku-Suiko after admitting the private warehouse possessed by those people to be Shoso (Riso).
- 律令制が本格的に施行された8世紀のうちから、官吏、特に国司交替の手続きに関する法令(詔勅・太政官符)を集成した私撰の「交替式」と呼ばれる書物が存在していた。
- As early as the eight century when the Ritsuryo system was enforced on a large scale, a privately compiled book called 'Kotaishiki' existed, in which the laws and regulations concerning the procedures for replacing government officers, in particular, kokushi (provincial governors) (Shochoku - imperial edicts) and Daijokanpu (official documents issued by Daijokan, Grand Council of State) were collected.
- 11世紀40年代ごろから太政官によって制定され始めた公田官物率法は、一国内の税率を固定化する内容を持っており国司に付与された租税収取権に大きな制限を加えた。
- Koden kanmotsu rippo, which was established by Dajokan around 1140, restricted kokushi's right to collect tax since it included the provision which fixed the tax rate in a province.
- 絶海中津は義弘の忠節は隠れ無きものであり、世の噂を信じるべきではない、また満弘の子への恩賞がないのは上洛しないために行賞できないからだと重ねて上洛を促した。
- Chushin ZEKKAI responded by saying that he saw that Yoshihiro's loyalty was beyond question, and that one cannot trust the rumors the world produces he also reiterated his advice to go the capital, claiming that the reason no reward had been conferred on Mitsuhiro's son was that Yoshihiro had not obeyed the summons to Kyoto in the first place.
- この時期の清盛の出世について「当時の貴族社会の中では清盛を白河上皇の落胤とする説が信じられており、このことが清盛の異例の昇進に強く影響した」という説もある。
- Regarding the rapid progression of Kiyomori's career at this time, there is a hypothesis that 'many within the aristocracy believed the theory that Kiyomori was retired Emperor Shirakawa's illegitimate child and this led to his rapid promotion.'
- 大峯奥駈についても本山派が先行していたが、近世以降の熊野詣の衰退に伴って、江戸時代から今日まで、両派とも吉野から入るのが一般的かつ正統的なものとされている。
- Although Honzan school was ahead of Tozan school in Omine Okugake, with decline of pilgrimages to Kumano Sanzan after the early modern times, entering from Yoshino has been considered to be common and legitimate for both schools since the Edo Period.
- 「サムライ」は16世紀になって登場した比較的新しい語形であり、鎌倉時代から室町時代にかけては「サブライ」、平安時代には「サブラヒ」とそれぞれ発音されていた。
- 'Samurai' is a fairly recent pronunciation that arose in the sixteenth century; before that, it was pronounced 'saburai' from the Kamakura period to the Muromachi period and 'saburahi' in the Heian period.
- 会所では、付書院とか違い棚とか押板とか、唐物の飾りの場としての性質、後世の書院造につながる設備が注目されるが、そういったものがあるのは、附属の小部屋である。
- People focused on the characteristic of Kaisho having the Tsukeshoin (a type of window), Chigaidana (a set of staggered shelves), oshiita, the place to decorate with karamono and equipment that would lead to the later Shoinzukuri (architecture of a study room), but it is the adjoining small room that has those items.
- 尊卑文脈によれば、有光~四代目の世代(鎌倉前期)の頃に、陸奥石川氏は一族・庶流の分立を進め、城・館を築き石川庄の村々に一族の地頭を配置していったと思われる。
- According to Lineage Sects of Noble and Humble, during the period of the generations from Arimitsu to the fourth head of the clan (the early Kamakura period), the Mutsu Ishikawa clan seemed to have promoted separation of the clan and the illegitimate lineage, have built castles and residents and have posted managers and lords of the manors of the clan in hamlets in the Ishikawa village.
- 7世紀後半に律令制が整備され、田地が口分田などの班田収授法の体系に組み込まれていっても、神田(および仏教寺院の運営にあてる寺田)のみは、班田の対象外とされた。
- Even when the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo codes) was established in the late seventh century and rice fields were integrated into Kubunden (rice fields allotted to people by the central government) under the Handen Shuju no ho Law (the law of rice field allotment system), Shinden and Jiden (rice fields owned by temples) were exempted from the law.
- 一円知行(いちえんちぎょう)とは、日本の中世で使用された用語で、荘園公領制の重層的に入り組んだ支配・権利関係の中で、ある者が一元的に土地を支配することを指す。
- Ichien Chigyo was a term used during the Japanese Middle Ages to mean that a particular individual has integrated control over lands in complicated and multi-layered relationships of dominance and rights of the Shoen Koryo (public lands and private estates) system.
- 逆に、既成財閥に較べて金融部門が弱いため、第二次世界大戦中には経済統制と既成財閥系の銀行団によって侵食されて、財閥解体前に実態を失ったコンツェルンも多かった。
- Conversely, many other Konzerns lost their status during World War II, before the dissolution of Zaibatsu, because they had eroded due to their weaker financial sector compared to that of the existing zaibatsu, by economic control and a syndicate of banks that had already been zaibatsu.
- 知行国(ちぎょうこく)とは、古代・中世の日本において、有力貴族・寺社・武家が特定の令制国の知行権(国務権・吏務ともいう)を獲得し収益を得た制度、およびその国。
- Chigyo-koku indicates the provincial system and province in ancient and medieval Japan in which dominant nobles, shrines or temples acquired chigyo-ken (also called Kokumu-ken or rimu) (the right to manage the province) and obtained their revenues from there.
- 例えば、大分県豊後高田市の田染荘(たしぶのしょう)では、中世前期の荘園景観が残存している全国でも珍しい地区であり、このことを核として地域振興に取り組んでいる。
- For example, in Tashibu no sho in Bungo-Takada City, Oita Prefecture, the view of shoens of the early medieval times remains unusually even across Japan and they promote regional development through this.
- 前後して前関白藤原忠通(1164年死去)、太政大臣藤原伊通(1165年死去)、摂政藤原基実(1166年死去)など、政治の中心人物たちが相次いでこの世を去った。
- Around that time, several of the major political players died, such as former Imperial Regent FUJIWARA no Tadamichi (1164), Grand Minister of State FUJIWARA no Koremichi (1165) and Regent FUJIWARA no Motozane (1166).
- この時代は、守護大名や守護代、国人などを出自とする戦国大名が登場し、それら戦国大名勢力は中世的な支配体系を徐々に崩し、分国法を定めるなど各地で自立化を強めた。
- During this period, Sengoku daimyo (the daimyo, that is Japanese territorial lord in the Sengoku period) who came from the Shugo daimyo, Shugodai (deputy of Shugo, provincial constable), or from Kokujin (local samurai) appeared, and the power of the Sengoku daimyo destroyed the medieval control system, raising their levels of independency, for example, by establishing bunkokuho (a law that individual sengoku-daimyo enforced within their own domains).
- しかし茨木童子は逃げ延びたとされ、その後も頼光四天王の一人である渡辺綱と一条戻り橋や羅生門で戦った故事が後世の説話集や能、謡曲、歌舞伎などで語り継がれている。
- But it is said that Ibaraki Doji managed to escape, and accounts of his subsequent duels with WATANABE no Tsuna, one of Yorimitsu's Four Heavenly Warriors, on Ichijo modoribashi bridge and at Rashomon gate have been passed down over the years as entries in collections of setsuwa tales as well as in Noh plays, Noh songs, and Kabuki plays.
- 日本では第二次世界大戦前に三井財閥・三菱財閥・住友財閥・安田財閥などの財閥があったが、敗戦後、連合国軍最高司令官総司令部の指令により分散させられた(財閥解体)。
- In Japan, there were several zaibatsu prior to World War II, including Mitsui Zaibatsu, Mitsubishi Zaibatsu, Sumitomo Zaibatsu and Yasuda Zaibatsu, but after the war they were dismantled by the order of the General Headquarters of the Allied Powers (GHQ) (i.e., the dissolution of Zaibatsu).
- この結果、10世紀後半の貴族社会において、承平天慶の乱の勲功者とその子孫たちは軍事に特化した家系、すなわち兵の家(つわもののいえ)として認知されるようになった。
- As a result, in aristocratic society of the later half of the 10th century, Johei Tengyo kunkosha and their descendants became known as families specialized in military affairs called tsuwamono-no-ie.
- 15世紀後期、応仁の乱から明応の政変にかけて、幕府の支配体制が流動化していくと、守護代や有力国人が守護に代わって、領国支配の実権を握る例も見られるようになった。
- With unrest spreading over the ruling system of the bakufu in the period of the Onin War to the Meio Coup in the late 15th century, some shugo-dai and influential kokujin held real power in ruling the territories instead of shugo.
- その根拠は、『小記目録』(『小右記』の目録)に「長保四年十一月五日、世事要略部類畢んぬ事」と記されていることや、本書が代々小野宮家に相伝されていたこと等である。
- The ground lies in a description in 'Shoyu mokuroku' (the contents of 'Shoyuki' [The Diary of FUJIWARA no Sanesuke]) that reads: 'December 17, 1002, I have finished a category of seji yoryaku (examples of social affairs),' in the book having been handed down to the Ononomiya family from generation to generation, and so on.
- 平安期の10世紀頃、大きな社会変化を背景として、朝廷は、徴税・軍事をもはや官司機構で担うのではなく、国司や富豪などへ請け負わせる官司請負制への転換を進めていた。
- Around the tenth century during the Heian period when a large social change occurred, the Imperial court abandoned the policy of entrusting tax-collecting affairs and military affairs solely to the central government system and promoted to entrust these affairs to kokushi (provincial governors) or rich persons, or, in other words, to introduce the kanshiukeoi-sei system.
- 10世紀初頭頃から、公田は名田と呼ばれる租税収取の基礎単位へ編成され、現地の富豪層(田堵・負名層)が名田経営と租税納入を請け負うという名体制が形成されていった。
- In the early 10th century, Koden was reorganized into the base for taxing called Myoden (rice field lots managed by a nominal holder) and the system called Myo-system, under which local wealthy peasants (Tato (cultivators)/Fumyoso (tiller of the public rice field)) were responsible for the management of Myoden as well as land tax payment, was established.
- すでに9世紀後期の頃から、実際に租税収取を担当する地方行政の現場では、戸籍・計帳を基盤に置いた課税方式が後退し、土地に対する課税が積極的に行われる傾向にあった。
- As early as from the late 9th century, local administrative bodies, which were actually in charge of tax collection, tended to impose tax on land rather than collecting it based on family registration/keicho.
- また、中世のもう一つの歴史認識は、年中行事や有職故実などの儀礼を通じて歴史を考えるというもので、そのため、故実を伝えるための日記や各種記録文書が多数作成された。
- During the medieval period, history was also recognized through ceremonies in annual events and in Yusoku kojitsu (court and samurai rules of ceremony and etiquette), and therefore, many diaries and records were written to hand over practices from older days to later generations.
- 『魏志倭人伝』のような実録が元となっている書物と、『記紀』や古系図のような後世の編纂物を、1対1で結び付けることは学問的に正しい方法といえないという立場である。
- It would be academically irresponsible to make a decision about Himiko based on a one-to-one correspondence between documents such as the Record of Japan in the History of Wei, the Kiki and old genealogies alone.
- そのため、軍団兵士制を支えてきた戸籍制度を維持する必要性も低下していき、9世紀初頭以降、律令制の基盤となっていた戸籍を通じた個別人身支配が急速に形骸化していった。
- Therefore, the necessity of maintaining the family registration system having supported the gundan-soldier system diminished, and the control of individual persons through the family register, which constituted the base of the ritsuryo-code-based nation, rapidly became a dead letter in early ninth century.
- 元々、地子は生産物地代の性格を持ち、その土地の生産物が地子として納入されていたが、中世後期ごろから貨幣経済が進展していくと、貨幣による地子の納入が増加していった。
- Originally, jishi had the characteristics of a tax payment in the form of products and the local products were brought in as jishi but jishi payment in money increased as the money economy gradually advanced from the late mid-period.
- 『占事略决』について諸説あるが、安倍家における家伝を背景として、六壬神課について簡略に解説した書籍であり、中世陰陽道の研究に必須の文献資料 (歴史学)と解される。
- Though there are various theories on 'Senji ryakketsu,' it is regarded indispensable documentary records (history) for the study of medieval Onmyodo, since it briefly explains Rikujinshinka based on the tradition of the Abe family.
- 近世以前に行われた合戦において、主君が武士が戦功を挙げた家人や武士に対して表彰し、所領もしくは官途状、感状、物品の授与、格式の免許、官職への任官の推薦を行うこと。
- In the battles fought before the early modern times, the master honored his kenin (retainers) or samurai warriors who rendered outstanding military service and granted them territories, written appointments, testimonials, goods, rank and office confirmations, or commendation to governmental posts.
- 広く一般的に知られる中間は上記どおりだが、藩に正式に採用されてる家(世襲で藩に仕え、苗字帯刀が許されてるもの)や幕末に特殊な事例に用いて採用されたりした物を指す。
- Widely and generally known chugen were as mentioned above, but this special type of chugen refers to those from families who served domains by heredity and had the right to bear a surname and to wear a sword during the Edo period, or those who were formally employed by domains or recruited for special occasions at the end of Edo period.
- 王朝国家体制期における中央政治機構や軍制・荘園政策・負名体制に関する研究は著しい進展を見せ、さらには王朝国家に代わる新たな古代-中世移行論が唱えられ始めてはいる。
- The study of central government organization, military systems, shoen policy, and local tax management systems during the Dynastic polity period has marked significant progress and another theory concerning the transition from the ancient times to the medieval age was proposed in lieu of the theory of Dynastic polity.
- 近世以前の小辺路は紀伊山地山中の住人の生活道路であり、20世紀になって山中に自動車の通行できる道路が開通してからも、おおよそ昭和30年代までは使用され続けていた。
- Since before the early-modern period, Kohechi had been a community road for the residents in the Kii Mountains, and even after a new roadway was constructed through the mountain in the 20th century, it had been still used as a local road until about the 30's of the Showa era.
- 海津大崎の桜も還暦を過ぎ、樹勢もかつてのような勢いはなくなってきたが、マキノ地区住民の誇りとも言うべき桜並木は大切に守り育てられ、後世に引き継がれようとしている。
- Cherry trees of Kaizu-osaki exceeded the age of kanreki (60 years old) and they lost their strength to some extent, but sakura-namiki which is proud of by inhabitants of Makino district are protected and fostered with care and is being inherited to the following generations.
- その後、唐僧維躅(ゆいけん)の書に見える「二十年一来」(20年に1度)の朝貢が8世紀ごろまでに規定化され、およそ十数年から二十数年の間隔で遣唐使の派遣が行われた。
- After that, a rule was made before the eighth century for an emperor to send a mission once every 20 years as described in the book written by the Tang priest Yuiken and a mission was sent approximately every dozen to two dozen years.
- 出発時の雄略天皇の代がいつなのか確定しがたいが、他の浦島伝説での共通点も踏まえ現世では館での3年より遙かに長い時間が流れていたと伝えられることは確実なようである。
- The date of his departure, in the reign of the Emperor Yuryaku, is not determined, but considering other Urashima legends, which have something in common, suggest that time of this world must had passed much faster than that of three years in the palace.
