Honyaku Star - Search: では

では: 1000 Terms and Phrases

ある意味では
in a sense
in some way
to an extent
in a way

大嘗祭では5人。
At a Daijo-sai festivals there were five dancers.

大したことではない
it's not a big thing

梵語ではクンビーラ。
Kunbi-ra in Sanskrit.

いずれも農民ではない。
None of them were peasants.

台湾では互助会という。
It is called a Mutual aid society in Taiwan.

唐では地方官庁が徴発した。
In the Tang Dynasty, the local governments impressed people.

成立時期は明らかではない。
It is unclear exactly when aoso-za was established.

政治面では冷戦が終結した。
In politics, the cold war state ended.

黒風暴の発生はごく稀ではある。
Kara Bran rarely occurs.

神道では金毘羅大権現ともいう。
In Shinto, also called Konpira Daigongen.

本項では日本の歴史を概観する。
A summary of Japanese history is described below.

三つの中では、最大のものである。
It was the biggest among the three.

では、武官と武士の違いとは何か。
So, what is the difference between military officer and bushi?

これは例外的なケースではなかった。
This was not an exceptional case.

御所内では次々に会所が建てられた。
The Kaisho was built consecutively within the gosho.

仏教絵画では来迎図がよく描かれた。
Raigo-zu (image of the descent of Amida Buddha) was a theme often chosen in Buddhist painting.

もっとも地子免許＝租税免除ではない。
However, jishi menkyo did not mean the complete exemption from taxes.

それとて先に見たとおり確実ではないが。
It was not guaranteed as it was seen before.

古代と中世では意味合いが異なっている。
Its significance differs in ancient times and medieval times.

現在では祭礼時に奉仕者が着用している。
Nowadays, suo may be worn by a minister at rites and festivals.

ここでは知っておくべき卦をあげている。
In this book, I listed only need-to-know divination signs.

律令法では強市（きょうし）と呼ばれた。
Under the statute, it was called kyoshi.

ただ、予算は充分ではなく、募金も行う。
However, there is a budget deficit and fundraising activities are being conducted.

近年では飛散期間の長期化の指摘もある。
In recent years it has also been identified that the pollen dispersal period is increasing in length.

日本では、疫学的な調査結果がまだない。
In Japan, no epidemiological survey has been conducted.

また別名ではコンツェルンとも呼ばれる。
In Japanese it is also referred to as a Konzern (originally a German word).

唐では874年頃から黄巣の乱が起きた。
In 874, the Huang Chao Rebellion occurred in the Tang Dynasty.

和訓では「かくれたるがあらわれ」と読む。
The Japanese reading of onshu is 'kakuretaru ga araware' (literally, 'They were hiding, but they appeared').

したがって零本（完全ではない本）である。
It is therefore an incomplete text.

山梨県では甲州選挙の舞台ともなっている。
It is also a stage of Koshu Election in Yamanashi Prefecture.

しかし単語の単純な「いろは順」ではない。
This form, however, was not a simple arrangement of words in 'iroha order.'

今日では存在そのものが否定視されている。
These days, however, it is considered that the book itself did not exist.

関東では最北に位置する落人伝承の村である。
In the Kanto region, this is the northernmost village where an oral tradition of Ochudo has been passed down.

しかし、地上付近では偏西風の影響が少ない。
However, westerlies have little affect on the atmosphere near to the ground.

海外ではenZaibatsuとも呼ばれる。
These zaibatsu were also called en-zaibatsu overseas.

会所では主に闘茶と、時には茶礼が催された。
Mainly Tocha and occasionally Sarei was performed in Kaisho.

また、苗字と帯刀の特権は一体ではなかった。
The privilege of possessing a family name and that of wearing a sword were not inseparable.

日本では古くから馬は重要な輸送手段であった。
From ancient times in Japan, horses have been an important mode of transportation.

（それまでは典薬寮の医博士が指導していた。）
(Ihakase [Doctor of Medicine] of Tenyakuryo taught until then.)

それら狼藉は悪事ではなく当時の常識であった。
They were not considered wrongdoing, but were generally accepted.

『本朝書籍目録』では著者は藤原朝隆とされる。
The author was identified as FUJIWARA no Tomotaka in 'Honchoshojaku mokuroku' (the oldest list of Japanese books in existence written during the Kamakura period).

神社では巫女が神を招く呪具として用いられた。
In shrines, miko (a shrine maiden) was used to invite the god.

当時は「貴族」と別に「武士」が居た訳ではない。
There were no 'bushi' apart from 'aristocrats' at that time.

しかし唐が乱の勢力を根絶したわけではなかった。
However, the Tang Dynasty did not eliminate the rebel forces.

「大臣家や宮の御所に押し入ったわけではないぞ」
It is not that they broke in to the house of a minister or Gosho (Imperial Palace).

そこでは、会所は、常時唐物によって荘厳された。
The Kaisho there was usually majestic and adorned with Chinese artifacts.

ただしそれらの分類は決して絶対的なものではない。
However, these categories were not absolute.

当時の政治や社会状況を知る上では重要な歴史資料。
The diary is important historical material in understanding the politics and social circumstances of the time it was written.

「徳政一揆」とつくものでは嘉吉の徳政一揆が有名。
A famous uprising among 'Tokusei ikki' was the one that occurred during the Kakitsu era.

『和名類聚抄』ではうたまいのつかさとされている。
It was referred to as Utamai no tsukasa in 'Wamyo Ruijusho' (dictionary of Japanese names).

たとえば、「洌」では、次のように記載されている。
In this manuscript the entry '洌' is described as follows:

しかし、この特権・格式は必ずしも武士化ではない。
Still, these privileges and rank did not mean that the peasants became samurai.

義仲の敵はすでに平氏ではなく頼朝に変わっていた。
Yoshinaka's enemy was no longer the Taira clan and it was Yoritomo now.

大宝令では屯田、養老令で官田といわれているもの。
In the Taiho-ryo (Taiho Code), they were called Mita, the Yoro-ryo (Yoro Code) calls them Kanden.

これも下請企業と考えればそう不自然なことではない。
It was not unusual when comparing it with a subcontracting firm.

武士の主従関係とはけして絶対的なものではなかった。
As such, the relationship between master and vassal among samurai was not absolute.

武士団という言葉が平安時代後期にあった訳ではない。
It did not mean that the word bushidan originated from the Heian period.

ただし、刈田狼藉は即時、犯罪とされたわけではない。
However, karita-rozeki was not immediately classified as a crime.

律令法では強市は違法とされ、笞罪50の刑とされた。
There was a statute that deemed kyoshi illegal and the offender was subjected to 50 whippings.

11世紀中期までは摂関政治がある程度機能していた。
Up to the middle of the 11th century, the regency functioned to some extent.

会所では、「内々の御あそび」が盛んにおこなわれた。
The 'unofficial game' was performed frequently at Kaisho.

3世紀中後半から7世紀頃までは古墳時代と呼ばれる。
The era from the latter half of third century to around the seventh century is called the kofun period (tumulus period).

これらは商品経済の現場では嫌われる傾向が強かった。
Thus, they tended to be disliked in the commodity economy.

では惣領の統制権は強かったのかと言えば、微妙である。
However, it cannot be said firmly that the regulating right of soryo was stronger.

最初の段階では同族の上総介常澄、そして源義朝である。
In the early stage was Kazusa no suke Tsunezumi of the same family, followed by MINAMOTO no Yoshitomo.

日本内地では最初の治安維持法適用事件として知られる。
It has been known as the first incident to apply the Maintenance of Public Order Law in Japanese mainland.

中国貿易では一億枚単位の取引さえ普通に行われていた。
In trade with China, transactions of using a unit of 100 million coins were not unusual at that time.

また正当防衛ではなく処罰であるためとどめも行われた。
It was not a justifiable defense but a punishment, so the final blow was often given.

現在の研究では略奪目的の土民が放火したとされている。
Current research supports the theory that natives who had intruded into the castle for plunder set fire.

本来これらは輸租田ではあるが雑役免が認められていた。
Although this type of land was basically yusoden (rice fields subject to taxation), they were certified as Zoyakumen.

15世紀、日本では「字引」形式の書物が発展してきた。
In the 15th century, a book in the form of 'Jibiki' developed in Japan.

農奴は自由民ではなかったが、奴隷だったわけでもない。
The serfs were not free men, but were not slaves.

既存の財閥では貧弱な化学産業を中心に発展していった。
The development of the existing zaibatsu was promoted as revolving around the limited chemical industry.

従って、第3巻までは延文以前の作であることが分かる。
Therefore, the first three volumes were written before the Enbun era.

そこでは同朋衆がつめていて、必要に応じて茶をたてた。
The Doboshu were packed there and brewed tea depending on the need.

紀元前8世紀頃から3世紀頃までは弥生時代と呼ばれる。
The era from around 8 B.C. to around the third century is called the Yayoi period.

「土豪」と呼ばれることもあるが、土豪＝地侍ではない。
It is sometimes called 'Dogo' but Dogo is not equal to Ji-zamurai.

湯西川温泉では積極的に落人伝説を観光業に活用している。
Yunishikawa Onsen is actively making use of the Ochudo legend for tourism.

民間では更に少ない枚数での短陌レートが設けられていた。
For civilians, the rate of tanhaku with fewer coins was established.

箱根方面では義貞軍が直義軍を押し気味に戦局が展開する。
In the Hakone area, Tadayoshi's army was losing ground to Yoshisada's army.

よって、狛犬も獅子であり、獅子と狛犬との2種ではない。
These represent that the komainu was regarded as a sort of shishi lion and they were not divided into two kinds.

このことから貞応元年の誤記ではないかと考えられている。
Therefore, it is considered that the author mistook 貞応6年 for 貞応元年 (the first year of Teio (1222)).

英語では、 rice terraces と表現される。
Tanada is called rice terraces in English.

自由農民の保有地では、上記の様な貢納は免除されていた。
The lands owned by free farmers were exempt from the tributes like mentioned above.

このため、近年では「中古」という語を用いない傾向にある。
It is for this reason that there is a tendency to avoid the use of the word 'chuko.'

中分と言っても必ずしも二分の一ずつという訳ではなかった。
In spite of the term chubun (halve), the ratio of division was not necessarily one half for each.

その結果、幕府では将軍と御家人の関係再構築が実施された。
As a result, in the bakufu, the reconstruction of the relationship between shogun and gokenin (an immediate vassal of the shogunate in the Kamakura and Muromachi through Edo periods) was carried out.

層塔建築では、従来は心柱を地下もしくは地上に据えていた。
Regarding soto architecture, a central pillar was originally put under or over the ground.

大寺社が相手では平氏も容易には手が出せず、数日が過ぎた。
The great temples and shrines made formidable opponents and as such the Taira were unable to resolve the matter easily, and so several days passed.

歴史的仮名遣では、「巌」の仮名書きは「いはほ」である）。
'巌' is written as 'いはほ' in historical kana orthography.)

しかし、民衆の間では鐚銭を忌避する意識は根強く残存した。
But there a deep-rooted consciousness existed among common people to avoid bitasen.

日本画では俵屋宗達が、たらし込みの手法とともに使用した。
In Japanese-style painting, Sotatsu TAWARAYA used the technique as well as the technique of tarashikomi (a technique in which colors are dripped or brushed into wet ink).

大名といわれるような一族では一族のそれぞれが御家人である。
The clan called daimyo each had a member who was gokenin.

また、備単体では魚鱗や鶴翼の様な陣形はあまり重視されない。
Furthermore, battle arrays such as the fish scale and 'V' formations were not emphasized in individual sonae units.

京都府立総合資料館では若杉家文書853として管理している。
Kyoto Prefectural Library and Archives is administering it as the Wakasugi family books, No. 853

なお、当時の全ての荘園・公領が守護請所となった訳ではない。
But not every shoen and koryo in those days were subject to Shugo ukedokoro.

行綱は源平合戦では源義経軍の一翼の多田源氏棟梁として活躍。
During the Genpei War (the war between the Minamoto and the Taira clans), Yukitsuna was active as the leader of the Tada-Genji, who formed a part of MINAMOTO no Yoshitsune's army.

こうした変化は武士階級の台頭と無関係ではないと考えられる。
It is thought that such change was not unrelated to the emergence of samurai class.

また、太閤検地では全国的な規模で統一された方法で行われた。
A uniform method was used throughout the country for the Taiko-kenchi.

特に畿内では、有力寺社へ田地を寄進する動きが活発となった。
Especially in the Kinai region, the rice-field donation to dominant temples and shrines became active.

しかし一方では、国司免判による国免荘も急増するようになる。
However, on the other hand, kokumen sho by the remission of tax by kokushi rapidly increased.

とはいえ、その後の摂関政治は権門優遇策をとった訳ではない。
However, the later regency did not adopt a policy which favored influential families.

中国では辺境領の警備のために設置され、農村から徴兵された。
In China, sakimori ('fangren' in Chinese) was deployed for the security of outlying territories and the soldiers were conscripted from farming villages.

尚、「党」と「一揆」にはっきりとした線引きがある訳ではない。
As a result, there was no clear line between the 'to' and 'uprising.'

この戦いは大きな戦闘は無かったのではないか、という説もある。
According to other accounts, this battle may not have developed into a great battle.

薬生自身も典薬寮の薬戸から採られたのではないかと考えられる。
It is considered that medical students were also recruited from Yakuko of Tenyakuryo.

狼狽した代宗は奉天（長安の西。瀋陽のことではない）に逃れる。
Panic-stricken Daizong fled to Fengtian (west of Changan. Not Shenyang).

一方、スギが少ない欧米等ではスギが原因となる花粉症は少ない。
On the other hand, there are fewer cases of hay fever triggered by Japanese cedar pollen in Europe and North America where there are few Japanese cedar trees.

これまでは、個人や小規模なグループによる研究が行われてきた。
Until now, researches concerned have been conducted by individuals or small-sized groups.

完新世にあたる1万年前 - 現在までは同3 - 4gである。
The amount in the period from 10 thousand years ago to today, corresponding to the Holocene epoch, was 3 to 4 g.

貨幣経済の進展によって出現したのは利銭出挙だけではなかった。
The development of the monetary economy produced not only the Risen-Suiko.

用語自体が確定していた訳ではないが、例えばこのような例がある。
The words themselves were not fixed at that time, but there were examples like this.

古代では戦闘目的の為に組織された集団を「軍（いくさ）」と呼ぶ。
The group formed for the battle was called as 'ikusa' (written as 軍, current word for army) during ancient times.

しかし中世当時は必ずしも明確に区分されていたわけではなかった。
However, they were not exactly classified in medieval age.

なお、一般的には浄土真宗の寺院では御朱印を頂くことができない。
Note that, in general, goshuin is not given at temples of Jodo Shinshu sect (the True Pure Land Sect of Buddhism).

このことにより、人心が徐々にではあるが勝頼から離れつつあった。
As a result, Katsuyori gradually lost trust among his followers.

金子城では二重三重に毛利軍が取り囲み容赦ない総攻撃が始まった。
At Kaneko-jo Castle, the troops of the Mori clan besieged Kaneko-jo Castle and began a merciless, full-scale attack.

後の征夷大将軍は、源氏ではもっぱら河内源氏の流れから出ている。
All the later seii taishogun (literally, 'great general who subdues the barbarians') came exclusively from the Kawachi-Genji.