- 農奴の保有財産は、名目上は領主と借地人(農奴)との合意に基づくものとされていたが、実際には、ほぼ強制的に世襲させられていた(相続時に領主への支払が課せられていた)。
- The estate owned by serfs was notionally based on the agreement between the lords and the tenants (serfs), but in fact was obligatorily succeeded by heredity (on succession, the payment to the lords were imposed).
- 君主位譲位者が後継者の後見として実質的な政務を行うという政治体制は、恒久的な制度としては世界史的にきわめて稀であり、他にはヴェトナムの陳朝にその例を見る程度である。
- The political system where a person who abdicates the throne conducts virtual political affairs is extremely rare as a permanent system in world history, and basically the only similar case is that of the Tran Dynasty of Vietnam.
- 一般的に平氏政権は12世紀中期から段階的に成立したのであり、仁安2年5月宣旨を大きな画期としつつ、治承三年の政変により平氏政権の成立が完了したものと考えられている。
- In general, the Taira clan administration was established in steps from the middle of the 12th century, and although the May 1167 Imperial Order was a major event, the coup d'etat in 1179 is considered to indicate the completion of the establishment of the Taira clan administration.
- したがって、この「君」は特定の個人をさすものではなく、治世の君(古今和歌集の時代においては帝)の長寿を祝し、その御世によせる賛歌として収録されたものとも考えられる。
- Therefore, we can also understand that this 'kimi' does not mean any specific individual person, but this waka was included as an anthem to celebrate the longevity of the reigning lord (the emperor at the time of Kokin-Wakashu) and was dedicated to his reign.
- 8世紀初頭に成立した律令制のもとでは、公田のうち口分田を班給した後に余った乗田を国衙が百姓らに貸し付けて、収穫物の2割を納入させる賃租の規定があった(「田令公田条)。
- Under the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code) established at the beginning of the 8th century, there was a provision of chinso (land taxes under the Ritsuryo system) that, after hankyu (allotment) of kubunden (the field given to each farmer in the Ritsuryo system), kokuga (provincial government offices) lent peasants joden (rest of the field after kubunden was given) from the remaining koden (fields administered directly by a ruler) and charged 20 percent of their harvest as jishi (according to 'Denryo-koden-jo).
- 江戸時代の国学発生以降、平安時代以前の語彙・語音を知る資料として、また社会・風俗・制度などを知る史料として国文学・日本語学・日本史の世界で重要視されている書物である。
- Since the time when the study of Japanese classical literatures started in the Edo period, it has been highly evaluated as a document where information about vocabulary and about pronunciations of words is available, and in addition, it has also been highly evaluated in the fields of Japanese literatures, of Japanese language study and of Japanese history, as a document in which information about states of society, customs and social systems is available.
- 後深草にはその後皇子が生まれたが、文永5年(1268年)、後嵯峨は、後深草の嫡男(第2皇子)煕仁(4歳)をさしおいて亀山の嫡男(第2皇子)世仁(2歳)を皇太子とした。
- Gofukakusa later had sons, and in 1268, Gosaga installed Kameyama's heir (second prince) Yohito (aged 2) as Crown Prince instead of Gofukakusa's heir (second son) Hirohito (aged 4).
- 今年の漢字(ことしのかんじ)とは、財団法人日本漢字能力検定協会が、毎年12月12日の「漢字の日」に発表している、その年の日本や世界の世相を表した漢字一字のことである。
- Kanji of the Year is a Chinese character representing the social conditions in Japan or World of the year which is announced once a year by the Japan Kanji Aptitude Testing Foundation on the 'Kanji's day', December 12.
- 琵琶湖には室町時代の明応9年(1500年)近衛政家が中国の瀟湘八景にならって選んだとされる近江八景があり、歌川広重の浮世絵に美しく表現され、近世において有名となった。
- With respect to Lake Biwa, there is Omi Hakkei (Eight Views of Omi) which is said to have been selected by Masaie KONOE in the Muromachi Period in 1500 following Shosho Hakkei (Eight views of the Xiao and the Xiang in China) and they were expressed in Ukiyoe by Hiroshige UTAGAWA and became famous in early-modern times.
- しかし、惣村の持っていた自治的性格は、祭祀面や水利面などを中心に近世村落へも幾分か継承され、村請制度や分郷下における村の統一維持に大きな役割を果たしたと考えられている。
- However, the soson's predisposition toward self-government was passed down to early-modern villages mainly in terms of religious service and water supplies, and it is considered that such a characteristic was instrumental in unifying and maintaining the village under the murauke system (village-wide, collective responsibility for tax payment) and Bungo (system of governing the Go).
- 10世紀頃から、律令制で規定していた古代の戸籍制度・班田収授による租税制度がほぼ崩壊し、現地派遣の筆頭国司である受領へ租税納入を請け負わせる国司請負制へと移行し始めた。
- Since around the 10th century, the tax system consisting of the ancient family registration system and handen shuju sei (a system of periodic reallocations of rice land) stipulated by the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code) had almost collapsed, gradually shifting into the kokushi ukeoi system, which made Zuryo (the head of Kokushi [provincial governors] who was sent to local provinces to administer) undertake tax collection in their provinces.
- 日本の税体系は,10世紀頃の籍帳支配崩壊に伴う公地公民制の崩壊をうけて,課税が個別的人身賦課方式から土地賦課方式へ転換されるまで,人頭税を財源の中心とするものであった。
- Jintozei (primitive taxes which were imposed individually) were the core financial resources in the tax system of Japan until around the 10th century, when the taxation system was converted from an individual tax imposition system to a land tax imposition system: this conversion was triggered by the collapse of the system of complete state ownership of land and citizens, after the managing system based on the family register and Keicho (the yearly tax registers) had collapsed.
- 寛政年間(1690年代)頃から農村や漁村へも広がりを見せ始め、江戸時代中期(18世紀)以降に益々増加し、特に江戸時代後期の天保年間(1830年代)前後に著しく増加した。
- From the 1690s, it spread to agricultural and fishing villages, and became even more widespread after the middle of the Edo period (eighteenth century), especially around the Tenpo era (1830s) during the late Edo period.
- これらの農地はもともと領主が百姓を使役して荒地を開墾したものであり、古代末期・中世当時、荒地を開墾した者には該当地の収穫をすべて収取する権利が認められる場合が多かった。
- Such farmland was originally cultivated by the feudal lord using peasants as a labor force, and those who cultivated wasteland were usually permitted the right to collect all the crops of the applicable ground in the end of ancient times and medieval times.
- 大覚寺統は邦良の早世と後醍醐の謀反とで壊滅状態にあり、持明院統が皇位を独占することも不可能ではなかったが、後伏見は幕府の意向もあって両統迭立の原則にあくまで忠実だった。
- Although it was not impossible for the Jimyoin line to monopolize the throne since the Daikakuji line was in a devastated state with Kuniyoshi's early death and Godaigo's rebellion, Gofushimi was true to the principle of Ryoto tetsuritsu in accord with the bakufu's wishes.
- さらにこの時期、師輔の弟藤原師尹、兄藤原実頼、長男伊尹が相次いで死去し、次代の外戚の地位をめぐって実頼・師輔・師尹の子どもたちの世代の貴族たちが相争う状況が生じていた。
- By this time, Morosuke's younger bother Morotada, older brother, FUJIWARA no Saneyori, first son Koretada, had died consecutively and a situation were the aristocrats in the generation of children of Saneyori, Morosuke, Morotada fought amongst themselves to obtain the position as the next maternal relative.
- フロイス「日本史」によると、信長は天正7年5月11日に安土城で自らを神とする儀式を行い、総見寺で信長の誕生日を祝祭日と定め、参詣する者には現世利益がかなうとしたという。
- According to 'Historia de Iapan' by Frois, Nobunaga held a ceremony on June 15, 1579, in the Azuchi-jo Castle to make himself a god and decided in the Soken-ji Temple to make his birthday a holiday and told that those who visit and worship would have benefit in this world.
- また、中世になり武門の家が確立した後でも、それとは別に朝廷の武官に相当する職種が一応存在したが、たとえこの官職を得ても、武士身分出身でなければ武士とは認められなかった。
- And even after the military families were established in medieval times, apart from this, the post corresponding to the military officer in the Imperial Court existed, but he could not be admitted as bushi unless coming from samurai status even though he got the government post.
- 鹿児島神社の割註に「兼右云。」とあることから、吉田兼右の在世である16世紀頃に成立したであろうこと、吉田家あるいは吉田家に近い人物が編纂に係わっていることが推測できる。
- From the note for the Kagoshima-jinja Shrine, 'Kanemigi said', it is presumed that the book was written about the sixteenth century which Kanemigi YOSHIDA had been alive, with the cooperation from the Yoshida family or a friend of the family.
- 下級武士や知識人階級を中心に、「鎖国は日本開闢以来の祖法」であるという説に反したとされた、その外交政策に猛烈に反発する世論が沸き起こり、「攘夷」運動として朝野を圧した。
- The public opinion of foreign exclusionism among low-ranking samurai and intellectuals in particular overwhelmed all over Japan, insisting furiously that the national seclusion had been the fundamental law since the dawn of Japanese history and the opening up of the country was against it.
- ただし、守護大名による領国支配は、後世の戦国領国制と比べると必ずしも徹底したものではなく、畿内を中心に、国人層が守護の被官となることを拒否した例も、実際には多く見られる。
- The provincial control by the shugo daimyo, however, was not as complete as the one in the Sengoku-ryogoku system during the later period: in fact, there are many examples in which the Kokujin refused to serve as a vassal of the shugo, particularly in the Kinai.
- 多量の唐物で飾り付けられているところ、のちに同朋衆にもなっていく遁世者がふたりおかれたところは、最盛期、室町時代のそれをおもわせ、会所の発展の経過を示す好例となっている。
- The fact that many karamono were decorated and the presence of two monks, who would eventually become the Doboshu (monks who performed art, tea, and various duties for shogun or daimyo) were viewed as fine examples indicating the progress of Kaisho development and the most flourishing period of Muromachi period,
- 4世紀後半からヤマト王権は、武器・農具の原料である鉄資源を求めて朝鮮半島への進出を開始したが、これを契機として朝鮮半島や中国の技術・文物が倭国へ多く流入することとなった。
- Starting in the latter half of the fourth century, the Yamato sovereignty began to advance into the Korean peninsula, seeking iron that was needed for making weapons and farm tools, causing many technologies and cultural products in the Korean peninsular and China to be introduced to Wa.
- そこで、10世紀後期ごろから、臨時の事業の費用を賄うため、ある国が料国(りょうごく)として指定され、料国の国司は主に公田(国衙領)を対象として臨時雑役を課するようになった。
- For this reason, in order to cover the expenses of such incidental events, from the late tenth century, a particular province was designated as a ryogoku and the kokushi (governor) of that ryogoku imposed temporary tasks mainly on the owners of koden (or kokugaryo - territories governed by a provincial government office).
- 地子銭の納入は決して多くはなく、一部の都市(京)などにとどまっていたが、中世末期の戦国時代 (日本)ごろになると、農村部でも銭貨による地子納入の事例が見られるようになった。
- The payment of jishisen was not much in any sense and it was limited to some big cities (imperial capital) but cases of jishi payment in coins became common even in rural areas in the Sengoku Period (Period of Warring States) in the end of the medieval period (Japan).
- 政権を担当する者・勢力はいつの世でもそうすることが多いが(そうなることが多いが)、黒船に象徴される圧倒的な武力を見せ付けられた江戸幕府は、現実的な解として、開国を選択する。
- As is the general course for all persons/powers in charge of the government in any age, Edo Bakufu, which had shown the overwhelming military power symbolized by the black ships, chose to open the country to the world as a practical solution.
- 合一が行われるものの、両統迭立の約束が守られることはなく持明院統の皇統が続いたため、南朝の遺臣たちによる皇位の回復を目指しての反抗が15世紀半ばまで続き、後南朝と呼ばれる。
- After the unification was completed, however, the promise to uphold the alternate succession was broken and the Jimyoin lineage continued to monopolize Imperial succession, and consequently former Southern Court retainers continued their resistance, in their attempts to restore their own lineage to the Imperial throne, into the middle of the fifteenth century, and were later dubbed 'gonancho' (ex-Southern Court forces).
- 家臣である管領が将軍を廃したこの事件によって政元は細川京兆家による管領職の世襲化と独占状態を確立し、さらに将軍の廃立権をも手中に収めたのだが、その天下も長くは続かなかった。
- With this coup, in which the Kanrei, a retainer of the Shogun, deposed the Shogun, Masamoto managed to create a hereditary monopoly over the position of Kanrei for his Keicho branch of the Hosokawa clan, and moreover arrogated to himself the right to depose and appoint the Shogun, but such a state of affairs did not continue for long.
- また一方では、王朝国家と呼ぶべき政治実態は、鎌倉幕府成立後の朝廷にも見られるとして、13世紀の朝廷による支配体制も王朝国家体制期に含める意見(佐藤進一,1983など)もある。
- On the other hand, some people assert that the ruling system adopted by the Imperial court in 13th century should be included in the Dynastic polity period on the ground that the regime which should be regarded as the Dynastic polity was seen after the establishment of the Kamakura bakufu (Shinichi SATO, 1983 etc).
- 江戸時代も中期に差し掛かると、世の中は平和になる一方で社会が発展するにつれて新たな社会問題も生じ、古い戦国期以来の法体系を継承した従来の幕藩法体系では対応出来なくなってきた。
- By mid-Edo period, while the world became peaceful and as society developed, new social issues emerged that could not be dealt with by the traditional shogunate system of law that succeeded the ancient system after the warring states period.
- この後幕府は、17世紀中葉までに、武家諸法度の発布や参勤交代の義務化、有力大名の改易などを通して、諸大名との主従制を確固たるものとし、朝廷統制を強め、幕府官僚機構を整備した。
- After this, the bakufu solidified the master-servant relationship with each daimyo by around the middle of 17th century, through enacting Buke shohatto (laws for the military households), making Sankinkotai (a system under which feudal lords were required to spend every other year in residence in Edo) obligatory, and conducting Kaieki operations (forfeiting the rank of samurai and properties) for powerful daimyo, strengthened control of the Imperial Court, and established its government officer system.
- 下向井らの議論は、武士の成立を王朝国家論・荘園公領制論などと整合的・有機的に結びつけるものであり、21世紀初頭において、武士成立に関する最も有力な説の一つに位置づけられている。
- The theory by Shimomukai and others connects the establishment of samurai to the dynastic nation theory and the shoen koryo sei (The System of Public Lands and Private Estates) theory consistently and systematically, and in the early 21st century, has been positioned as one of the most promising theories concerning the establishment of samurai.
- 翌元弘4年(1334年)には後醍醐の皇子恒良親王(12歳)が皇太子に立てられ、持明院統の皇統としての地位は完全に否定され、3世代、50年以上にわたった両統迭立はここに終焉した。
- The next year, 1334, saw Godaigo's son Imperial Prince Tsuneyoshi (aged 12) as Crown Prince and the position of the Jimyoin line as a Emperor's line was completely negated, and here the Ryoto tetsuritsu that spanned three generations and continued over 50 years came to an end.
- こうした歴史学の発展の一方で、歴史学と国家主義的な歴史観との衝突も発生していた(「神道は祭天の古俗」事件、南北朝時代 (日本)南北朝正閏論と後世への影響、天皇機関説事件など)。
- While history advanced in this way, collisions between history and nationalistic views of history occurred (for example, the incident of 'Shinto is a remnant of the ancient custom of worshiping heaven,' Nanbokucho-Seijunron (an argument on legitimacy of either Northern or Southern Dynasty) in the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (in Japan), and the incident of the emperor-as-organ theory).
- 秀吉は関白を公家である藤原氏に代わって武家である豊臣氏による世襲としてこれを征夷大将軍に代わる「武家の棟梁」と位置づける事で全国の公家と武士を一括して統率しようとしたのである。
- This was Hideyoshi's attempt to preside over the court nobles and samurai across the country all together by positioning, as the 'leader of samurai' in stead of Seii Taishogun, the role of Kanpaku, which would be passed down to only the samurai class of the Toyotomi clan in place of the court nobles of the Fujiwara clan.
- その動きは早くは中世から見られるが、一般には江戸時代中期後期以後の儒教や国学 (学問)や復古神道に伴うものを指し、狭義には明治新政府により出された神仏分離令(正式には神仏判然令。
- The earliest movement had already appeared in the Medieval Period, but the Shinbutsu-bunri usually refers to the separation carried out in accordance with the advancement of Confucianism, Kokugaku (the study of Japanese classical literature), and the Fukko-shinto (Reactionary Shintoism) which occurred in and after the mid or late Edo period.In a more limited sense, it refers to the separation carried out throughout the country according to the ordinance issued by the new Meiji government, called Shinbutsu Bunri-rei (officially named Shinbutsu Hanzen-rei, which means the Edict for Separation of Shinto and Buddhism), which was a general term representing a series of official notices issued between April 5, 1868 and December 1, 1868, such as the edict of the Daijokan (Grand Council of State), the notification of the Jingikan (Department of Worship), and the notification of the Daijokan.
- 唐田令では、成年男子(丁男)に100畝(1項約5ヘクタール)を支給し、うち80畝(約4ヘクタール)を口分田として残りの20畝(約1ヘクタール)を世業田(のち永業田に改称)とした。
- In the field-related ryo code, it is specified that a field of approx. five hectares should be supplied to each adult man (teidan), of which approx. four hectares was supplied as kubunden and the remaining approx. one hectare as segyoden (this term was changed to eigyoden later).
- この死亡帳は同時に出土した20号文書(解文の書止部分)に「嘉承二年」(849年)、21号文書(書状)に「嘉祥三年」(850年)の年紀があることから、9世紀前半のものと判断される。
- It is judged that this Shibocho was created in the first half of the ninth century, because a year was described as 849 in Document No. 20 (back matter of a letter), and was described as 850 in Document No. 21 (letter), which were unearthed together.
- 古典的理解での摂関政治では、幼帝の外祖父とその血縁者のみが摂政、後に関白や公卿の権利を持っていたが、院政の成立後には藤原北家頼通流にのみ摂政・関白職が世襲されることが公認される。
- In the traditional sense of the regency, only an infant emperor's maternal grandfather and his relatives had the right to take the post of regent, and then the post of chancellor or court noble, but after the cloistered government was formed, it was officially recognized that the posts of regent and chancellor were to be passed down from generation to generation only within Yorimichi's line in the Northern House of the Fujiwara clan.
- これにより、土地に対して重層的にあった中世的な中間権利である様々な職が否定され、耕作者は直接領主に納税することとなり、農村にいた中間搾取者としての武士はほぼ一掃されることとなった。
- As a result, the legitimacy of the positions of a great many medieval-period middleman tax collectors and the like were repudiated, since now cultivators were paying taxes directly to their local lords; at the agricultural village level, Hideyoshi's survey had eliminated nearly all the extortionist middleman warriors who lived off others' effort in one clean sweep.
- これらの動きは、中世を通じて社会体制であり続けた荘園公領制の出現を意味するものであり、これと相前後して開始した院政と併せて、11世紀後期には既に中世に入っていたと見ることもできる。
- These movements implies the arrival of shoen koryo sei (the system of public lands and private estates), which was the social structure throughout the medieval age, and based on this fact together with the advent of cloister government, we can consider that the medieval age already arrived in late 11th century.
- それらを一部挙げてみると、高野熊野街道、西熊野街道、熊野街道(『紀伊続風土記』)、高野道ないし熊野道といったものが知られているが、近世の参詣記などでは高野道ないし熊野道と呼ばれる。
- For example, it was called 'Koya-Kumano-kaido,' 'Nishi-Kumano-kaido,' 'Kumano-kaido' (according to 'Kii Zoku Fudoki'), 'Koya-michi' and 'Kumano-michi,' and in the pilgrimage records written during the early-modern period, it was called 'Koya-michi' or 'Kumano-michi' (all these 'kaido' and 'michi' mean 'road').
- しかしその一方で戦国期に復興した天皇の権威は、鎌倉幕府を模範とした独立型の幕府としたはずなのに、世の中の安定と共に大日本史の編纂を契機にして江戸幕府の朝廷からの委任論が大きくなる。
- On the other hand, authorities of the Emperor, which were restored in the Sengoku period, once turned into an independent-type bakufu which was modeled on the Kamakura bakufu; however, along with the stability of lives and editing of the Great Japanese History, the delegation from the Imperial Court of the Edo bakufu became larger.
- これに伴い、戦国大名にとっては、戦国時代から始まるとして世界遺産にも指定された石見銀山に代表されるように、領内にある金山・銀山の運営が、軍資金の調達のために戦略的な重要性を増した。
- As a result, for sengoku daimyo, operation of gold and silver mines in the territory increased their strategic importance as a means to raise war funds as represented by Iwami Ginzan Silver Mine which was designated a World Heritage as commenced in the Sengoku Period.
- ヨーロッパにおける荘園制(Manorialism or Seigneurialism)は、中世の西ヨーロッパ農村及び中央ヨーロッパの一部農村に見られた経済・社会構造を指す用語である。
- Manorialism or Seigneurialism in Europe is the word which refers to the economical and social structure as seen in the villages in west European villages or some villages in central Europe in medieval times.
- 4世紀にキリスト教が公認されると、キリスト教発祥の地であるパレスチナ、ことにキリストの生地であるベツレヘム、受難の地であるエルサレムへ、その遺構に参拝する信者が旅行するようになった。
- In the fourth century, when Christianity became official, the birthplace of Christianity, Palestine, especially, the birthplace of Jesus Christ, Bethlehem, and the site of the Passion, Jerusalem, were destinations for followers to travel and worship.
- 自検断権の象徴たるこれらの膨大な刀槍、銃器が完全に廃棄されたのは、第二次世界大戦の敗戦後、警察が軍国主義の排除という名目と占領軍の武力と威光を背景に、没収の実行に成功してからであった。
- It was after losing in the World War II when the police succeeded in confiscating and destroying completely these large amount of swords, spears, and firearms, the symbols of the right of Jikendan, under the guise of elimination of militarism and backed by the force and prestige of the occupation forces.
- 加えて、有能な人材を民間から登用する際、一時的に足軽として藩に在籍させ、その後昇進させる等の、ステップとしての一面もあり、中世の無頼の輩は、近世では下級公務員的性格へと変化していった。
- In addition, the status also had the aspect of serving as a career stepping stone such as when capable individuals who were appointed from among ordinary citizens were temporarily be enrolled with the domain as ashigaru before their subsequent promotion, and what were once gangs of villains during the middle ages took on the identity of low-level public servants.
- 本書の成立時期に言及すれば、『日本三代実録』の部分については、同書は901年(延喜元年)完成であり、その直前に道真が大宰府に流されているために同書部分は後世の加筆であると言う説がある。
- Regarding the date of establishment, one theory is that since 'Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku' (sixth of the six history texts) was completed in 901 and Michizane was exiled to Dazaifu just before that year, the excerpted part of the book was added at a later date.
- 尾張国の戦国大名織田信長が、農民の子から足軽になった羽柴秀吉(豊臣秀吉)を家臣に登用したように、実力次第では出世が可能になるのも、戦国大名の家臣団において見られたひとつの傾向であった。
- Within the Kashindan under a Sengoku daimyo, however, there was a trend to give promotions based on abilities; this was seen in the case of Hideyoshi HASHIBA (Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI) who had been born from a peasant family, became an ashigaru (common foot soldier) and was promoted to a vassal by Nobunaga ODA, a Sengoku daimyo in Owari Province.
- 徳川氏を外戚に持つ明正天皇の即位でこの体制は確立されるが、明正の治世中は後水尾天皇による院政が敷かれたため、明正が朝廷に於ける実権を持つことは無く、後水尾上皇に朝廷内の実権が集中した。
- The system was established when Emperor Meisho, whose cognates were the Tokugawa clan, succeeded to the throne, but as insei by Emperor Gomizunoo was conducted during the reign of Meisho, Meisho never had actual power in the Imperial Court; instead, the actual power of the court was concentrated in Emperor Gomizunoo.
- 藤原秀郷、平高望、源経基らがこの第一世代の武士と考えられ、彼らは在地において従来の富豪百姓層(田堵負名)と同様に大規模な公田請作を国衙と契約することで武人としての経済基盤を与えられた。
- FUJIWARA no Hidesato, TAIRA no Takamochi, MINAMOTO no Tsunemoto and so on are considered as the first generation of bushi; in the local lands they signed contracts for farming the koden (field administered directly by a ruler) with kokuga in the similar way as wealthy farmer class (tato fumyo [cultivator/tax manager]) did and got an economic base as warriors.
- 「商工等は、武士・農民の事欠け申さざる程に渡世致し候はば然るべく候」として商工を非生産的な身分であり、都市が繁栄する事そのものが無駄以外の何者でもないと断じて厳しい奢侈禁止令を実施した。
- The sumptuary law stated that 'merchants as well as artisans should always remember that they are to work so as not to inconvenience samurai and farmers,' thus labeling the development of the city itself useless and forcing severe restrictions on these classes of people.
- 11世紀になるとこの流れに、各々の国内の荘園・国衙領への一律的な課税(一国平均役)の動きが加わり、荘園と郡、郷、保に再編成された国衙領を個々の収取単位とする体制(荘園公領制)が成立した。
- Entering the eleventh century, in addition to this trend, the trend of levying tax evenly on shoen (manors) and Kokugaryo (the territory governed by a provincial government office) (called Ikkoku heikinyaku) was also generated, and the system in which tax was collected from shoen and Kokugaryo, which had been reorganized into Gun, Sato (an area within Gun) and Ho (an area within Sato), (called shoen koryo sei) was established.
- また、天皇親政が行われた治世と評価されたが、摂関不設置は阿衡事件に懲りた宇多天皇が皇族を母とする藤原氏腹でない天皇であったことと、藤原氏藤氏長者時平がまだ若かったことが原因とされている。
- This era was highly regarded due to the direct rule by the emperor, and sekkan were not appointed because Emperor Uda was disgusted with the Ako Incident and was not born from a mother from the Fujiwara family having an imperial mother, and because Tokihira, the head of the Fujiwara family, was still young.
- 後に電話会社に勤務していた湯川敏治(中世公家日記研究会)によって『歴名土代』のデータベース化の試みがなされ、平成8年(1996年)にそれを元にした翻刻版が続群書類従完成会より刊行された。
- Later, Toshiharu YUKAWA (Society for Research on the Medieval Court Nobles' Diaries) who worked at a telephone company tried to make a database of 'Ryakumyo dodai' and in 1996 the revised version based on this database was published from the 'Classified Documents, continued' completion committee.
- 楽市・楽座(らくいち・らくざ)は、日本の近世(16世紀から18世紀ごろまで)において織田信長、豊臣秀吉の織豊政権や各地の戦国大名などにより城下町などの支配地の市場で行われた経済政策である。
- Rakuichi-rakuza (free markets and open guilds) was an economic policy implemented in the markets of government controlled areas such as castle towns by the Shokuho government (the government of Nobunaga ODA and Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI) and the Sengoku daimyo (Japanese territorial lord in the Sengoku period) during the early modern period (16th century to 18th century) in Japan.
- 中世期の特徴は、土地の支配権および収益権をめぐって、中央貴族や有力寺社、在地領主・地頭・名主など様々な主体が入り組みながら重層的な権利関係を形成している点にあった(これを職の体系という)。
- A feature of the medieval period was that, concerning land-controlling rights and tax-collecting rights, persons in various social statuses, such as nobles in Kyoto, powerful temples and shrines, local ryoshu, jito and nanushi, were related with each other and formed multi-tiered right oriented relationships (this structure called shiki-no-taikei (literally, a job system)).
- 当時、国衙領からの租税収取を確保するために、国内が古代的な郡・郷から中世的な郡・郷・保という単位に再編成されていたが、これを管轄する郡司・郷司・保司に任命されたのも、主に在庁官人であった。
- At that time in Japan, to ensure the tax collection from the kokuga region, ancient units such as gun and go were reorganized into medieval units such as gun, go, and ho, and zaichokanjin were mainly appointed as gunshi, goshi, and hoshi who supervised these units.
- 名体制を確立するため、現地支配に当たる国司の筆頭者の権限強化が求められるようになり、10世紀中頃には租税収取・軍事警察などの分野で中央政府から現地赴任筆頭国司への大幅な権限委譲が行われた。
- As strengthening the authority of the head of kokushi, who were responsible for local administration, was required in order to maintain the above system, a big transfer of authority from the central government to the head of kokushi was made in the mid-10th century concerning tax collection and military police.
- 第一生命保険のサラリーマン川柳、住友生命保険の創作四字熟語、自由国民社の新語・流行語大賞、東洋大学の現代学生百人一首と並んで、現代の日本の世相を反映する一つの指標として使われることが多い。
- It is often accepted as an indicator representing the social conditions of present day Japan together with the Salaryman Senryu (the salary man senryu poetry contest) hosted by the Dai-ichi Mutual Life Insurance Company, the Sosaku Yojijukugo (Creation of a four-character compound) announced by Sumitomo Life Insurance Company, the Shingo ryukogo taisho (the grand prize for the new word of the year, and the grand prize for the best vogue word of the year) presented by Jiyu Kokuminsha, and the Gendai gakusei hyakunin isshu (One hundred poems of modern students) collected by Toyo University.
- こうした中で座も変質していき、本所から自立した営業集団に転化したり、官衙や領主との結びつきを強めて中にはこれらを新たな本所するものが出現したり、座衆の数を制限して世襲特権化を図ろうとした。
- Under these circumstances, za were also gradually changed. Some za tried to become a trade group independent of their honjo, or some tried to have closer ties to government offices and feudal lords to have them as their honjo, and some attempted to establish a hereditary privilege by limiting the number of members in their za.
- 元来、職制律(在官応直不直条)においては昼の警備を「宿」、夜の警備を「直」と書いて「とのい」と読ませていたが、後世においては、夜の警備を「宿直」もしくは「殿居」と書いて「とのい」と読ませた。
- Originally under the Shikisei-ritsu (Office Penal Laws) (Zaikan Ochoku Fuchoku no jo (在官応直不直条, the article of guarding activities)) the guarding activity during the day was expressed as '宿' and the night activity as '直' and the combination of '宿直' was read as 'Tonoi,' but later it only came to mean the guarding activity during the night, which was described '宿直' or '殿居' and both were read as 'Tonoi.'