予定では、この交差点を左折して御池通へと入ることになっていた。
They planned to turn left at the intersection onto Oike Street.

仏教では釈迦の没後を、正法・像法・末法の3時代に区分している。
In Buddhism, after Shaka's death, three periods have been defined as follows; Shobo (Age of the Right Dharma), Zobo (Age of the Semblance Dharma) and Mappo (Age of the Final Dharma).

畿内では惣村の形成が著しく、民衆の団結・自立の傾向が強かった。
In the Kinai region, the formation of soson was tremendous and the common people's tendency for solidarity and independence was strong.

ただし、彼らの子孫すべてが軍事貴族・武士へ成長した訳ではない。
Note, however, not all their descendants became military aristocrats or samurais.

どの程度の身分、階級から将と呼ばれるのかの下限は明確ではない。
From which status or rank may be called sho has not been defined.

岐阜県や長野県では落ち武者の事を「だいこう」と呼ぶ地域もある。
In some regions, such as Gifu and Nagano Prefectures, ochimusha are called 'daiko.'

文化面では運慶と快慶の金剛力士像など、写実的な美術が展開した。
In culture, naturalistic art, as seen in Kongo Rikishi zo (statues of Kongo Rikishi) by Unkei and by Kaikei, developed.

「兵」の需要はあったがそれほど大きなものではなかったともいえる。
There was a need for 'tsuwamono' but not a great one.

広義では、畿内を初めとする近畿地方一帯を指す語としても使われる。
In a broad sense, it is also used to refer to the Kinki area including Kinai.

宗教面では、中国から様々な仏教が伝来し、貴族たちの信仰を集めた。
In terms of religion, various Buddhism sects were introduced from China, and the nobles worshipped them.

本能寺の変関係者では明智軍の当事者の唯一の一次資料で貴重である。
The Honjo Soemon Oboegaki is considered a valuable resource since it is the only firsthand account available from one of the participants from the Akechi forces in the Honnoji Incident.

ここでは、実際に史料を見て、「会所」の用いられ方を見ていきたい。
Here, it is recommended that the incorporation of the 'Kaisho' be seen by in fact observing historical documents.

ただし、官人として武に携わることを本分とした武装集団ではあった。
However, the bushi were in the armed group which were professionally involved with military affairs as government officials.

また、蝦夷がツングース系の北方民族と考える説がないわけではない。
Incidentally, a few theories insist that the Emishi were Tungus, the northern people.

文化面では、『日本書紀』・『万葉集』・『風土記』などが編まれた。
With respect to culture, 'Nihonshoki' (Chronicles of Japan), 'Manyoshu' (Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves), and 'Fudoki' (descriptions of regional climate, culture, etc.) were compiled.

このときのことをフロイスの『日本史』では、次のように記している。
'Nihonshi' by Luis Frois describes the event as follows:

こうして、東北地方では12世紀には蝦夷としての独立性は失われた。
In this way, the Emishi lost their independence in the Tohoku region by the twelfth century.

西日本では交易が活発化し、その活動は朝鮮・中国に及んだ（倭寇）。
In western Japan, trade was actively conducted with activities extended to Korea and China as well (wako (Japanese pirates)).

特に荘園では年貢徴収を指して勧農と呼ぶ例も見られるようになった。
Especially in shoen, nengu (render) collection was sometimes referred to as kanno.

なお、武士以外にも刀の所持そのものが禁止されたわけではなかった。
However, it was not prohibited for persons other than samurai to possess a sword.

現在では貝殻から作られる、炭酸カルシウムを主成分とする顔料を指す。
Now it refers to pigments which are made from shells and consist primarily of calcium carbonate.

足軽隊の指揮官は足軽が兵科ごとに分離するまでは足軽大将と呼ばれる。
The commander of an ashigaru troop was called ashigaru daisho until ashigaru split into various military branches.

二十三章では式盤を使って簡単に行年を算出する方法が解説されている。
A simple method to calculate Gyonen by the use of Shikiban is explained in Chapter 23.

更に翌年の「土民仕置覚」では紫や紅梅色を用いる事が禁じられている。
Furthermore, in the following year's Domin Shioki Oboe' (laws to regulate farmers), colors such as purple and cherry rose were forbidden.

身分移動の存在は、身分制の弛緩や形骸化を意味しているわけではない。
Therefore, the existence of class mobility did not mean that the class system was relaxed or dead in form.

反対に近い地方では夫役や大量のかさばる品物などが収取され易かった。
In contrast, the owner of a shoen who lived nearby it tended to want the shoen residents to offer bueki or a huge amount of bulky goods and the like.

京都では長州藩や薩摩藩など西南諸藩が公家と関係して政局に関与した。
In Kyoto, clans from the southwest region, such as Choshu and Satsuma, involved themselves in national politics by making contacts with court nobles.

鎌倉幕府では永仁5年（1297年）の新制が最後の武家新制となった。
The shinsei of 1297 became the last buke shinsei enacted by the Kamakura bakufu.

英語の名称は、学術分野では言語に差異に関わらず広く使用されている。
In academic areas, the terms in English are used widely regardless of the language used.

填島城は宇治川の中州に位置し、深田と川洲に守られた要害ではあった。
Makishima-jo Castle was an impregnable fortress, located in a towhead of Uji-gawa River, protected by deep fields and a river cay.

また宗教面では鎌倉新仏教の成立により、民衆へ仏教が普及していった。
In religion, new schools of Japanese Buddhism called Kamakura New Buddhism were established, becoming widely accepted by general public.

日本や中国では夥しい数の退蔵銭が壷などに入って出土することがある。
In Japan and China, a pot containing lots of old coins is sometimes unearthed.

その戦後初期の武士在地領主論では、武士を武士団と同義ととらえている。
The theory of bushi lord of manor in early post-war period considered bushi the same as bushidan.

しかし、実際には「所譲給義宗也」ではなく、ここでも奪いとったという。
In fact, however, the land was not 'given to Yoshimune,' but was, again, captured by him.

現代では政府の人事において賄賂により官職をあてがう場合に用いられる。
These days, the term, Baikan, refers to gaining a government post by bribe.

狂言の「素襖落」では素襖がストーリーの鍵となる小道具として登場する。
In 'Suo Otoshi' of kyogen, suo plays a major role.

観智院本では項目・和訓などが増補された代わりに出典が省略されている。
The Kanjiin manuscript contains additional entries and semantic readings, although it has no bibliographical information.

上記の国政改革と並行して、東国では寛平・延喜東国の乱が発生していた。
In parallel with the national reformation described above, Kanbyo Engi Togoku War (Disturbance by robberies in Togoku during the eras between Kanbyo [889 to 898] and Engi [901 to 923]) occurred.

これにより、頼朝は東海・東山両道の支配権を間接的ではあるが獲得した。
It was through this that Yoritomo indirectly secured power over Tokai-do and Tosan-do.

現在では日本国憲法第14条において家職の概念は明確に否定されている。
Currently, the fourteenth article of the Japanese Constitution clearly negates the concept of Kashoku.

漢城では、六番隊の小早川隆景軍も撤退して来て食糧事情が紛糾を極めた。
Takakage KOBAYAKAWA's troops in the sixth division also withdrew to Hansong, causing a serious shortage of food supplies.

日本国内では専ら京都議定書の基準年との比較による増減率が提示される。
In Japan, increase-decrease rates relative to the reference year of Kyoto Protocol are always indicated.

朝廷では亀山上皇のもとで神領興行の遂行と訴訟制度の整備が実施された。
In the Imperial court, the execution of Shinryo-kogyo (performances of shinto rituals) and the establishment of a litigation system were realized under the Retired Emperor Kameyama.