- 15世紀後半の応仁の乱ないし明応の政変以降は戦国時代 (日本)とも呼ばれ、それまでの「幕府 - 守護体制」が崩壊するとともに、各地に地域国家が並立するようになり、また、荘園公領制が崩壊した。
- Starting in the latter half of the fifteenth century, with the Onin War and the Meio Coup, a roughly hundred-year era known as the Sengoku Period (Period of Warring States) began; during this period, the bakufu-daimyo system in place up until this point collapsed, and all the various provinces essentially became independent states unto themselves, while the shoen-koryo (private estates and public territory) system of land ownership disintegrated.
- その風潮は大学にも及んで博士の地位を世襲させるために特定の家系の家学として知識の独占を図るようになり、授業も大学寮ではなく自らの私邸を用いて限られた子弟や門人に対してのみ行われるようになった。
- This trend also reached Daigaku-ryo, where professors, with the aim of bequeathing the post of hakase to their descendants, tried to monopolize knowledge by denying access to education to people other than their household, and they gave lectures only to their children and a handful of disciples not at Daigaku-ryo but at their private residences.
- しかし、11世紀に荘園公領制が成立すると、多くの武士は荘司、郡司、郷司、保司に任命され、荘園、または公領の郡、郷、保を確固たる所領とするようになっていき、田堵負名を自らの支配下に置いていった。
- Once the shoen-koryo system was established in the 11th century, however, many samurai were appointed shoji (also known as shokan), gunji, goji, or hoji, and they began to own some manors or the Imperial demesnes such as gun, go, and ho as their settled territories and to have tato and fumyo under their control.
- 結果的に延喜の治は律令制復活の最後の試みとなり、次代の朱雀天皇および藤原忠平の治世から、律令制支配は完全に放棄されることとなり、新たな支配体制王朝国家体制の構築・充実が進展していったのである。
- As the result, Engi no chi was the last trial conducted to bring back the Ritsuryo system, and this ruling system was completely abandoned during the reign of the next emperor, Emperor Suzaku, and FUJIWARA no Tadahira and the establishment and reinforcement of a new system, i.e. the Imperial Court, state was starting to develop.
- 平成11年(1999年)には広島県立世羅高等学校で卒業式当日に校長が自殺し、君が代斉唱や日章旗掲揚の文部省通達とそれに反対する日教組教職員との板挟みになっていたことが原因ではないかと言われた。
- In 1999, the principal of Hiroshima Prefectural SERA Senior High School committed suicide on the day of the commencement ceremony and it was rumored that the cause of this suicide was the fact that he had been caught in the middle of the instruction by the Ministry of Education chorus reading Kimigayo and raising the Japanese (rising sun) flag and opposing teachers who belonged to Nikkyoso.
- 更に天正19年(1591年)に鶴松が病死すると、秀吉は甥の豊臣秀次(内大臣)を養子として関白の地位を譲り関白が豊臣氏の世襲とする意思を改めて表明し、自分は太政大臣在任のまま実権を保持し続けた。
- Furthermore, when Tsurumatsu died of disease in 1591, Hideyoshi adopted his nephew, Hidetsugu TOYOTOMI (Naidaijin), and yielded the position of Kanpaku to him, showing again his determination to relinquish the position of Kanpaku to only the Toyotomi clan and staying in power as Dajodaijin.
- 12月2日_(旧暦)には四宮の親王宣下が行われて「朝仁親王」の名が与えられ、翌3年(1683年)2月9日_(旧暦)には中世以来断絶していた立太子式が行われて朝仁親王が正式に皇太子に立てられた。
- On December 30, an imperial proclamation to nominate Shinomiya was issued, renaming him Imperial Prince Asahito, who was officially invested in crown princedom in the ceremony of investiture of the Crown Prince next year, on March 7, 1683, the first such rite after a long interval since the (Japanese) Medieval Age.
- 8世紀初頭に確立した律令制は、個人を徴税単位とする個別人身支配(人別支配)を基本原則としており、高度に体系化された律令法典・官僚制度・地方制度や古代の戸籍制度・計帳などを基盤として存立していた。
- The Ritsuryo system, which was established in early 8th century, adopted the principle of people-based governance (ruling individuals) and existed on the basis of the highly systematized Ritsuryo code of law/bureaucracy system/local administration system as well as the family registration system/keicho (yearly tax registers) etc.
- 江戸に皇居を置き東京とするという構想は、江戸時代後期の経世家である佐藤信淵が文政6年(1823年)に著した『混同秘策』に既に現われており、これに影響を受けて大久保利通も東京奠都を建言したという。
- The concept of placing the imperial palace in Edo and making it Tokyo was a plan that appeared in the Keiseika (intellectuals) that Nobuhiro SATO wrote in 1823, during the last of the Edo period titled 'The Secret Merger Plan,' and it is said that Toshimichi OKUBO was influenced by this and advocated moving the capital to Tokyo.
- それに替わって、俘囚を私兵として治安維持活動の実戦に参加したことのある受領経験者やその子弟で、中央の出世コースからはずれ、受領になりうる諸大夫層からも転落した者達が、地域紛争の鎮圧に登用された。
- Instead of this, people with zuryo experience or their children, who had participated in actual fighting or security duties using the barbarians as private armies and were off the career track of the central government and fell from the class of shodaibu who could become zuryo, were recruited to suppress regional conflicts.
- 農業生産力の発展を基盤として、経済的な繁栄が見られたのが元禄であり、この時代には文学や絵画の面でも、井原西鶴の浮世草子、松尾芭蕉の俳諧、近松門左衛門の浄瑠璃、菱川師宣の浮世絵などが誕生していく。
- The Genroku era enjoyed economic prosperity based on the development of agricultural productivity, and in the field of literature and painting famous masterpieces such as Ukiyozoshi (Literally, Books of the Floating World) by Saikaku IHARA, seven-syllable verse (haikai) by Basho MATSUO, Joruri (dramatic narrative chanted to a samisen accompaniment) by Monzaemon CHIKAMATSU and ukiyoe paintings by Moronobu HISHIKAWA were created.
- この死亡帳は、「去年7月」から「今年6月」までの一年間について、秋田城の支配領域(秋田郡周辺)の民について記載したもので、当時の出羽国国府(9世紀初頭に移転)に清書したものを提出したと考えられる。
- This Shibocho described citizens in the area (around Akita County) controlled by Akita-jo Castle for one year from 'July of the previous year' to 'June of this year,' and was considered to be a transcript submitted to the provincial office of Dewa Province at that time (transferred in early ninth century).
- 近世ノ作法、仏の懸記ニタガハズコソ、仏ノ弟子ナヲ仏意ニ背ク、マシテ在家俗士堂塔ヲ建立スル、多ハ名聞ノ為メ、若ハ家ノカザリトス、或ハ是レニヨリテ利ヲエ、或ハ酒宴ノ座席、詩歌ノ会所トシテ、無礼ノ事多シ
- The modern customs are shameful to the Buddhist record written about the future, and the students of Buddhism turned away from the will of the Buddha as the samurai of existing families built a tower, young men decorated their houses in order to have his name heard many times, gained profits from it, sat at drinking parties, or made it into kaisho where poetry is read, and held many rude activities.
- 京都市眺望景観創生条例(きょうとしちょうぼうけいかんそうせいじょうれい)とは、「京都の優れた眺望景観を創生するとともに,これらを将来の世代に継承することを目的とする」(1条)、京都市の条例である。
- The City Ordinances on the Preservation of Vistaed View are ordinances in Kyoto City to 'create Kyoto's surrounding scenery and vistaed views, and preserve them for future generations' (Article 1).
- また伴信友が天保8年(1837年)に著した『神社思考』では、世の一宮記に書かれている神々は全て『延喜式神名帳』に載っていると記しており、伴信友も『大日本国一宮記』系統の本を参照していたと思われる。
- Besides, 'Jinja Shiko' by Nobutomo BAN (1837) says 'Engi-shiki Jinmyocho had already listed all the gods which current Ichinomiya-Ki mention', so Ban seems to have had some Ichinomiya-ki which had been copied after 'Dainihonkoku Ichinomiya-Ki'.
- 中世の荘園公領制では、本家-領家-開発領主-荘官-地頭らの関係に見られるように、土地や百姓に対する支配関係、また土地からの収益に関する権利関係が重層的に絡み合っており、著しく複雑な様相を呈していた。
- As seen in relationships among honke (head family), ryoke (lord of the manor), kaihatsu-ryoshu (local notable who developed the land), shokan (officer governing shoen), and jito (manager and lord of manor), dominance relationships involving lands and farmers and also relationships involving rights such as land and profit were related to each other in multiple ways; therefore, the Shoen Koryo system of the Middle Ages was extremely complicated.
- 中世の経済的利益は座・問丸・株仲間によって独占され既得権化していたが、戦国大名はこれを排除して絶対的な領主権の確立を目指すとともに、税の減免を通して新興商工業者を育成し経済の活性化を図ったのである。
- Economic benefits in Japan during the middle ages were monopolized by za (guilds), toimaru (specialized wholesale merchants) and kabunakama (trade associations) but Sengoku daimyo abolished these and, as well as attempting to establish absolute feudal rights, aimed to stimulate the economy by fostering emerging merchants and tradesmen via the reduction and exemption of taxes.
- 一般には、12世紀後半の源頼朝による鎌倉幕府の設立から、慶応3年(1867年)の徳川慶喜による大政奉還まで、約700年間に渡る武家による政権を指すが、現在は平清盛の平氏政権からとする説が有力である。
- The military government was an administration under the control of samurai, which continued for about 700 years from the establishment of the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) by MINAMOTO no Yoritomo in the late 12th century to Taisei Hokan (transfer of power back to the Emperor) lead by Yoshinobu TOKUGAWA in 1867; however, a theory, in which the start was the Taira clan government ruled by TAIRA no Kiyomori, is now widely accepted.
- また、廃絶期間が長いためにルートが不明になっている箇所や、時代によって異なるルートが使用された区間の調査、さらにそうした箇所・区間の世界遺産への追加登録など、今後のさらなる調査・研究が待たれている。
- In some sections, the old roads are not found yet because people have not used it for a long time or people used another routes in some periods; and for those sections, further investigations, studies and additional application for World Heritage site are required.
- そのうち、天皇のミウチである藤原氏と源氏が議政官(公卿)をほぼ独占し始め、特に藤原北家嫡流は9世紀後半に天皇の政治決定権を受任・代行しうる摂政・関白の地位を獲得し、その地位を世襲することに成功した。
- Then, the Fujiwara clan and the Minamoto clan, the relatives of the Emperor, almost created a monopoly of the Giseikan (a legislative organ), and it is worthy to note that the direct descent of the Northern House of the Fujiwara clan achieved the position of Sessho Kanpaku (regent and chief adviser to the Emperor) in the late ninth century, which made them receive and deal with the political discretion of the Emperor; and they were also successful in making the position hereditary.
- 会所(かいしょ)とは、文字通り解釈すれば、なんらかの会、催し物、寄合・会合が行われるところであるが、日本の中世期に発展して、ある特定の区画、さらには独立した建物が「会所」と名づけられることもあった。
- Kaisho, interpreted literally, was some sort of place where a meeting, exhibition, Yoriai (debate), or association was held, but developed in the medieval era in Japan where certain divisions, or even independent buildings were named 'kaisho.'
- 嘉禄元年(1225年)、鎌倉幕府に評定衆が設置されて以来、重要な政務は評定によって決定されたが、13世紀後期に年始の行事の一環として毎年1月中旬の1日に執権・連署以下を召集して評定始を行うようになった。
- Important policies had been decided by the council since 1225 when the hyojoshu was set up in the Kamakura bakufu, and in the late thirteenth century, hyojohajime began as a New Year ceremony convened with a regent, rensho (assistant to regents), and other subordinates on a day of mid-January every year.
- ところが、戦国時代_(日本)に入ると、堅田門徒の指導的地位を得ていた本福寺は大津の門徒を率いていた本願寺10世証如の後見人蓮淳(蓮如の6男で証如の外祖父でもある)の讒言によって、3度にわたる破門を受けた。
- However, in the Sengoku period (period of warring states), Honpuku-ji Temple, which was in a commanding position in Katata-shu, was excommunicated three times by a slander of Renjun (Rennyo's sixth son and Shonyo's maternal grandfather), the guardian of Shonyo, 10th chief priest, who led believers in Otsu.
- 王朝国家体制期は、通常古代の末期に位置づけられるが、分権的な中世の萌芽期と位置づけることも可能であり、古代から中世への過渡期と理解されている(日本文学史研究においては「中古」という表現も用いられている)。
- Although the dynasty system is usually placed as having existed during the end of ancient times, it is also possible to place it during the early years of the middle age having a decentralized system and it is generally accepted as a transient period from the ancient period to the middle age (the expression 'Chuko' (literally, middle old) is used in the historical study of Japanese literature).
- また、子供達の関心を呼ぶために他地域の地理や風物・物産などを織り込んだ往来物も作られ、『日本国尽』・『都名所往来』・『浪花往来』・『中仙道往来』、そして明治維新期には『世界風俗往来』まで作成されるに至った。
- Furthermore, oraimono featuring geography, scenery, and produce of other regions were written to interest children, which include 'Nihonkunizukushi,' 'Miyakomeisho Orai' (Correspondence on Sights in Miyako (present-day Kyoto)), 'Naniwa Orai' (Letters On Sights of Naniwa (present-day Osaka)) and 'Nakasendo Orai,' and in the period of the Meiji Restoration, 'Sekaifuzoku Orai' was composed.
- 中世熊野詣において京の院や貴族たちが熊野に赴いた際のように、九十九王子を順拝し参詣の道を歩く行為それ自体に信仰上の意義が見出す立場からは、これらの高野・熊野を結ぶ道は単に最短経路という以上のものでしかない。
- Like the imperial family and nobles of Kyoto in the Muromachi period visited Kumano, people in the Edo period visited Kujuku Oji (a series of shrines which were established from the 12th century to the 13th century by the Kumano Shugen priests) and walked the pilgrimage roads, however, for the people who appreciated the religious significance of such visiting and walking, the roads connecting Koya and Kumano were just the shortest routes for their purpose.
- 発展する経済活動と土地資本体制の行政官である武士を過剰に抱える各政府(各藩)との構造的な軋轢を内包しつつも、「泰平の世」を謳歌していた江戸時代も19世紀を迎えると、急速に制度疲労による硬直化が目立ち始める。
- The Edo period enjoyed a 'peaceful world,' although there was structural conflict between developing economic activities in a city and the land capital system in the domain economy which held an excessive number of samurai, executive officers of the land capital structure, but early in the 19th century the structual fatigue became apparent rapidly as organizational inflexibility.
- 彼らがこうした軍事力を発揮出来た背景には、彼らの父祖の世代が受領に任ぜられた際、狩猟文化を背景に持つ俘囚の武芸を学んでおり、それを基礎とした新式の武芸を編み出していたとする議論(下向井龍彦)が唱えられている。
- There has been an argument (by Tatsuhiko SHIMOMUKAI) that these aristocrats were able to demonstrate their military power because, their grandfathers learned barbaric military arts developed based on hunting culture when they were appointed to zuryo, and these aristocrats developed military arts of a new style based on the original style.
- この間、遷都しなくても衰退の心配がない浪華(大坂)よりも、世界の大都市のひとつであり、帝都にしなければ市民が離散してさびれてしまう江戸のほうに遷都すべきだとする前島密による「江戸遷都論」が大久保に届けられた。
- During this time an argument for transferring the capital to Edo was received from Hisaka MAEJIMA to Okubo who believed that more important than transferring the capital to Naniwa (Osaka), which was not in danger of decline, the capital should be transferred to Edo, one of the largest cities, because if it wasn't made the imperial capital the citizens would break up and Edo would crumble.
- そこで中世の七口の関について比定する研究も行われたが、実態として7つ以上の関所が存在したのは確実で、かつ現存記録でさえ七口に該当する場所がまちまちである以上、7つを特定することには意義はないとする見解もある。
- Therefore, studies to extrapolate the Nanakuchi no seki in the medieval times was conducted, but it is certain that more than seven checkpoints existed in reality, and even existing records have different points corresponding to the Nanakuchi, which lead to an opinion that it makes no sense to identify the seven checkpoints.
- 八幡 高砂 (能) 養老 老松 塩釜 蟻通 箱崎 鵜の羽 盲打 松風 (能) 百万 檜垣の女 薩摩の守 実盛 頼政 清経 (能) 敦盛 (能) 高野 逢坂 恋の重荷 佐野の船橋 泰山府君 是、以上、世阿弥作。
- Hachiman, Takasago, Yoro, Oimatsu, Shiogama, Aridoshi, Hakozaki, Unoha, Mekurauchi, Matsukaze, Hyakuman, Higaki no Onna, Satsuma no Kami, Sanemori, Yorimasa, Kiyotsune, Atsumori, Takano, Osaka, Koi no Omoni, Sano no Funabashi and Taizanfukun by Zeami.
- 一代限りの身分ではあるが、実際には引退に際し子弟や縁者を後継者とすることで世襲は可能であり、また薄給ながら生活を維持できるため、後にその権利が「株」として売買され、富裕な農民・商人の次・三男の就職口ともなった。
- The status of ashigaru was restricted to a single generation but in actuality could be inherited by a child or relative upon retirement and, this right later went on to be bought and sold as 'kabu' and also became a position of employment for the second and third sons of wealthy farmers and merchants, because they could make their living by being an ashigaru although their salaries were low.
- 信長の敵対者である伊賀忍者に守られた逃避行は、後世、光秀方に誅されることを恐れたものとされるが、 本来は信長方に誅されることを恐れて事前に準備されたものだった、ないし、 自己の関与を否定するための演出であった。
- Although it was told later that Ieyasu's runaway trip guarded by Iga ninja (a secret agent (in feudal Japan) highly skilled in stealth and secrecy), who were opponents to Nobunaga was because of Ieyasu's fear against to be killed by the Mitsuhide's side, it was originally prepared in advance based on Ieyasu's fear against being killed by the Nobunaga's side or it was an arrangement to deny his participation in the plot.
- 1443年(世宗 (朝鮮王)25年)朝鮮通信使書状官として日本に赴いた後、成宗の命を受けて作成したもので、日本の天皇家や国王(各時代の権力者)、地名、国情、交聘往来の沿革、使臣館待遇接待の節目などを記録している。
- After being dispatched to Japan as the recorder of travel logs for the Joseon envoy, Shin wrote the book in 1443 under the order of King Seongjong and it records details including those of Japan's Imperial Family, lords (influential people throughout the ages), place names, the state of national affairs, the movements of the diplomatic mission, and rules of the reception met by the envoy, and so on.
- 橋本によれば、清盛はこの状況を奇貨として滋子の生んだ皇子の養母を「先の摂政の未亡人」である盛子に引き受けさせ、「東宮の養母の父親」である清盛が内大臣や太政大臣に出世する口実としたとされる(橋本200622-24)。
- According to Hashimoto, Kiyomori seized the chance by making Moriko (who was the widow of the former Regent) the foster mother of the prince that Shigeko gave birth to, and therefore Kiyomori became the 'father of the foster mother of the Crown Prince' and used this as a reason to promote him to Nai-daijin and Daijyo-daijin (Hashimoto 200622-24).
- 天文博士の挙状によって後任の天文博士が任命される例はそれ以前にも存在していた(『朝野群載』)が、これ以後は安倍氏の天文博士が挙状によって自己の一族を天文博士・権博士に任命して世襲していくことが行われるようになった。
- Although there had been some precedent for new tenmon hakase to be appointed by a tenmon hakase's recommendation ('Choya gunsai (Collected Official and Unofficial Writings)'), from that point on, the tradition of tenmon hakase from the Abe family recommend their own kin for tenmon hakase or tenmongon no hakuji, keeping the positions in the family, was established.
- 源光信(美濃源氏)、多田行綱(多田源氏)、山本義経(近江源氏)、武田信義、一条忠頼、安田義定(甲斐源氏)、伊豆国の源頼朝、陸奥国の源義経などの名があるが、当時の重要人物の欠落や錯誤が多く、後世の創作と考えられている。
- The list includes such names as MINAMOTO no Mitsunobu (of the Mino Genji), Yukitsuna TADA (of the Tada Genji), Yoshitsune YAMAMOTO (of the Omi Genji), Nobuyoshi TAKEDA, Tadayori ICHIJO, Yoshisada YASUDA (of the Kai Genji), as well as MINAMOTO no Yoritomo in Izu province and MINAMOTO no Yoshitsune in Mutsu province, but many of the most important and powerful people of the day are missing from the list and there are many errors, prompting some to consider the list a literary fiction added later.
- それに加えて、18世紀後半の産業革命によって欧米諸国は急速に近代化しており、それぞれの政治経済的事情から大航海時代の単なる「冒険」ではなく、自らの産業のために資源と市場を求めて世界各地に植民地獲得のための進出を始めた。
- In addition to the above, western countries modernized rapidly through industrial revolution in the latter half of the 18th century, and for their own political and economic reasons, started debouching into various places around the world to acquire their own colonies for the purpose of seeking resources and markets for their own industries, rather than for the simple purpose of 'adventure' during the Age of Geographical Discovery.
- そのため、双方の中国史上における荘園の位置づけも大きく異なっている上、周藤や宮崎の晩年には冷戦構造の崩壊とともに「世界史の基本原則」という概念のそのものに対する批判が出現したことで、議論自体が中途で停滞することとなった。
- For this reason, the positioning of the shoens in Chinese history from both of the two sides are very different and in later life of Sudo and Miyazaki, with the demise of the Cold War structure, the concept 'the basic principle of world history' itself came to be criticized and thus the dispute itself stood still in the way.
- 「明徳記」は1391年の明徳の乱の経過が書かれている、「応永記」には1399年の応永の乱や南北朝合体の記述が、「永享記」には永享の乱を中心とした関東の情勢が、「応仁記」には足利義政の治世から応仁の乱の様子が記されている。
- The 'Meitokuki' (Chronicle of the Meitoku Era) records the events and aftermath of the Meitoku Rebellion, while the 'Oeiki' (Chronicle of the Oei Era) describes the Oei Rebellion and the unification of the Northern and Southern courts; the 'Eikyoki' focuses on the situation in the Kanto, especially vis-a-vis the Eikyo Rebellion, whereas the 'Oninki' records the circumstances of the period from Yoshimasa ASHIKAGA's reign up until the Onin War.
- 近親者を殺されてその復讐をする例は、南イタリアを始めとして、世界各地で見られるが、江戸時代の敵討は、喧嘩両成敗を補完する方法として法制化されていたことと、主眼は復讐ではなく武士の意地・面目であるとされていた点に特徴がある。
- Cases of revenge after the killing of a close relative are found in various parts of the world, including southern Italy; however, the characteristic of Katakiuchi in the Edo period is that it was legitimized as a method to supplement Kenka Ryoseibai (in a quarrel both parties are to blame) and that the aim was not the revenge but the pride or honor of a samurai.
- 醍醐天皇は摂関を置かず、また延喜格式が編纂されるなど、後世の人々から天皇親政による理想の政治が行われた治世と評価され、同じく10世紀中期に天皇親政が行われたとする村上天皇の治世(天暦の治)と併せて延喜・天暦の治と呼ばれた。
- As Emperor Daigo had no Sekkan (regents and advisers) and compiled 'Engi no kyakushiki' (regulations and laws of the Engi era), his reign was considered by succeeding generations as the reign when an ideal politics were carried out by direct rule of the Emperor and his reign was called as Engi and Tenryaku no chi (reign of Emperor Daigo and Murakami) together with the reign of Emperor Murakami (Tenryaku no chi - glorious Tenryaku rule) who also carried out direct rule in the middle of the 10th century.
- これらを貢納する贄人を初めとする非農業民は、従来「無主」にして「公私共利」の地とされた山野河海の利用により生業をたてていたが、8世紀以降の律令制の解体、荘園公領制の成立とともに、荘園領主による制約を受けるようになってきた。
- Non-agricultural people, including those who presented these items, made their living from the mountains, fields, rivers, and the sea that were originally lands 'not owned by anyone' and were 'beneficial publicly and privately,' however, regulations were initiated by Shoen owners after the disbandment of the Ritsuryo system and the establishment of the Shoen-Koryo system from the 8th Century.
- しかし、忠平の後に実際に政務をリードしたのは太政官筆頭である左大臣藤原実頼であり、村上治世を天皇親政の理想の時代とするのは、11世紀以降に摂関政治で不遇をかこった中下流の文人貴族による意識的な喧伝だったのだと考えられている。
- However, the person who led the governance after Tadahira was the head of Daijokan (Department of State) and also Sadaijin (Minister of the Left) FUJIWARA no Saneyori, and it is thought to have been conscious propaganda to admire Murakami's reign as the ideal of imperial governance by the middle- and lower-ranked literary nobility in and after 11th century.
- 検断とは統治すること・裁判することを意味する言葉であり、中世日本では治安行政と刑事司法とが未分化だったため、統治することが裁判を行うことと密接につながっていたのである(日葡辞書によると、検断は統治・裁判を行う役職、とある)。
- 'Kendan' is a word which means both to govern and judge; since public safety administration and criminal justice were undifferentiated in medieval Japan, the concept of governing was closely associated with the concept of judging (according to a Japanese - Portuguese dictionary, 'kendan' is a role which governs and judges).
- 後光厳、後円融天皇、後小松天皇、称光天皇と4代にわたって後光厳系が皇位についた一方、兄筋の崇光上皇の子孫は嫡流から排されて世襲親王家である伏見宮家として存続し、北朝内部でも皇位継承をめぐる両系統間の確執があったとされている。
- The 4 emperors of the Gokogon line, Emperors Gokogon, Koenyu, Gokomatsu, Shoko were on the throne, whereas descendants of Emperor Suko who were the elder brothers, were eliminated from the succeeding line and existed as the hereditary Imperial Prince line, the Fushiminomiya ke, and there is said to be a conflict between the two lines within the Northern Court regarding Imperial succession.
- 財団法人日本漢字能力検定協会が、その年をイメージする漢字一字の公募を日本全国より行い、その中で最も応募数の多かった漢字一字を、その年の世相を表す漢字として、毎年12月12日の「漢字の日」に京都府京都市東山区の清水寺で発表する。
- On December 12th of each year, the Japan Kanji Aptitude Testing Foundation calls upon people across the country to submit a Chinese character that symbolizes the year throughout Japan and announces the Chinese character with the most submissions as the Kanji representing the social conditions of the year at the Kiyomizu-dera Temple in Higashiyama Ward, Kyoto City, Kyoto Prefecture on the 'Kanji's day.'
- 奈良県教育委員会による調査報告には、近世以前のルートの指摘や、文化的景観の観点からの自然誌・考古・歴史・景観に関する報告、民俗・文化財、さらに調査・研究史の概観や古文書・史料の解題といった、重要な調査・研究の成果を含んでいる。
- The reports by Nara Prefectural Board of Education listed the older routes before the early-modern period and reported the information linked to the conservation of cultural scenery including the information of natural history, archaeology, history and sceneries, in addition, it gave the results of the important investigations and studies such as summaries of the history of the investigations and studies, and bibliographies of the old documents and historical materials.
- 李氏朝鮮では前年に世宗 (朝鮮王)が即位していたが、実権は太宗 (朝鮮王)が握っており、太宗は倭寇撃退を名目にした対馬遠征を決め、永楽17年(西暦1419年)6月、李従茂率いる227隻、17,285名の軍勢を対馬に侵攻させた。
- With King Sejong the Great having ascended to the throne in Joseon Korea only the previous year (1418), former King Taejong still held de facto power, and it was Taejong who decided to launch an expedition against Tsushima in June 1419 under the pretext of pacifying the Wako, dispatching a fleet of 227 ships and 17,285 soldiers to invade Tsushima, with general YI Jong Mu in command.
- 中世における家門とは、家督を有する当主とその管領(管理)のもとにある家業・家職・家記(日記)・家屋・寺院・道具及びその共有者である当主夫婦・親子を中心とした親族集団を指し、家門そのものも家督とともに継承される性質のものであった。
- The term for family in the Medieval Age referred to a kinship group that was mainly composed of the family head who owned the family estate and the family business, trade, record (diary), their house, temple and tools under his reign (control), as well as his wife and children, who were the joint owners; the family itself, as well as the family estate, was succeeded to the descendents.
- 源頼朝の死後、将軍の輔弼制度として北条氏による執政制度も創設され、たとえ頼朝の血統が絶えても鎌倉幕府体制は永続するように制度整備がなされ、その裏打ちとして御成敗式目という初の武家法が制定され、その後の中世社会の基本法典となった。
- After MINAMOTO no Yoritomo died, an administrative system was created by the Hojo clan to fill the role of Shogunal advisor to the Imperial Court; they also arranged the system so that even if Yoritomo's bloodline died out, the Kamakura bakufu system could continue, and to serve as the bakufu's legal basis created the Goseibei Shikimoku (Formulary of Adjudications), the first set of laws governing the warrior class, which was to became the legal foundation of medieval society in Japan.
- さらに11世紀に荘園公領制が成立すると、対等な権利主体となった荘園と公領(国衙領)の間に武力紛争が多発し、荘園の現地管理者である荘官、公領の現地管理者である惣司、郡司、郷司、保司には武芸の家の者たる武士が任命されるようになった。
- Furthermore, after the shoen koryo sei (the system of public lands and private estates) was established in the 11th century, many armed conflicts arose between the owners of shoen (private estates) and the administrators of koryo (public land, also known as kokugaryo, meaning territory governed by a provincial government office), both of whom now had equal rights; accordingly, Soji (local government officials under the ritsuryo system), Gunji (local magistrates), Goji (local government officials under the ritsuryo system), and Hoji (officers who managed koryo), all of whom were regional administrators of koryo, and Shokan (officers who managed shoen) were all appointed from samurai families.
- しかし実際には自身が病弱である事、重度の吃音である事、実家の母から過大な期待を寄せられている事、同寺が観光客の参観料で運営されており、僧侶よりも事務職の方が幅を利かせるなどの現実から、厭世感情からくる複雑な感情が入り乱れていた。
- However, the truth was that it was much more complicated because HAYASHI was pessimistic towards life, based on him being rather sickly with serious dysphemia, while his mother had placed extremely high hopes on him.