天台宗内部では延暦寺（山門派）と園城寺（寺門派）の対立が続いていた。
Within the Tendai-shu sect, confrontation between Enryaku-ji Temple (Sanmon school) and Enjo-ji Temple (Jimon school) had continued.

義仲の帰京に慌てた院の周辺では、義仲を宥めようという動きが見られた。
Some people around the Cloistered Emperor made a move to appease Yoshinaka.

従来思われていたほど、幕府は積極的に関与したわけではないと思われる。
The bakufu's part in the trading may have been less active than ever believed.

また、すべての荘園が前述3種類の土地から構成されていたわけではない。
And all the shoens did not consist of the above mentioned three kinds of lands.

ただし、戦国大名は、領国内において必ずしも超越的な存在ではなかった。
However, sengoku daimyo was not necessarily a transcendental existence.

元慶の乱では、ところどころ記録が欠けていると記して略した箇所がある。
There are several parts regarding the Gangyo War in which it is stated that records are missing and details are omitted.

このため、砂漠化や乾燥化の防止は簡単に防ぐことができるものではない。
Therefore, it is not easy to prevent desertification or to prevent land from becoming dry.

06.空中広くちりまたは砂が浮遊（風に巻き上げられたものではない）→
06: Dust or sand floats in the air over a wide area (not ones flung up by wind) =>

日常のケではなく、時には行幸などの行事にも使ったハレの建物であった。
It was not a usual house but a building of hare that was used sometimes for events such as a visit by the emperor.

名田の性格をめぐって、日本史学界では大きく2つの見解が対立していた。
There have been two major different opinions about the characteristics of myoden in the Japanese historical science world.

都市部（平城京や平安京）では、財物の出挙が盛んに行われていたようだ。
It seems that the Suiko dealing with property was implemented frequently in the urban areas (Heijo-kyo [the ancient capital of Japan in current Nara] and Heian-kyo [ancient capital in current Kyoto]).

伝説では、源内が阿仁町に向かうため角館城下の酒造業者五井家に泊まった。
According to a legend, Gennai stayed the night at the home of Goi family, a sake a brewer who lived in the castle town of Kakunodate, on the way to Ani-machi.

閏10月1日の水島の戦いでは平氏軍に惨敗し、有力武将の矢田義清を失う。
In the Battle of Mizushima on November 24, he suffered a crushing defeat and lost Yoshikiyo YADA, a powerful military commander.

書名は、それぞれの物語が「今ハ昔」の書き出しではじまることに由来する。
Its title came from the beginning of each story; each story begins with 'Imaha mukashi' (past from now).

モンゴル、中国、韓国では、黄砂による被害は大きな社会問題となっている。
In Mongolia, China and South Korea, the damage due to kosa is considerable, becoming a social problem.

台湾では、大気中の濃度が通常時よりも35%増加するとの結果が出ている。
In Taiwan, it is reported that the density of such components in the air increased by 35 percent compared with that in the ordinary air condition.

そのほか、高山では酸性霧の中和に関与していることが解明されてきている。
In addition, it has also been made clear that this type of kosa is concerned with the neutralization acid fogs in high mountains.

ただし、「氏的継承」が直ちに「嫡流継承」へと移行したわけではなかった。
This is not to say, however, that the succession system momentarily changed from 'clan succession' to 'chakuryu succession.'

また、そうなった場合にはもはや良貨をそのまま発行するのは得策ではない。
Once such a situation occurs, it is not a good policy to continue issuing high-quality coins.

平安時代中期までは現在想像されるような「家」という概念はあまり無かった。
There was no notion of 'house' that is imagined in modern days until the mid-Heian period.

相馬御厨については最初の段階では同族の上総権介常澄、そして源義朝である。
Soma-mikuriya were owned by Tsunezumi of Kazusa no Gon no suke (provisional governor of Kazusa Province) of the same clan and were owned by MINAMOTO no Yoritomo.

当時の作法では切腹は士分の者にしか許されず、足軽は斬首と定められていた。
The custom at that time was that only people of Shibun were allowed Seppuku (suicide by disembowelment) and Zanshu (beheading) was for Ashigaru upon execution.

ここでは前記の平安中期から鎌倉期にかけての遙任国司の代理人について記す。
Here, the above mentioned deputy of the yonin (remote appointments) provincial governor from the middle of the Heian period to the Kamakura period is described.

鎌倉幕府では仁治元年（1240年）以来、たびたび押買の禁令を出している。
Since 1240, the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) often issued laws forbidding oshigai.

一説では、大隈重信の上奏によりに建物が保存されることとなったのだという。
According to one estimate, the preservation of the structure was decided by Shigenobu OKUMA's report to the throne.

一方秀吉は秋月種実の岩石城を攻略、島原方面では有馬晴信の調略に成功した。
Meanwhile, Hideyoshi conquered Tanezane AKIZUKI's Ganjaku-jo Castle and succeeded in persuading Harunobu ARIMA in Shimabara to surrender.

しかし、両者の求める条件ははとても折り合いがつきそうなものではなかった。
But it was quite difficult to reach an accommodation with the conditions requested by each party.

甲斐国・信濃国では守護権力が弱体化し有力国人が割拠する状態となっていた。
In Kai and Shinano Provinces, the power of shugo had been weakened and influential kokujin made their own territory their base.

ところが、戦国の戦場ではこれらが合法のものとして許されていたのであった。
However, in the battlefield in sengoku, such acts were allowed as legitimate.

初期荘園は特に畿内に集中しており、全国に満遍なく拡がっていた訳ではない。
Shoki shoens concentrated especially on the Kinai region (the five capital provinces surrounding the ancient capitals of Nara and Kyoto) and did not spread evenly across Japan.

両勢力の接点にあった安芸国では国全体の国人が一致団結して惣を築いていた。
In the Aki Province, which was located on the contact point of the both powers, kokujin in the whole country had a united effort to establish so (a type of community).

中国では、紀元前1150年頃に「塵雨」と呼ばれていたことがわかっている。
It is known that, in China, present kosa was called 'chenyu' (dust rain) in around 1150 BC.

ところが山崎の方に行くと思いましたのに、そうではなくて京都へ命じられた。
Akechi was expected to proceed to the Yamazaki region, but instead headed for Kyoto.

この使者の説明では、蝦夷は穀物を食べず、家を建てず、樹の下に住んでいた。
This Kento-shi explained that Emishi had eaten no cereal crops and built no houses but lived under the trees.

主従関係に基づく無礼討ちでは主人が有する家臣への処罰権の行使と考えられた。
Bureiuchi, which was based on the relationship between a lord and his vassals, was regarded as conducting a lord's punishment right to his vassals.

刀狩の展開では没収された武器類を方広寺大仏殿の材料とすることが喧伝された。
In the development of katanagari, the government trumpeted that the confiscated arms would be made into material for the Great Buddha hall of Hoko-ji Temple.

だが興福寺側は源氏であって藤原氏ではない義満を放氏することが出来なかった。
In spite of this, Kofuku-ji Temple could not purge Yoshimitsu, because he came from the Minamoto clan, not from the Fujiwara clan.

幕末の政治世界で影響力を持った薩摩藩と長州藩は討幕の思想では共通していた。
The Satsuma and Choshu Domains, both of which had clout within Japanese political circles in the last days of the Edo period, had the anti-shogunate idea in common.

しかし、これらの寺社統制策は教団内部の反発を買い、寺社では内紛が頻発する。
However, such plans to regulate temples and shrines revolted religious communities; internal conflicts occurred frequently within the temples and shrines.

北京など中国の主要都市では、黄砂が増加する冬季にエアロゾルの量が増加する。
In major cities of China, such as Beijing, the amount of aerosol increases in the winter when kosa also increases.

釜山では、粉塵中の濃度が通常の2.5倍、という2001年の調査結果がある。
In Busan, an investigation in 2001 showed that the density of such components in dust was 2.5 times that in the ordinary condition.