- 例えば、『記紀』の記述によると、広開土王碑が伝える朝鮮半島奥深くに侵入しての高句麗との戦闘は一切伝えられていないし、倭の五王の遣使も伝わらない(倭王武の上表文によると5世紀の最も重大な外交問題は対高句麗問題であるにも関わらず)。
- For example, the Kiki does not say anything about the battle against Koguryo in the depths of the Korean Peninsula (mentioned in the Gwanggaeto Stele), or about envoys of the Five Kings of Wa (despite the most important diplomatic issue in the fifth century being a relationship with Koguryo as Waobu's johyobun).
- 中世日本(平安時代後期から室町時代・戦国時代 (日本))において存在していた被差別民が、中世社会の中でいかなる存在であったかについては、1980年代以降、網野善彦らによって急速に研究が進展しており、いまだその評価は確定していない。
- Research about the state of discriminated people who existed during medieval Japan (in the era from the latter half of the Heian period to the Muromachi period and the Sengoku Period - period of warring states in Japan) has rapidly progressed since the 1980s through efforts by Yoshihiko AMINO and others, but an evaluation has not been established yet.
- 下地中分(したじちゅうぶん)とは、日本の中世日本に使用された用語で、荘園公領制下の重層的に入り組んだ支配・権利関係の中で、それぞれの主体が一元的に土地を支配すること(一円知行)を目的にして行われた、土地の分割を指し示す用語である。
- Shitaji chubun is a term which was used in medieval Japan and it means the division of the land implemented, under the situation where the ruling system of or rights to the land were entangled in a multi-layered way under shoen koryo sei (the system of public lands and private estates), with the aim of achieving the unified land ruling system (Ichien chigyo).
- 歴史家アンリ・ピレンヌは、イスラム圏への征服活動が、ヨーロッパ中世経済の著しい農村化をもたらし、また多様な農奴階級が支える地域権力ヒエラルキーという伝統的な封建様式を引き起こしたとする説を展開している(ただし異論も少なからずある)。
- The historian Henri Pirenne presented the argument that the conquest activities of the Islamic world caused the significant villagization of the economy in medieval Europe and the traditional feudal system which was the local power hierarchy supported by the class of serfs (however, many people have different opinions).
- しかし外山・佐阿弥・十二次郎・観世元雅越智観世など他の作者付には見られない作者が挙げられ、これらの人物については信用のおける古書を参照しているとも考えることも出来、信頼には検討を要するとは言え、傍証が得られれば重要な資料となり得る。
- However, it includes writers such as Sotoyama, Saami, Junijiro, Kanze Motomasa and Ochi Kanze who do not appear in other sakushazuke and it can be thought that details regarding these individuals is based on credible ancient texts, so although it is important to remain skeptical, this book will become a valuable resource if its content can be corroborated.
- 後に紀伝道(中国史)・文章道(文学)・明経道(儒教)・明法道(法律)・算道の学科構成となり、更に紀伝と文章が統合された(紀伝が文章に吸収統合されたと言うのは後世の誤りで、実際は博士号は「文章(博士)」、学科は「紀伝(道)」と称した)。
- Afterwards, Daigaku-ryo comprised Kidendo (the study of Chinese history), Monjodo (literature), Myogyodo (the study of Confucian classics), Myobodo (study of Codes), and Sando (study of mathematics) while Kidendo and Monjodo were integrated later (people of succeeding generations assumed that Kidendo was absorbed by Monjodo but this is wrong. In reality, the name of the doctorate was 'Monjo Hakase' while the name of the department was 'Kiden (do).'
- 14世紀前後の北九州から朝鮮半島、中国沿岸などでは日本人、中国人や朝鮮民族らの多民族構成とする倭寇(前期倭寇)が活発化し、日朝貿易においては朝貢貿易に加えて民間貿易も許可されていたため、東アジアの海上世界は民族雑居状態が存在していた。
- Around the fourteenth century, Wako (specifically, the early Wako), a multiethnic group of pirates that included Japanese, Chinese, and Koreans, began increasing their activities in the seas from northern Kyushu in Japan to those around the Korean peninsula and along the coast of China; in addition to the formal tributary trade missions, it was now also permissible for trade to be conducted between Japan and Korea by private merchants, adding a more international flavor to the maritime world of East Asia during this period.
- だが、新将軍・義尚は若くして病死し、引退した父・義政も銀閣をはじめとする慈照寺の造営に余生を費やして、芸術の世界にのみ生きた(とはいえ、義政の芸術保護が後の東山文化発展の基礎となり、後々の日本文化に大きな影響を与えた事は否定できない)。
- But the new Shogun, Yoshihisa, died of illness while still young, and his retired father Yoshimasa devoted his remaining years to construction projects at Jisho-ji Temple, notably the building known as Ginkaku (the Silver Pavilion), focusing his attention entirely on the world of artistic endeavor (and indeed, Yoshimasa's patronage of the arts became the foundation of the flourishing artistic culture of the Higashiyama area, and no one can deny he had a profound influence on later developments in Japanese culture.)
- 小辺路の生活道路としての形成時期ははっきりしないが、小辺路が通行する十津川村・野迫川村の領域に関係する史料には8世紀にさかのぼるものが見られ、また、周辺に介在する遺跡・史資料などから少なくとも平安時代には開創されていたと考えられている。
- The time when Kohechi began to be formed as community road is unknown; however, there is a historical document about Totsukawa Village and Nosegawa Village through which Kohechi passes dates back to the eighth century, besides there remain relics and other historical materials which can be linked to the road, therefore, it is considered that Kohechi was formed in the Heian period at the very latest.
- 一条兼良の『樵談治要』の「諸国の守護たる人廉直をさきとすべき事」の条に「諸国の国司は一任四ケ年に過ぎず、当時の守護職は昔の国司に同じといへども、子々孫々につたへて知行をいたす事は、春秋の時の十二諸侯、戦国の世の七雄にことならず」とある。
- In the section 'Shugo (provincial military governor) should give high priority to honesty' in 'Shodanchiyo' by Kaneyoshi ICHIJO, it is described as 'the term of office for kokushi (provincial governor) was four years a term and although the present shugo corresponds to kokushi in the former time, they are equivalent to the Twelve Feudal Lords in the Chunqiu period and the Seven Influential Lords in the Zhanguo period, because they govern and succeed the fief from father to son.'
- この両論に疑問を表明したのは後藤守一、原田大六、森浩一、伝世鏡論に疑問や同笵鏡の分有関係の解釈について斎藤忠、系統的・理論的に批判した内藤晃、鏡の賜与だけをもって大和政権と地方首長との政治関係の成立を考察するのは困難とする西嶋定生などがいた。
- Shuichi GOTO, Dairoku HARADA and Koichi MORI raised questions regarding the two theories, Tadashi SAITO posed questions regarding Densei-kyo mirror ron and the explanation of the fact that Dohan-kyo mirrors were owned by more than one owner, Akira NAITO criticized the theories systematically and theoretically, Sadao NISHIJIMA insisted that the establishment of a political relationship between the YAMATO Administration and heads of local governments cannot be explained only in accordance of mirrors.
- 学芸自由同盟も翌年には活動停止状態となったが、前記の中井、久野などこの運動に参加した学生のなかから『土曜日 (雑誌)』『学生評論』『世界文化』など反ファシズムを標榜する雑誌メディアが生まれ、自由主義的文化運動は「非常時」下でなおも命脈を保った。
- The Gakugei Jiyu Domei also ceased its activities the next year but students such as the aforementioned Nakai and Kuno who participated in this movement started magazines supporting anti-fascism such as 'Doyobi' (Saturaday), 'Gakusei Hyoron' (Student Editorials), 'Sekai Bunka' (World Culture), and even under 'emergency situation (war period),' the liberal cultural movement continued.
- 第二次世界大戦後に研究が進むと、潜在的に不満を抱いていた中下流の文人貴族層による過大な評価であることが明らかとなり、またその時期の実際の政策も宇多天皇期及びその後の宇多上皇による事実上の院政下で行われたものの延長でしかないことが明らかになった。
- As further research was done after World War II, it became apparent that the eras were overrated by people in the literary nobility in the middle and lower classes who were potentially frustrated at the system of rule at the time, and the actual policies of that time were merely an extension of the ones by the Emperor Uda era and under Insei (rule by the retired emperor) of consecutive reign by Retired Emperor Uda.
- 正妻の築山殿、嫡男の松平信康の誅殺命令にあるように、織田と徳川は後世に美化されたような「同盟」という 対等の関係でなく、徳川は織田にとって、使い捨ての駒に過ぎず、 東方平定のためには、早々に完全に弱体化させるか滅ぼされるべき存在に過ぎなかった。
- As seen in the case of the order to kill Tsukiyama-dono, who was Ieyasu's legitimate wife, and Nobuyasu MATSUDAIRA, who was Ieyasu's first son, Oda and Tokugawa were not in a relationship of equality like 'allied countries' as often been idealized later, and, for Oda, Tokugawa was a mere throwaway player and, in order to pacify the eastern countries, it should be completely weakened or overthrown as soon as possible.
- これは南北朝時代以降、戦場への動員人数が激増して徒歩での集団戦が主体となり、騎馬戦闘を行う戦闘局面が比較的限定されるようになっても、本来の武士であるか否かは騎馬戦闘を家業とするか層か否かという基準での線引きが後世まで保持されていったためである。
- This is because the classification was preserved after ages, where whether he was an original bushi or not depended on whether his family business was part of the cavalry fighting or not, even though fighting by group on foot became mainstream and cavalry fighting became relatively limited at the war scenes after the period of the Northern and Southern Courts when the number of recruitments to the battlefield dramatically increased.
- 国衙軍制の可能性を指摘し、それが武士の起源に関係することを論じたものには、石井進『中世成立期軍制研究の一視点』(「史学雑誌」78編12号所載、1969年)や戸田芳実『国衙軍制の形成過程』(「中世の権力と民衆」所載、創元社、1970年)などがある。
- The papers that pointed out the possibility of the kokuga forces system and discussed the relation of the system to the origin of samurai include 'A viewpoint concerning research about the military system in the early medieval period' written by Susumu ISHII ('Shigaku zasshi' (Journal of Historical Studies), No. 12, vol. 78, in 1969) and 'The process in which the kokuga forces system was formed' written by Yoshimi TODA (recorded in 'Power and the general public in the medieval period,' published by Sogensha, in 1970).
- これは、17世紀末には江戸十組問屋という10の同業者組合ができ、中でも酒、味噌、醤油を扱う「酒店組」には、徳川家康が三河を領していた小大名だったころから松平家に出入りしていた(あるいは、そのように自称する)三河出身者が多くまた繁盛したことによる。
- This is due to the following reason: Towards the end of the 17th century, ten guilds called Edo tokumidonya, each for a different kind of business, were established, and in particular, many merchants from the Mikawa Province, who had supplied goods to the Matsudaira family since the era when Ieyasu TOKUGAWA was the daimyo (feudal lord) of the small Mikawa Province (or who said they were such persons), belonged to the 'sake store guild,' which handled sake, miso (fermented soybean paste) and soy sauce, and were prosperous.
- 中世史研究史上においては「武士」と同義語として扱われることもあるが、「武士」は中世から近世(江戸時代)までを対象とし、また「武士」論は「武士団」を率いる「侍」のみを対象とすることもあるに対し、「武士団」ではその郎党も含めた社会的実態が問題とされる。
- It was treated as a synonym of 'bushi' in medieval history studies, but 'bushi' referred to those between the medieval to the modern era (Edo period), and 'bushi' theory referred to only 'samurai' that lead 'bushidan' while 'bushidan' was also concerned with social conditions that also included the roto (retainer).
- その後、軍団が復活すると、健児は軍団の兵士として位置づけられ、10世紀ごろには、健児維持に用するための健児田が設定されたり、全国定員が約3600人(陸奥・出羽・佐渡にも置かれるようになったが、西海道には置かれなかった)とされていたことなどが判っている。
- It has been discovered that kondei soldiers were later included in the cohort system once the cohorts were revived, and subsequently, a special tax exemption system called kondei-den was established in order to maintain kondei, and approximately 3,600 kondei soldiers were deployed throughout the country (kondei were deployed in Mutsu, Dewa, and Sado Provinces as well, but not deployed in the Saikai-do Region) as a general rule in the tenth century.
- 天長10年(833年)に淳和が皇太子正良(仁明天皇)に譲位すると、ここでも淳和の太上天皇辞退・皇后正子の皇太后辞退と新天皇仁明による拒絶が繰り返され、皇太子には淳和と正子との間に生まれた皇子恒貞親王が立てられた(高志・恒世はともにすでに早世していた)。
- In 833, Junna abdicated the throne to the Crown Prince Masara (Emperor Ninmyo) and here the declination of retired emperor by Junna and empress dowager by Empress Masako and the refusal by the new Emperor Ninmyo was repeated, and the Crown Prince was decided to be the prince born between Junna and Masako, Imperial Prince Tsunesada (Koshi and Tsuneyo had already died young).
- 18世紀以降には、大坂高麗橋付近に住む氏名不詳の商人による元文3年(1738年)の『熊野めぐり』(以下、『めぐり』と略記)、伊丹の酒造家、八尾八佐衛門の家人による延享4年(1747年)の『三熊野参詣道中日記』(以下、『道中日記』と略記)などが見られる。
- As for the diaries about visiting Kumano written after the 18the century, there remain 'Kumano Meguri' (hereinafter quote it as 'Meguri') written in 1738 by a merchant with an unknown name who lived near Korai-bashi Bridge of Osaka and 'San-Kumano Sankei Dochu Nikki' (hereinafter quote it as 'Dochu Nikki') written in 1747 by a retainer of Yazaemon YAO, a brewer of Itami.
- その一方で、朝廷では大覚寺統と持明院統が対立しており、相互に皇位を交代する両統迭立が行われており、1318年(文保2年)に大覚寺統の後醍醐天皇が即位し、平安時代の醍醐天皇、村上天皇の治世である延喜・天暦の治を理想とし、鎌倉幕府の打倒をひそかに目指していた。
- In the Imperial Court, on the other hand, conflict had arisen between the Kameyama (Daikakuji) and the Gofukakusa (Jimyoin) branches of the Imperial line; a system of alternating Emperors from each lineage was in place, and in 1318 Emperor Godaigo of the Daikakuji lineage became Emperor, taking the Engi and Tenryaku eras, the reigns of Emperors Daigo and Murakami in the Heian period, as his ideal, he aimed in secret to overthrow the Kamakura bakufu.
- 「職能」起源論では、武士とみなされる社会階層は源氏、平氏などの発生期には武芸を家業とする諸大夫、侍身分のエリート騎馬戦士に限定されていたとし、その後、中世を通じて「狭義の武士」との主従関係を通じて「広義の武士」とみなされる階層が室町時代以降拡大していった。
- According to the theory on the origin of bushi by 'samurai function,' the social class considered as bushi was limited to shodaibu or elite cavalry warriors coming from samurai status, whose family business was military art, during the period when the Minamoto clan and the Taira clan emerged; and later, through the medieval times, the class of 'bushi in a broad sense' came to have the master-subordinate relationship with 'bushi in a narrow sense' and expanded after the Muromachi period.