現在では、復元された八角塔（基壇）を中心に周辺一帯が史跡公園となっている。
Today, the site is in a historic park, and has a reconstructed octagonal tower (a stylobate).

また、武士の起源に関しても諸説が有り、まだ決定的な学説があるわけではない。
And there are several theories about the origin of bushi and there is no conclusive one yet.

しかし、民衆の間では鐚銭を忌避して撰銭をしようとする意識が根強く残存した。
However, consciousness of avoiding bitasen coins and of carrying out the erizeni act was rooted strongly amongst the general public.

律令制のもとでは大学寮の博士あるいはこれに近い学識を有する人物が任命された。
Under the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code), a professor of the Daigaku-ryo (Bureau of Education under the ritsuryo system) or an individual with similar education and experience was appointed to the position of Jidoku.

旅行者だけではなく寺で労役を科せられていた人々のための施設でもあったという。
This facility was not only for travelers but also for people under the burden of doing labor at temples.

現代では特に子供の喧嘩の処断などで教師や親がこの理論が持ち出すケースが多い。
Today, the idea is often quoted by teachers and parents when intervening in children's conflicts.

近年では、「国家仏教（こっかぶっきょう）」という表現が使われることもある。
The term, 'National Buddhism' is sometimes used in recent years.

幕臣である大舘氏の立場で書かれた書札礼で一般的な書札礼を論じた著作ではない。
This book was written by the Odachi clan in the capacity of the bakufu's vassal and it is not a book dealing with general shosaturei.

後に一度改給され、新符では日本側が左符を、朝鮮側が右符を保管することになる。
Later, the sets of tallies were renewed, then the left halves were kept by the Japan side and the right halves were kept by Yi-Dynasty this time.

頼朝軍入京間近の報に力を得た院周辺では、融和派が逼塞し主戦派が台頭していた。
The news that Yoritomo's army was about to enter the capital brightened up the Cloistered Emperor's court, where accommodationists fell into obscurity and the war party gained power.

同病院のデータの分析結果では、現在の花粉量は当時の2～3倍程度となっている。
Analysis of the data from this hospital shows that the current airborne pollen level is 200-300% higher than the time at which the study was started.

中国や韓国では、黄砂の濃度が高い時には乗用車の速度規制が行われることがある。
In China and South Korea, the driving speeds of passenger vehicles are sometimes restricted in high-density kosa conditions.

東アジア各国では、気象機関がそれぞれ「黄砂」の定義や強弱の基準を定めている。
In each eastern Asian nation, the meteorology-related organization defines 'kosa' and specifies the strength levels of kosa.

最近では1993年5月5日に発生して甚大な被害を出した（後節で詳しく解説）。
The latest one occurred on May 5, 1993 and inflicted significant damage (to be described later in further details).

発生地付近では、砂塵の濃度や粒子の大きさがバラバラで非常に複雑な分布である。
Around the area where a kosa originates, the distribution of dust density and that of sand gain sizes are quite complicated.

さらに新しく平氏の知行国となった国では、国司と国内武士の対立が巻き起こった。
There was a clash between the Kokushi (provincial governors) and samurai within provinces within newly born chigyokoku of Taira clan.

また在地社会では悪党・惣村などが出現し、荘園公領制の変質化が急速に進行した。
In the local societies, Akuto (persons against the established social control system in medieval times) and soson (communities consisting of peasants' self-governing associations) appeared in history, effectively and rapidly changing the shoen koryo sei.

14世紀頃から16世紀頃までは室町時代と呼ばれ、京都の室町に幕府が置かれた。
The era from the 14th century to the 16th century is called the Muromachi period, and the bakufu was placed in Muromachi of Kyoto.

安田元久らの学説では「武士」と「兵」の違いは「領地」の支配形態にもとめられた。
The academic theories by Motohisa YASUDA sought the difference between 'bushi' and 'tsuwamono' as the ruling formation of the 'estate'

今日では現存する諸本は全て偽書で真本は散逸したものとするのが通説とされている。
As a result, the prevailing opinion today is that the existing books are all forgeries and the real books were scattered and lost.

古代の日本では、釉薬は高度な技術であり、国家の管理下にあったと考えられている。
Glaze techniques were considered so valuable in ancient Japan that they were put under the control of the government.

無論、備単位で作戦行動が行われる事もあるので総てが一手部隊に属する訳ではない。
Of course, in some cases the tactical actions were executed by single sonae units, and not all of them necessarily belong to one te unit.

すなわち、秀吉の刀狩令によって惣村の完全なる武装解除が達成されたわけではない。
In other words, Hideyoshi's katanagari edict could not completely disarm soson.

先例と実務関連記事の引用を行い、別巻では関連儀式についての記述が行われている。
Precedents and the records of practical jobs were cited in the book and an explanation concerning related ceremonies were described in supplementary volumes.

更に、荘園領主の居住地から遠い地方では金銭や軽貨など運搬が簡易な物が望まれた。
The owner of a shoen who lived far away from it wanted the shoen residents to bring money or other light freight that was easy to transport.

慢性的な紛争状態が続いた時代だが、必ずしも毎日が戦争状態にあったわけではない。
It was a period in which chronic conflict continued, but it does not necessarily mean that wars occurred every day.

現在に残る地名では、呉服町・油屋町・大工町・鍛冶町・紺屋町などがこれに当たる。
Current place names such as Gofuku-machi, Aburaya-cho, Daiku-cho, Kaji-machi, and Koya-machi are related to this.

戦国時代の諸勢力は、必ずしも全期間絶え間なく合戦に明け暮れていたわけではない。
Powers in the Sengoku Period did not necessarily battle throughout the whole period day and night.

これら荘園や公領は特定の領主が私有地として独占的な支配権を持つのではなかった。
Specific owners did not hold land ownership for these shoen and public lands.

本項では中世日本の被差別民（ちゅうせいにほんのひさべつみん）について叙述する。
In this section, people who were discriminated against in the medieval Japan are described.

乙名は一人ではなく複数人で構成され、惣村の運営・調整・交渉などに当たっていた。
The title of Otona wasn't given to one person but was instead given to a group comprising two or more persons, such a group being in charge of soson operations, coordination and negotiations.

郎党ではなく、侍としての「武士」の認定は、なによりもまず、武官であることだろう。
The first qualification of samurai not as a retainer but as 'bushi' was to be a military officer.

その徴税の頻繁ぶりは建武式目では土倉の保護について1条を置いているほどであった。
The taxation was so frequent that there was an article protecting doso in the Kenmu code.

しかし、その備を構成する人員の殆どは彼の家来ではなく重臣と同じ大名の家臣である。
However, the majority of the personnel making up the sonae were not his retainers but they were also the vassals of the same daimyo.

与力として重臣の指揮下に就いており、決して重臣の家臣（陪臣）になったのではない。
They were placed under the senior vassal as a reinforcement, but they did not in any way become his vassals.

古代・中世の日本では無官の者を救済する施策として正式な制度として導入されていた。
In ancient and medieval Japan, the baikan system was introduced as an official system to rescue courtiers without posts.

その様な複雑な陣形を無理に維持する事は機動力を失わせる事になり、現実的ではない。
Forcefully maintaining such a complex battle formation would lead to a loss of mobility, and it would not be realistic.

朝護孫子寺が所蔵（原本は奈良国立博物館に寄託されており、霊宝館では複製を展示）。
It is possessed by Chogosonshi-ji Temple (but the original is housed at the Nara National Museum and its replica is displayed in the treasure hall of the temple).

但し、その名称は、現代の研究者等が名付けたものであって、当初よりの名称ではない。
Provided, however, that this name was created by contemporary researchers and was not originally in use.