- 2代将軍足利義詮が死去すると、管領細川頼之は3代将軍足利義満を補佐して執政をはじめ、楠木正儀を寝返らせるなど対南朝工作や九州の南朝勢力排除のための今川貞世派遣、内政においては新興の禅宗である南禅寺と旧仏教勢力の比叡山との対立問題の対応や半済の実施などを行う。
- When the second Shogun, Yoshiakira ASHIKAGA, died, the Kanrei (regent) Yoriyuki HOSOKAWA gave his support and advice to Yoshimitsu ASHIKAGA, the third Shogun, and helped usher in a new administration, and engineered Masanori KUSUNOKI's defection and other anti-Southern Court efforts as well as dispatching Sadayo IMAGAWA to Kyushu as part of a push to eliminate the Southern Court's forces there, while in domestic, nonmilitary affairs, he crafted a response to the problematic conflict between Nanzen-ji Temple, which represented the new Zen sect, and Mt. Hiei, representing the old guard of influential Buddhist temples, and also implemented the hanzei (half-tax).
- もっとも有名なものには、エレナが発見したとされる十字架の遺物、アルメニア王アブガルス3世に贈られ、エデッサからコンスタンティノポリスにもたらされたマンドリオン(手で描かれたのではない聖像)、コンスタンティノポリスの聖母マリアの衣、洗礼者ヨハネの首などがある。
- The most famous relics include relics of the cross discovered by Elena, the Mandylion (an icon not painted by human hand) brought to Constantinople from Edessa that was presented to the King of Armenia, Abgarus III, Virgin Mary's clothes in Constantinople, and John the Baptist's head.
- 薩長は、土佐藩、佐賀藩をも巻き込み、開国以来の違勅条約に対する反対論と外国人排撃を主張、実行に移そうとする「攘夷」を、国学の進展などにより江戸時代後期から広がっていた国家元首問題としての尊王論とを結びつけ、「尊皇攘夷」を旗頭に「倒幕」の世論を形成していった。
- Satsuma and Choshu domains, together with Tosa and Saga domains, advocated the 'anti-shogunate movement' based on the 'antiforeign imperialism' insisting that the treaties with the Western powers, which were concluded against the imperial order, should not be accepted in the first place and that foreigners should be expelled out of Japan, and placating those who were about to resort to force for the cause of exclusionism, these domains tried to unite exclusionism with the imperialism on the supremacy of the emperor.
- こうした弱点を克服する議論として主張されはじめたのが、下向井龍彦らによって主張されているように、出現期の武士が田堵負名としての経済基盤を与えられており、11世紀の後期王朝国家に国家体制が変質した時点で、荘園公領の管理者としての領主身分を獲得したとする議論である。
- To overcome such weak points, Tatsuhiko SHIMOMUKAI and so on started to insist that the bushi during the early period were given an economic base as tato fumyo and when the national policy changed to the latter half of the dynasty state during the 11th century, the bushi acquired the lord status as the manager of shoen koryo.
- また価値観の転換や中世史の研究の進歩で、足利尊氏の功績を評価したり、楠木正成は「悪党」としての性格が研究されるようになり、後醍醐天皇の建武の新政は宋学の影響で中華皇帝的な天皇独裁を目指す革新的なものであるなど、南北朝時代に関しても新たな認識がなされるようになった。
- Also, with changes in values and progress in medieval history research, new views regarding the Nanbokucho period such as re-evaluating the achievements of Takauji ASHIKAGA, researching aspects of Masanori KUSUNOKI as an 'Akuto' (rebel), and establishing that Emperor Godaigo's Kenmu Restoration was influenced by Sung-period neo-Cunfucianism and was revolutionary because he aimed for a dictatorship, like a Chinese emperor, have come forth.
- 検断とは、統治すること・裁判することを意味する用語であり、中世日本では治安行政と刑事司法、さらに軍事までもが未分化だったため、領地・村落内の内政、外交を行い、統治することが裁判を行うことと密接につながっていた(日葡辞書によると、検断は統治・裁判を行う役職、とある)。
- The kendan is the term to mean to rule and to hold a trial, and addressing domestic policies, diplomacies, and governing territories and rural communities were closely connected to holding a trial because security, government, and criminal justice, even the military, were not separated in medieval Japan (according to 'Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam:' Japanese-Portuguese dictionary, published 1603 - 1604), kendan was described as a post to rule and hold a trial).
- やがて、宇多法皇が道真の娘婿でもある斉世親王を皇太弟に立てようとしているという風説が流れると、宇多上皇や道真の政治手法に密かに不満を抱いていた醍醐天皇と藤原時平、藤原菅根(折りしも病死した平季長の後任の蔵人頭に就任していた)らが政治の主導権を奪還せんとしたのである。
- Eventually, when rumors began to fly that Cloistered Emperor Uda was going to raise Michizane's son-in-law, the Imperial Prince Tokiyo, to the rank of Kotaitei (one rank below the heir apparent), those who were nursing secret resentment against Uda and Michizane for their political maneuvers, including Emperor Daigo, FUJIWARA no Tokihira, and FUJIWARA no Sugane (the new Majordomo of the palace following TAIRA no Hidenaga's recent death by illness), began to plan how to recover control over the government.
- たとえば、17世紀初頭に刊行された『日葡辞書』では、BuxiやMononofuはそれぞれ「武人」「軍人」という訳語が与えられているのに対して、Saburaiは「貴人、または尊敬すべき人」と訳されていることからも、侍が武士階層の中でも特別な存在であったことは窺えよう。
- For example, 'the Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam' (Nipojisho, Japanese-Portuguese Dictionary), published in early seventeen century, gave the meaning of the terms Buxi and Mononofu as 'bujin' (warrior) and 'gunjin' (military man), respectively, however, Saburai was translated as 'a nobleman or person to be respected', suggesting that samurai were special people within the bushi class.
- 中世初期(平安時代後期~鎌倉時代中期)までの荘園公領制においては、郡司、郷司、保司などの資格を持つ公領領主、公領領主ともしばしば重複する荘官、一部の有力な名主百姓(むしろ初期においては彼らこそが正式な百姓身分保持者)が管理する「名田」(みょう)がモザイク状に混在していた。
- Under shoen koryo sei (The System of Public Lands and Private Estates) in the early medieval period (from the late Heian period to the mid-Kamakura period), the 'myo' (rice-field lot under the charge of a nominal holder), which was managed by a lord of public land qualified as Gunji (a local government official), Goji (a local government official under the Ritsuryo system) or Hoji (an officer governing public land), shokan (an officer governing a shoen (manor)) often overlapped that of a lord of public land or some powerful myoshu (owner of rice fields) who was concurrently a peasant (they instead officially held peasant status in the early age) was mixed in a mosaic-like manner.
- また実際に、長州藩では官軍に立場が転じると旧幕府側の人間を敵意をこめて「朝敵」と呼称した山県有朋や世良修蔵のような人物が見られ、鹿児島で起きた西南戦争において旧幕府側出身の抜刀隊員達は、賊軍の汚名を晴らすべく「戊辰の仇、戊辰の仇」と叫んで斬り込んでいったとする談話もある。
- Additionally, Aritomo YAMAGATA and Shuzo SERA called members of the former Shogunate 'choteki' with respect, when their domain switched to the Imperial forces; in the Seinan War in Kagoshima the batto-tai of the former Shogunate forces cut in with a sword, shouting 'Avenge for Boshin, avenge for Boshin.'
- その後一時期臨済宗に改まるものの、3代目にあたる法住(応永4年(1397年)-文明_(日本)12年(1480年))・明顕(4代目、文安2年(1445年)-永正6年(1509年))親子が、浄土真宗に復帰して本願寺に属すると、本願寺8世蓮如からの厚い信任を受けるようになった。
- In spite of some priests' temporarily conversion to the Rinzai sect, Honpuku-ji Temple was deeply trusted by Rennyo, the eighth chief priest of Hongan-ji Temple because Hoju (1397 to 1480) and his son, Myoken (1445-1509), the third and fourth head of the family, respectively, returned to the Jodo Shinshu sect and decided to work for Hongan-ji Temple.
- その後新渡戸稲造がアメリカ人に紹介するために書いた『武士道 (新渡戸稲造)』が、日清戦争以降、逆輸入され広く受け入れられ、大日本帝国の軍人が持つべき倫理と接合して、軍人の倫理の骨格をかたちづくり、また一方では、美学として文学や芸能の世界でさまざまなかたちとなってあらわれた。
- Later, Inazo NITOBE wrote 'Bushido (Inazo NITOBE)' to introduce bushido to American people, but after the Sino-Japanese War, it was reimported to Japan and formed the ethical framework for military officers, mixing with the ethics which the military officers of the Empire of Japan should have, and on the other hand it appeared as aesthetic in various forms in the world of literature or entertainment.
- その成立時期は上記「えぞ」の初見と近い13世紀と見られており、また擦文文化とアイヌ文化の生活体系の最も大きな違いは、日本からの移入品(特に鉄製品)の量的増大にあり、アイヌ文化は交易に大きく依存していたことから、アイヌ文化を生んだ契機に日本との交渉の増大があると考えられている。
- It was probably established in the thirteenth century, when the word 'Ezo' can be seen for the first time as mentioned above; however, the greatest difference between the Satsumon culture and the Ainu culture was the increase in imported items (especially ironware), meaning that it should be seen that Ainu had increased negotiations with Japan when the Ainu culture was born, because the Ainu culture was very reliant on trade with Japan.
- 刈田・刈畠行為をめぐる紛争は当初、所務沙汰(不動産に係る民事事件)として扱われていたが、時代が下るにつれ、刈田・刈畠行為が増加していくと、13世紀後期ごろには違法行為のニュアンスを含む「狼藉」、すなわち刈田狼藉と呼ばれるようになり、通常の所務沙汰とは別個の取扱いがなされ始めた。
- Initially, karita or karihata related disputes were handled as shomu-sata (civil trials dealing with land-related issues), but the number of karita and karihata acts increased with the times, and around the late thirteenth century, such karita or karihata related disputes began to be called 'rozeki' with the implication of illegal acts, that is, karita-rozeki, and the handling of such disputes was separated from ordinary shomu-sata.
- 1863年(文久3年)に起こったクーデターである八月十八日の政変において、薩摩藩・会津藩などの公武合体派に敗れて失脚した尊皇攘夷派の公卿の三条実美(清華家)・三条西季知(大臣家)および四条隆謌・東久世通禧・壬生基修・錦小路頼徳・澤宣嘉ら7人が京都から追放され、長州藩へと逃れた。
- During the political turmoil of August 18, which was a coup occurring in 1863, whereby seven nobles, namely Sanetomi SANJO (Seiga family), Suetomo SANJONISHI (Daijin family), Takauta SHIJO, Michitomi HIGASHIKUZE, Motoosa MIBU, Yorinori NISHIKINOKOJI, and Nobuyoshi SAWA, who supported the doctrine of restoring the emperor to power and expelling the barbarians, fell from power when defeated by supporters of the noble-samurai coalition from the Satsuma clan, Aizu clan, etc., and were banished from Kyoto and fled to Choshu Domain.
- 14世紀には、「渡党」(北海道渡島半島。近世の松前藩の前身)、「日の本」(北海道 (地方公共団体)太平洋側と千島。近世の東蝦夷)、「唐子」(北海道日本海側と樺太。近世の西蝦夷)に分かれ、渡党は和人と言葉が通じ、本州との交易に従事したという文献(『諏訪大明神絵詞』)が残っている。
- In the fourteenth century the Ezo group was divided into Watari-to (Oshima Peninsula in Hokkaido, the predecessor of the Matsumae domain in modern history), Hinomoto (the Pacific Ocean side of Hokkaido (local public entity) and Chishima (Kurile Islands), or Higashi-Ezo in modern history), Karako (the Sea of Japan side of Hokkaido and Sakhalin, or Nishi-Ezo in modern history); and a record stating that Watari-to could communicate with Japanese and conducted trade with people in Honshu is seen in one document (Suwa Daimyojin Ekotoba).
- 以上に見るように、政治世界における武力が占める比重の増加、後白河と清盛の強い連携、後白河と滋子の関係、高倉の即位、清盛の大臣補任、日宋貿易や集積した所領(荘園)に基づく巨大な経済力、西国武士や瀬戸内海の水軍を中心とする軍事力などを背景として、1160年代後期に平氏政権が確立した。
- As shown above, the Taira clan administration was established in the latter half of the 1160s due to increased influence of military force in the political scene, strong collaboration between Goshirakawa and Kiyomori, the relationship between Goshirakawa and Shigeko, Takakura's ascension, Kiyomori's support of the Daijin, substantial financial power based on Japan-Song trade and accumulated properties (shoen), and military power based on the western bushi and the Seto Inland Sea naval force.
- また、同年八月の条に、犬養部の設置記事がみられるが、現存する屯倉の地名と犬養という地名との近接例も多いことから、屯倉の守衛に番犬が用いられた(番犬を飼養していたのが犬養氏)だということが明らかになっており、屯倉や犬養部の設置時期も安閑天皇の頃(6世紀前半頃)に始まったと推察される。
- In an entry for September of the same year, there is an article pertaining to the establishment of inukaibe (corporations of dog keepers) but it is clear from the numerous examples in which surviving miyake place names are located next to inube place names that watchdogs were used to guard miyake (watchdogs were reared by the Inukai clan), and it is surmised that the establishment of miyake and inukaibe also began during the reign of Emperor Ankan (first half of the sixth century).
- それによると「神道にあらず儒道にあらず仏道にあらず、神儒仏三道融和の道念にして、中古以降専ら武門に於て其著しきを見る。鉄太郎(鉄舟)これを名付けて武士道と云ふ」とあり、少なくとも山岡鉄舟の認識では、中世より存在したが、自分が名付けるまでは「武士道」とは呼ばれていなかったとしている。
- According to this, 'it is not Shinto, not Confucianism, not Buddhism, but the concept which mixes these three and since ancient and medieval times it has excelled only in military art; Tetsutaro (Tesshu YAMAOKA) called it bushido' and at least from the viewpoint of Tesshu YAMAOKA, it had existed since the medieval times but he said that it was not called 'bushido' until he named it.
- これは小作制度というよりも中世荘園制度のインドへの導入に近く、従来は古代には収穫物の6分の1、デリー・スルタン朝時代以後でも収穫物の3分の1の徴収であったものが定額かつ高額な地税を現金による納付となり、なおかつ徴収実務は領主・地主に任されていたために、農民は農奴に近い状況に置かれた。
- This was the introduction of India to medieval manorialism rather than the tenancy system and traditionally one-sixth of harvests in ancient times and one-third of them after the Dehli Sultanate period were levied, but the taxes on land were paid with fixed and expensive amounts of cash money and the lords and landowners undertook tax collection work and thus the farmers were put in a situation which was similar to that of serfs.
- 「紀伊山地の霊場と参詣道」の世界遺産登録への動きが本格化する2000年(平成12年)前後には、1999年(平成11年)の南紀熊野体験博の開催と呼応するかたちで再調査が行われ、登録に先立つ2001年から2002年にかけての時期には、整備と復元・復旧を目的とする事業が特に積極的に行われた。
- Around 2000, as the campaign for registering 'holy places and pilgrimage routes in the Kii Mountains' as a World Heritage site was broaden; in 1999 re-investigation into the road was conducted with the opening of Japan Expo Nanki Kumano, and in 2001 and 2002, immediately before the registration, the projects for maintenance, restoration and reconstruction were energetically carried.