また、西園寺家一族ではないものの、初代の関東申次であった吉田経房の末裔であった。
Also, not belonging to the Saionji family, Tsuneaki was one of the descendants of Tsunefusa YOSHIDA, the first Kanto moshitsugi.

しかし、国力を大幅に消耗しており、藩鎮に対して強い態度を取れる状態ではなかった。
However, he had greatly expended the nation's resources, and he was in no condition to confront hanchin.

西洋の法的な封建制度であるレーエン制とは異なり、軍事奉仕を期待するものではない。
Unlike the fiefdom, the Western legal Hoken system, no military duties were expected.

なお、官宣旨の“官”とは「太政官」ではなく「弁官」のことと解するのが通説である。
It is now accepted that the 'kan' in the word 'kansenji' means 'benkan' and not 'daijokan.'

鳥取県衛生環境研究所の調査では、2005年4月に黄砂を含む大気中の成分を調べた。
Tottori Prefectural Institute of Public Health and Environmental Science investigated the components of the kosa-including air in April, 2005.

- 黄砂自体の名称ではないが、黄砂のもととなる砂嵐のことを「トゥイリン」と呼ぶ。
Tweilin' (in pronunciation) is used for indicating the sandstorms that cause kosa, although not expressing kosa itself.

クンビーラは元来、ガンジス川に棲むワニを神格化した水神で、日本では蛇型とされる。
Kunbi-ra originally was a water god transformed into a god from crocodiles in the Ganges River and in Japan is considered to be in snake form.

ただし、平安時代の文献では貴人の正妻を指して「御簾中」と書いた物は存在していない。
There is no literary work from the Heian period, however, that refers to a legal wife of an aristrocrat as a 'Gorenju.'

さらに今日の歴史学では西欧中心の単線的な発展段階史観が強く批判されるようになった。
In today's historical science, the unilinear evolution phase concept of history focused mainly on Western Europe is sharply criticized.

通説では和気氏の大学別曹として機能したとされている（後述）が、早い時期に断絶した。
It was commonly accepted that Kobunin played the role of daigaku besso (adjunct facility of daigaku-ryo - Bureau of Education under the ritsuryo system) of the Wake clan (mentioned later), but became defunct before long.

しかし予審決定書では「私有財産制度の破壊」について同法第2条の協議罪が適用された。
However, according to the decision in writing of a preliminary examination, Kyogizai (a crime of having conference) in the article 2 of the Maintenance of Public Order Law was applied for 'demolition of private property.'

この時点では男爵であり、押収された旧制中学時代の日記帳の一節により不敬罪とされた。
He was a Baron at this time and sentenced to lese majesty because of a part of his impounded diary he had written when he was in junior high school under the old system of education.

百姓は必ずしも農業を営んでいた訳ではなく、農業以外の商業・産業を営む者も多かった。
It was not necessarily the case that all the Hyakushos engaged in agriculture and it was also the case that many of them were in business or industry.

奥書では泰統が書写した年は貞応6年とされているが、実際には貞応は3年までしかない。
According to okugaki, Taito transcribed in 貞応6年 (the sixth year of Teio era (1227)), but actually, the Teio era lasted only until 貞応3年 (the third year of the Teio era (1224)).

『占事略决』では、各章の見出しが全て「何々法」となっており、全体で36の章がある。
'Senji ryakketsu' consists of 36 chapters and each chapter is titled 'O O ho'.

私鋳銭（しちゅうせん）とは、政府が作った公の銭ではなく、私的に偽造された銭のこと。
Shichusen refers to privately produced counterfeit money, as differentiated from the official money coined by the government.

この制度では、百姓を村単位で、町人を町単位で把握し、両者の間に上下関係はなかった。
According to this system, peasants were grouped by village, townsmen by town, with no difference between their ranks.

租穀は1段につき3斗（6束に相当）が基準とされたが、実際の賦課は一定では無かった。
Although the standard amount of sokoku was santo (about fifty-four liters) (equivalent to six sheaves), the actual imposed amount was not constant.

古代の賃租にルーツを求める説もあるが、通説では鎌倉時代に発生したと考えられている。
Some seek to explain the roots of the nenki-uri contract as coming from the chinso (land tax) of ancient times, but the prevailing view is that the nenki-uri first came into existence during the Kamakura period.

篠川公方や斯波氏陸奥守家も滅ぼされるなど、東北地方といえど、平穏無事ではなかった。
Even the Tohoku Region could not be uneventful as seen by the fact that Sasagawa-kubo and the Shiba clan (governor of Mutsu Province) were subverted.

日本では、これらの諸国に比べて被害は軽く、環境問題として取り上げられることが多い。
In Japan, the damage is not so serious compared with these nations, and kosa is usually taken up as an environmental problem.

ただし、省略版にするための字句修正を施したところもあり、完全に同文・同字ではない。
However, it is not an exact copy as the wording was revised in order to shorten its length.

文化面では、欧米から新たな学問・芸術・文物が伝来し、その有様は文明開化と呼ばれた。
In culture, new science, art and other cultural products were brought to Japan, and this state was called civilization and enlightenment.

文化面では、連歌・猿楽・喫茶など身分を超えた交流に特徴付けられる室町文化が栄えた。
In culture, the Muromachi culture, which is characterized by interaction among people in different social strata, as seen in renga, sarugaku (the predecessor of Noh), and drinking tea, flourished.

日本では、鎌倉時代後期ごろから商品経済が急速に進展していき、貨幣の流通が普及した。
In Japan, commodity economy progressed from around the latter half of the Kamakura period, and coins became circulated widely.

武士の中では下位で、侍でもあり百姓でもあるという兵農未分離の状態という意味である。
It means that they were low-ranking samurai who served as both warriors and farmers.

奉安殿の多くは戦後解体・もしくは地中に埋められ、御真影も全て奉還された訳ではない。
After the war, many of the Hoan-den were dismantled or buried in the ground, but not all goshin-ei portraits were returned to the emperor.

その意味では摂関時代の「ミウチ」の世界が、まだ一部には残っていたという見方も出来る。
In other words, the world of 'relatives' of the period of regents partially remained.

所従の中には一家を構えて自営耕作を行うものもおり、その身分的実態は一律ではなかった。
As some Shoju even had their own independent households and families and cultivated their land independently, Shoju was not a uniformly established class, in reality.

主に日本の戦国時代 (日本)の合戦では、敵軍に対し最初に槍で勝利をあげた者を指した。
In battles during the Sengoku period (Japan), Ichiban-yari usually referred to the first warrior to defeat an enemy with a spear.

しかし、その土地は最も広い日光東照宮でも1万石、最も狭いものではわずか1石であった。
Among such lands, however, even the largest one, that of Nikko Toshogu shrine, was equivalent to tens of thousands of koku crop yield and the smallest one was equivalent to merely one koku crop yield.

『占事略决』では、「雨を占う方法」と「晴れを占う方法」がそれぞれ別の章となっている。
In 'Senji ryakketsu,' 'The method to divine a rain' and 'The method to divine fine weather' are explained in independent chapters.

ただ、『占事略决』では三伝の中の発用（初伝）を機械的に変更する方法が解説されている。
In 'Senji ryakketsu', however, the method to automatically change hatsuyo (shoden), one of Sanden, is explained.

勝頼最後の戦となった田野の四郎作・鳥居畑では、信長の大軍を僅かな手勢で奮闘撃退した。
In Shirotsukuri, Toriibata in Tano, which was the last battlefield of Katsuyori, he bravely fought off Nobunaga's large army with a small number of troops.

清洲会議では、それまで重臣筆頭として最大の発言権を持っていた勝家の影響力が低下した。
In the Kiyosu conference, the influence of Katsuie, who had had the biggest say as a head of vassals, was diminished.