- 戦国時代に築城あるいは使用された大部分の城は、戦国時代末期から江戸時代にかけて築城された、現存の姫路城や松本城のように世界遺産や国宝に指定されたり、あるいは大坂城、江戸城、名古屋城のように、都市の歴史の象徴として、広い年齢層の人々があまねく一般知識として認知するまで敷衍されてはいない。
- With the exception of certain castles constructed around the end of the Sengoku Period or in the Edo period, such as Himeji-jo castle and Matsumoto-jo castle (both of which still exist and have been designated as world heritage sites and national treasures), as well as Osaka-jo castle, Edo-jo castle, or Nagoya-jo castle (which are well known symbols of the history of the city by people of a wide range of ages), the majority of the castles that were constructed or used in the Sengoku Period are not well known.
- しかしその実は、当時世界最高水準の複式簿記考案(中井源左衛門・日野商人)(小倉栄一郎『江州中井家帳合の法』)や、契約ホテルのはしりとも言える「大当番仲間」制度の創設(日野商人)、現在のチェーン店の考えに近い出店・枝店を積極的に開設するなど、徹底した合理化による流通革命だったと評価されている。
- In reality, however, they are now considered the pioneers who brought revolutionary changes to the distribution business by strictly pursuing the concept of streamlining, as seen in the examples of the invention of the double-entry system in bookkeeping by a merchant from Hino, Genzaemon NAKAI, which was at the highest level in the word at that time (according to Eiichi OGURA 'Goshu Nakai-ke chogo no ho' (bookkeeping method of the Nakai family in Omi Province)); the establishment of the system of 'Otoban nakama' by the merchants from Hino, which can said to be an early concept of the contracted hotel; and the expansion of the business by proactively opening branches, which is a similar concept to today's chain stores.
- 平安時代の源氏物語に見られるような、貴族階級による願掛けを中心とした神社参詣がその初期形態ではないかとされ、その後仏教の末法思想の流行により、後白河法皇の熊野三山詣でなど浄土信仰を背景とした極楽往生を願う巡礼へと変化し、中世に入ると、戦乱や貧困の中で一般階級による巡礼も行なわれるようになった。
- As depicted in the Tale of Genji set in the Heian period, the initial form was thought to be the shrine visits that the nobility made, which further transformed into Junrei to wish for a peaceful death through Jodo Shinko (belief of a pure land after death) such as the Kumano Sanzan (three shrines in Kumano) visits of the Cloistered Emperor Goshirakawa due to the spread of pessimism in a decadent age, and in the middle ages, Junrei were done by the ordinary public during the age of war and poverty.
- また、明治時代末期から第二次世界大戦敗戦まで、当時の政府の公式見解においては、南朝 (日本)を正統な皇統としてこの時代を「南北朝時代 (日本)」と称していたが、その結果、北朝 (日本)が任じた初代尊氏・2代足利義詮・3代足利義満(南北朝合一以前)は正式な将軍とは認められていなかった(皇国史観)。
- Also, according to the official opinion of the government at the time, from the end of the Meiji period until defeat in World War II, Nancho (Japan) was regarded as the legitimate imperial line, and this age was referred to as the 'period of the Northern and Southern Courts (Japan)'; because of such a view, the first shogun Takauji, the second shogun Yoshiakira ASHIKAGA and the third shogun Yoshimitsu ASHIKAGA were not acknowledged as official shoguns (based on imperial history).
- そして2年後、秀頼は右大臣に昇ったものの、この年に家康は将軍職も2年後に息子徳川秀忠に譲って将軍職の世襲の意思を表し、同じ年に九条兼孝に代わって一連の問題の発端となった近衛信尹(信輔改め、慶長6年(1601年)左大臣還任)が相論発生以来21年目にして関白に任命されて五摂家による持ち回りが復活した。
- Two years later, Hideyori was elevated to the position of Udaijin, and yet, Ieyasu yielded the position of Shogun to his son, Hidetada TOKUGAWA, showing his determination to pass down the position by hereditary succession; in the same year, in place of Kanetaka KUJO, Nobutada KONOE (whose name had changed from Nobusuke and who had been reinstated to Sadaijin in 1601) was appointed to Kanpaku for the first time in twenty-one years since he had started the soron, having caused a series of troubles thereafter; here, the tradition of rotating the position of Kanpaku among the five sekke was restored.
- 律令制の衰退によって朝廷自体が天皇家の家政機関としての色彩を強めてくると、内蔵頭には蔵人頭や弁官・近衛府を歴任した四位の殿上人が就任するのが慣例となり、更に院政期には財力を有する有力な受領に移り、室町時代初期には山科家の当主が御厨子所別当を兼務して就任するようになると、以後同家の事実上の世襲となった。
- As the Ritsuryo system declined and the court itself started to function as the institution to manage the Emperor's family's household, it became tradition for the position of Kuranokami (the chief of Kuraryo) to be filled by court officials of the fourth rank that had previously been Kurodonoto (the chief of Kurodo Dokoro) or worked in the Benkan (clerical section) or Konoefu (Imperial palace guards), and then in the period of governments by cloistered emperors became a position for prominent Zuryo (head of provincial government) with strong financial power, and in the early Muromachi period, the Yamashina family held the position together with the position, Mizushidokoro Betto (superintendent of the cooking section for the emperor), and it has been essentially their hereditary post ever since.
- しかし11世紀半ばに荘園の一円化が進み、諸国の荘園公領間で武力紛争が頻発するようになると、荘園及び公領である郡、郷、保の徴税、警察、裁判責任者としての荘園の荘官(荘司)や公領の郡司、郷司、保司に軍事紛争に対応できる武士が任命されることが多くなり、これらを領地とする所領経営者としての武士が成立したのである。
- However during the middle of the 11th century shoens spread rapidly and the armed conflicts between shoen koryos (public lands and private estates) in various provinces often happened, and many bushi were appointed to shokan (an officer governing shoen) of shoen or gunji (district managers), goji (a local government official under the ritsuryo system) and hoji (an officer governing koryo, or public land) of koryo (public lands) as the managers of tax collection, police activity and justice for shoens or koryo such as gun, go, and ho; consequently the bushi were established as the managers of public lands who owned these lands.
- 11世紀以降、非農業民は有力寺社などに生産物を貢納することを理由に、これらに隷属する神人となっていたが、後三条天皇親政下において、内廷経済を充実させるべく山野河海に設定されていた御厨を直轄化するという政策がとられると、蔵人所とその下部組織である御厨所の所管となった御厨の住民が供御人と呼ばれるようになった。
- Since the 11th Century, the non-agricultural people became jinin (associates of Shinto shrines) because they presented their products to the major temples and shrines, however, the residents of Kurodo dokoro and mikuriya (manors of Imperial Family and powerful shrines) which was controlled by mikuriya (the place to cook for Emperor) which was under Kurodo dokoro were called Kugonin when a policy of directly controlling mikuriya which had been set in mountains, fields, rivers, and sea to enrich the economy of the court was taken under the administration of Emperor Gosanjo.
- 国家権限の委譲とこれによる中央集権の過大な負担の軽減により、中央政界では政治が安定し、官職が特定の家業を担う家系に世襲される家職化が進み、貴族の最上位では摂関家が確立し、中流貴族に固定した階層は中央においては家業の専門技能によって公務を担う技能官人として行政実務を、地方においては受領となって地方行政を担った(平安貴族)。
- The transmission of governmental power and authority reduced the burden of the government, which enabled political stabilization of the central government, and facilitated the transfer of government posts according to heredity: among the aristocracy, the highest became Sekkan-ke (the families which produced regents), the middle-class carried out administrative affairs based on the specialized skills related with their family businesses in the central government and carried out administration as Zuryo in the local regions (Nobles in the Heian period).
- 簡単にいえば、武官は「官人として武装しており、律令官制の中で訓練を受けた常勤の公務員的存在」であるのに対して、武士は「10世紀に成立した新式の武芸を家芸とし、武装を朝廷や国府から公認された「下級貴族」、「下級官人」、「有力者の家人中世の家人」からなる人々」であって、律令官制の訓練機構で律令制式の武芸を身につけた者ではなかった。
- Simply speaking, military officers were 'government officials (espcially one of low to medium rank) who were armed and a full-time government [public] employee-like officials trained under the Ritsuryo-system,' while the bushi were 'the people who consisted of a 'lower ranking nobles,' 'lower ranking government officials' and 'people from powerful or medieval families' who regarded the new military art established during the 10th century as their iegei and were officially authorized to be armed by the Imperial Court or kokufu (provincial office)' and they did not acquire the military art of the Ritsuryo-system style in the training institution of the organization of the government according to the Ritsuryo codes.
- 近年ではかわぐちかいじの漫画作品『ジパング (かわぐちかいじ)』に「滝川事件に連座して京大理学部を免職になり、日本軍の原子爆弾計画に関与する科学者」という設定の倉田万作(モデルは『世界文化』同人として検挙されたことがあり、戦時期には理化学研究所を中心とする日本の原子爆弾開発に関わっていた物理学者・武谷三男であると思われる)が登場する。
- In recent years, the manga work of Kaiji KAWAGUCHI 'Jipang' set Mansaku KURATA (the model is thought to be the physicist Mitsuo TAKETANI, who was involved in developing a nuclear bomb in Japan during the war period at Rikagaku Kenkyujo who had also been arrested as a member of 'Sekai Bunka') as a 'scientist who was working on the nuclear bomb plan of the Japanese army and was fired from the Faculty of Science at Kyoto University in relation with the Takigawa Incident.'
- しかし、戦後「国民主権」を定めた日本国憲法が成立すると、君が代の歌詞について天皇を中心とした国体を讃えたものとも解釈できることから(例えば、ベン・アミー・シロニーは、『君が代』皇統の永続性(万世一系)がテーマであり、世界で最も短い国歌が世界で最も長命な王朝を称えることになったと解釈している)、一部の国民から、国歌にはふさわしくないとする主張がなされた。
- After the Constitution of Japan which set forth 'popular sovereignty' was formed after the War, because the words of Kimigayo can be interpreted as one that praises the national structure centering around the emperor (For example, Ben-Ami Shillony interpreted that its theme was the perpetuity of 'Kimigayo' imperial line (unbroken imperial line) and that the national anthem which was shortest in the world came to praise the dynasty which lasted for the longest period in the world) certain people assert that it was not suitable as the national anthem.
- 1339年(延元4年/暦応2年)に後醍醐天皇が死去すると親房が南朝の指導的人物となるが、親房が1354年(正平9年/文和3年)に死去すると南朝はまた衰微し、幕府内での抗争で失脚した細川清氏が楠木正儀らと南朝に帰順して一時は京都を占拠するものの1367年(正平22年/貞治6年)に敗れ、以降は大規模な南朝の攻勢もなくなり、足利義詮時代には大内弘世や山名時氏なども帰服する。
- When Emperor Godaigo passed away in 1339, Chikafusa became the de facto leader of the Southern Court, but when Chikafusa himself died in 1354, the Southern Court again fell into decline; having lost the internal power struggle within the Ashikaga shogunate, Kiyouji HOSOKAWA switched allegiance to Masanori KUSUNOKI and the Southern Court and together managed to briefly occupy Kyoto, but in 1367 they were defeated, and thereafter the Southern Court lost its large-scale military might, and even suffered the loss of Hiroyo OUCHI and Tokiuji YAMANA, who submitted to the shogunate during the rule of Shogun Yoshiakira ASHIKAGA.
- 爰ニ佐渡判官入道々誉都ヲ落ケル時、我宿所ヘハ定テサモトアル大将ヲ入替、尋常ニ取シタヽメテ、六間ノ会所ニハ大文ノ畳ヲ敷双ベ、本尊・脇絵・花瓶・香炉・鑵子・盆ニ至マデ、一様ニ皆置調ヘテ、書院ニハ羲之ガ草書ノ偈・韓愈ガ文集、眠蔵ニハ、沈ノ枕ニ鈍子ノ宿直物ヲ取副テ置ク、十二間ノ遠待ニハ、鳥・兎・雉・白鳥、三竿ニ懸双ベ、三石入許ナル大筒ニ酒ヲ湛ヘ、遁世者二人留置テ、誰ニテモ此宿所ヘ来ラン人ニ一献ヲ進メヨト、巨細ヲ申置ニケリ
- When Sado hankan (Doyo SASAKI) was defeated, he invited the general to his palace as something of norm, within a kaisho as big as six rooms, a tatami with the enormous family crest was lined up together, and even honzon (the principle image such as Mandala), wakie (scroll), flower vase, incense burner, tea pot, and tray were lined together, and the study room had sanskrit written by Ogishi (Chinese calligrapher), literature written by Kanyu (Confucianism scholar in Korea), sleeping quarter with a pillow smelling of Winter daphne, took the sleeping gear and placed it on donsu (Chinese blanket), and the twelve rooms of the samurai serving far from the lord had hanging birds, rabbits, pheasant, and swan piled up high, and big cylinder that could contain as much as three seki (541 liters) contained sake (Japanese rice wine) and stopped two Buddhist followes, and said, 'try to serve a shot of wine to anyone who visits this lodging.'
- 16世紀第4四半期の時点で、安東氏上国家・湊家が秋田郡、南部氏三戸南部氏(盛岡南部氏)が糠部郡、奥州探題大崎氏が大崎地方、葛西氏が登米郡、羽州探題最上氏が最上地方・村山地方、伊達氏が信夫郡・伊達郡・置賜地方・刈田郡・柴田郡・宮城郡を、蘆名氏が会津・耶麻郡・大沼郡・河沼郡・蒲原郡・安積郡・岩瀬郡、二本松氏(畠山氏)が安達郡、田村氏が田村郡、陸奥石川氏・白河結城氏が白河郡、相馬氏が行方郡 (磐城国)・宇多郡・標葉郡、岩城氏が楢葉郡・岩城郡・磐前郡・菊田郡・多賀郡において安堵を実行した発給文書が残っている。
- There remain issued documents for approval of a landowner as of the forth quarter of the sixth century, Akita-gun for the Ando clan (Uekuni family and Minato family), Nukanobu region for the Nanbu clan (Sannohe Nanbu clan (or, Morioka Nanbu clan)), Osaki region of the Osaki clan which was Oshu Tandai, Tome-gun for the Kasai clan, Mogami and Murayama regions for the Mogami clan which was Ushu Tandai, Shinobu-gun, Date-gun, Okitama region, Katta-gun, Shibata-gun, and Miyagi-gun for the Date clan, Aizu Yama-gun, Onuma-gun, Kawanuma-gun, Kanbara-gun, Asaka-gun, and Iwase-gun for the Ashina clan, Adachi-gun for the Nihonmatsu clan (Hatakeyama clan), Tamura-gun for the Tamura clan, Shirakawa-gun for the Mutsu Ishikawa clan and Shirakawa Yuki clan, Namegata-gun (Iwaki Province), Uda-gun and Shineha-gun for the Soma clan, and Naraha-gun, Iwaki-gun, Iwasaki-gun, Kikuta-gun and Taga-gun for the Iwaki clan.