また、釜山から漢城までの輸送路がゲリラ攻撃されると内陸部では兵糧備蓄の不安が起きた。
In addition, as the transportation route from Busan to Hansong was attacked using guerrilla tactics, inland bases became concerned about their emergency provisions.

一方、締約国会議 (COP) では条約の基準年を用いた増減率が提示されることが多い。
On the other hand, in Conference of Parties (COP), increase-decrease rates relative to the reference year of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change are often indicated.

第20巻の前半、光孝天皇の代までは、六国史から重要部分を短く抜き出して採録している。
The first half of volume 20 covering the period until the reign of Emperor Koko is an abridged version of the main section of Rikkokushi.

大韓民国では、黄砂はその程度により、強度0、強度1、強度2の3段階に分類されている。
In the Republic of Korea, the strength of kosa is classified into three stages of strength 0, strength 1, and strength 2.

が、それでも押板があった程度だ、ともいえ、大きな問題ではないという考え方もありえる。
However, it could be said that there was just oshiita and it might not be a big problem.

王朝国家では、大幅に統治権限を委譲された受領とその国衙機構による地方支配が展開した。
In the dynastic nation-state, Zuryo (the head of the provincial governors), to whom a considerable amount of the authority to control the province was transferred, and its kokuga (provincial government offices) controlled local areas.

14世紀末の応安の半済令では、土地自体を半分割して接収する権利が、守護に与えられた。
Hanzei-rei (literally, Hanzei law) issued in the Oan era in the end of 14th century provided shugo with the authority to confiscate half of the land.

しかし上述したように必ずしも国人層・百姓層などを厳格に支配していたわけではなかった。
However, as mentioned above, the shugo-ryogoku system did not always control strictly the kokujin stratum and the peasant stratum.

この本では、「逃散」に相当する現象は「立ち去り型サボタージュ」と呼びかえられている。
In his book, the author refers to the phenomenon of 'chosan' as 'tachisarigata sabotage' (Walk-off Sabotage).

戦前建築の古い校舎・講堂を持つ学校では、校舎内に設けられた「奉安庫」が残る所もある。
Some Hoan-ko (storeroom for displaying the goshin-ei portrait and the Imperial Rescript on Education, the predecessor of Hoan-den) remain within the schoolhouses where the school preserves old schoolhouses or auditoriums that were built in the prewar period.

いわば、主人の会社の終身雇用の社員ではなくて、契約に基づく協力会社、下請け企業である。
In other words, it was the subcontracted company that worked together under a contract unlike a life time worker that served their master's company.

このように、鎮守府の本来の性格は、正にこの平常時での統治であり、非常時の征討ではない。
Thus the Chinju-fu was originally designed to serve as a peacetime governing institution, not to subdue barbarians in emergencies.

さらに、これらに呼応して関東平野では佐竹義重 (十八代当主)が活動を活発化させていた。
Furthermore, in response Yoshishige SATAKE (the eighteenth head of the family) intensified his activities in the Kanto Plain.

一方、現地では請負代官が農民から過酷な取立てを行って自己の収益にする事態も生じていた。
Meanwhile, the ukeoi daikan levied harshly from farmers and made it their own profit on site.

日本ではスギ花粉は2月から4月まで飛散するため、スギ花粉症の患者はこの時期に急増する。
The number of Japanese cedar pollinosis sufferers rises sharply between the months of February and April when Japanese cedar pollen is dispersed in Japan.

このため、今日では政変の発生した1493年を戦国時代の始期とする説が有力となっている。
Therefore, at present, the view that the Sengoku Period commenced in 1493 with the Coup of Meio is prevailing.

ただし、全ての座が解体した訳ではなく、座役を伴わない商業共同体として残ったものもある。
This was not to say, however, that all za were dismantled, and in fact some of them remained as commercial communities which did not have to do za-yaku.

特にこれに該当する公家は勅勘などの公家社会では放逐に相当する処分を受けることもあった。
Of note, there were cases in which court nobles who were applicable to this and received a punishment equivalent to being expelled from the court noble community, such as the emperor's censure.

また大正3年に施行された「海軍禮式令」では、海軍における「君が代」の扱いを定めている。
In 'Kaigun Reishiki Rei (literally, 'Ordinance of the Navy for ceremonies)' which was enforced in 1914 set forth the way to handle 'Kimigayo' in the Imperial Japanese Navy.

8世紀末頃から12世紀末頃までは平安時代と呼ばれ、桓武天皇の築いた平安京が都とされた。
The era from around the end of the eighth century to around the end of twelfth century is called the Heian period, with the Heian-kyo constructed by Emperor Kanmu as the national capital.

「毛」や「蝦」の字を用いたのは単なる音の転写ではなく、何らかの意味があると考えられる。
Therefore, it is thought that the use of the characters '毛' and '蝦' isn't simply based on the sound but must have a particular meaning.

律令制では、勧農は国司の職務として規定されており、国司による各種の勧農施策が行われた。
Under the ritsuryo system, kanno was defined as the duty of kokushi and the measures and policies of kanno were implemented by kokushi.

そのため、商品経済の現場では正式な貨幣と認められなかったりと、嫌われる傾向が強かった。
Therefore, shichusen coins were likely not welcome, for example, not accepted as formal coins in payments in the commodity economy.

8世紀に成立した大宝律令・養老律令では、僧尼令・田令などに寺田に関する規定が置かれた。
In Taiho Code and Yoro Code established in the eighth century, regulations concerning jiden fields that were specified in Soni ryo (regulations for monks and nuns) and Denryo (regulations for farmland).

中国の条坊制を模範に造営された古代都城では、中央北辺に宮殿、官衙からなる宮城が置かれた。
In ancient capitals that were established in accordance with the Chinese grid-patterned city layout, Imperial Palaces, consisting of a palace and a kanga (government office), were placed in the northern central part of the city.

しかし、武士の間では平氏からの恩賞給与に対する不満が多かれ少なかれ存在していたとされる。
However, many samurai were more or less discontent with reward grants given by the Taira clan.

「義仲は、法皇が頼朝と手を結んで自分を殺そうとしているのではないかと疑念を抱いている。」
Yoshinaka has a suspicion that the Cloistered Emperor will join hands with Yoritomo to kill him.

これは、院政が摂関家を牽制するため、受領層を主な支持基盤としていたこととも無縁ではない。
This is not completely unrelated as the cloistered government used the class of zuryo (the head of the provincial governors) as its main support base in order to supervise the sekkan-ke (the families which produced regents).

庶民が慣れ親しんだ講談や落語などでは「元亀天正の頃」といった表現のほうが一般的であった。
In kodan (art of public storytelling) and rakugo (traditional comic storytelling), which were popular among the general public, the expression 'the periods of Genki, Tensho' was common.

加賀国では一向一揆が守護冨樫氏を滅ぼして「本願寺王国」を形成、100年間の自治を行った。
In the Kaga Province, ikko ikki overthrew shugo, the Togashi clan, and established the 'Hongan-ji kingdom' and carried out autonomous control for a hundred years.

古くは、日本では少なくとも7万年前以降の最終氷期には黄砂が飛来していたと考えられている。
It is considered that kosa fell in Japan in the last glacial period at least 70 thousand years ago.

当時の欧米史学では、中世は欧米特有なもので、近代へ発展するために必須な時代とされていた。
In the history study of Europe and America in those days, the medieval times were peculiar to Europe and America and indispensable in developing into the modern age.

畿内や九州の荘園では、面積1～2町程度のほぼ均等な名田から構成される例が非常に多かった。
Most manors in the Kinai (the vicinal territories of the capital) and the Kyushu regions consisted of nearly equal-sized myoden fields, and each size was in the range of one to two cho (9,917 to 19,834 square meters).

平安時代の武士の必要条件が騎馬と射技であったが、特に馬は馬でさえあれば良かった訳ではない。
The requirements for the bushi of Heian period were horse back riding and archery, but it did not mean that one had to have just any horse.

水戸黄門などでは農民を徳川光圀が呼称する場合 'お百姓' と接頭辞 'お' を付けている。
In TV dramas such as 'Mitokomon,' Mitsukuni TOKUGAWA uses the term with the prefix 'o,' i.e., 'ohyakusho' when addressing a peasant.

この法令では長年のこの押領状態を解消するために本所と武家による所領の分割を命じたのである。
In order to put an end to a situation where territories were seized by samurai families for long periods of time, the law ordered a division of the territories between the honjo and the samurai families, causing honjo to lose half of their territories.

当然、一つの地域にまとまって免田が存在しているわけではなく、各地に散在している状態だった。
As a result, Menden did not exist together in one region but were scattered throughout the region.

国衙軍制の中では、国司が軍事面における最高指揮者であったため、国司の地位は決定的であった。
In the kokuga forces system, the kokushi who held supreme command in the military affairs held a decisive position.

明治時代には陸軍を中心に迂回奇襲説が、近年では信長公記に基づいて正面攻撃説が主流であった。
In the Meiji period, it was particularly believed by the army that the Oda army attacked by way of a detour, but in recent years, the belief that they attacked head-on has been favored, based on Shincho Koki (Biography of Nobunaga ODA).

『占事略决』には、現代に伝わる六壬神課では忘れられた技法や、その断片が幾つも記されている。
There are many descriptions in 'Senji ryakketsu' concerning the techniques of Rikujinshinka or its fragments that are almost forgotten at present.

しかし、『六壬鑰』等の六壬の原典の多くでは晴雨を含めて天候占という形で一括りにされている。
In the case of other original texts of Rikujin, such as 'Rikujinyaku,' however, these two are lumped together into weather divination.

これを受けた太政官では議政官（公卿）会議にて審議を行い、国衙へ対し「追捕官符」を発出した。
Receiving the report, giseikan (legislators) (consisting of Kugyo [the top court officials]) held a meeting at Daijokan and issued and sent 'tsuibu kanpu' to the kokuga.

初期の検地では統一した書式による検地帳が存在しなかった（例えば、村切の未確立の問題など）。
At an early stage of kenchi, there was no standardized form of kenchi-cho, because there existed some policies yet to be implemented, such as 'muragiri' (the formation of cultivated land done per village through kenchi during the early modern ages of Japan, which reorganized the complicated rights on land in medieval Japan).

河内源氏の本拠地の河内国ではなく坂東を地盤とした義朝は勢力回復を企てて平治の乱を起こした。
Yoshitomo, based in Bando not in Kawachi Province that was the stronghold of Kawachi-Genji, started the Heiji War in a bid to regain power.

南朝 (日本)の後醍醐天皇は延元4年（1339年、北朝 (日本)では暦応2年）に崩御した。
The Emperor Godaigo of the Southern Court (Japan) passed away in 1339.

巻九・巻十では「飛駅儀」など政務に付随して行われる行事や、臨時儀式についてが記されている。
Ceremonies accompanying government affairs such as 'Hiekigi' and other ad hoc rites are stipulated in volumes nine and ten.

これらの批判を踏まえ林野庁では、2008年より花粉発生源対策プロジェクトを立ち上げている。
In response to these criticisms, the Forestry Agency launched countermeasures to combat the sources of pollen in 2008.

清では皇荘に替わって拠点となる北直隷及び満洲に内務府官荘や盛京戸部・礼部官荘が設けられた。
During the Ching dynasty, instead of the imperial manor, the Imperial Household manor or Shengjing Ministry of Revenue and Ministry of Rites are set up in Hokuchokurei or Manchuria which were the bases.

農民の保有地が小地面から成っていたように、領地（領主の直轄地）も単一的な土地ではなかった。
As the land owned by farmers consisted of a patch of land, the land directly controlled by the lords was also not a monolithic land.

その一方、以上の理由で信長の政策に革新性が認められなかったとの意味ではないと思われている。
On the other hand, it is not thought that the innovation of Nobunaga's policy went unrecognized due to the above reasons.

一部では”Yellow dust terrorism”（黄砂テロリズム）と呼ぶ向きもある。
Some call it 'Yellow dust terrorism.'

華北や東北地方では日常的に指数が100前後と高く、これまでに500を記録したことはあった。
In Huabei (the North China) and northeastern part of China, index values of around 100 are observed almost everyday and the index value of 500 was once recorded there.

敦煌市から河西回廊での砂塵嵐の日数を調べた統計では、春の3ヶ月間に年間の5割弱が集中する。
According to statistical data about the number of days when a sandstorm was generated in the area from Dunhuang City to Hexi Corridor, slightly less than 50 percent of the occurrences were concentrated in the three months of spring.

宇多のもとでは藤原時平と菅原道真の両者が太政官筆頭に立ち、協力しながら宇多を補佐していた。
Under Emperor Uda, FUJIWARA no Tokihira and SUGAWARA no Michizane were the heads of Daijokan, who cooperated with the emperor.

ただしそれは主祭神としてではなく、門客神（もんきゃくじん）として祀られているケースが多い。
However, these shrines in many cases do not enshrine Arahabaki as the main god, but as a Monkyakujin (guest god).

仏教では鎮護国家思想が強まり、聖武天皇の発願で東大寺・国分寺が国家護持の名目で建立された。
In Buddhism, the idea of national defense was strengthened, and the Todai-ji and Kokubun-ji Temples were constructed due to the wishes of Emperor Shomu on the pretext of kokka goji (defending and maintaining the nation).

宗教面では従来の神仏混交が改められ（神仏分離）、仏教弾圧（廃仏毀釈）などの動きも見られた。
In religion, the syncretism of Shintoism and Buddhism was rejected (separation of Buddhism and Shintoism), and moves to oppress Buddhism (Haibutsu-kishaku) were also observed.

文化面では、ばさらに代表されるように、身分秩序を軽視し華美な振る舞いに走る傾向が見られた。
In culture, there was the tendency to behave extravagantly, thinking little of social classes or social order, as typically seen in 'Basara.'

7世紀末から8世紀初頭に始まった律令制では、人民一人ひとりを租税収取の基礎単位としていた。
In the ritsuryo system (system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo codes), which started around the end of the seventh century or the beginning of the eighth century, the basic unit for tax collection was every single person.

特にサスペンスや推理小説といったフィクションでは犯人の犯行動機として設定されることが多い。
Especially in works of fiction, such as suspense stories and mysteries, Katakiuchi is often made the setting for the motive of crime.

六国史である『続日本後紀』に設置経緯が掲載されており、全国の布施屋の中では最も知名度が高い。
This is the most well-known of all the fuseya in the country due to the detailed background history of its establishment described in the 'Shoku Nihon Koki' (Later Chronicle of Japan Continued), which was one of the Rikkokushi (the six ancient Japanese historical collections compiled between the Nara and Heian periods).

更に建武の新政では諸国の本家・領家職が廃され、官社解放令が出されるなど一円化は急速に進んだ。
Moreover, at the Kenmu Restoration honke shiki and ryoke shiki in various provinces were abolished and Kansha (shrines) kaiho (liberation) edict was issued, therefore the monistical ruling was rapidly advanced.

ために空海は、本書に関しては飽くまで「著者」ではなく、編集人の位置に止まっているといえよう。
That is why Kukai cannot be the 'author' of this literature, but served in the position of editor.

しかし、このような強権的な支配では各地域の動きは抑えられず、次第に矛盾が大きくなっていった。
However, such an despotic governance could not suppress the movements in various areas and the conflicts became increasingly larger.

上野方面では北条氏邦が前橋城の北条高広に圧力をかけ、さらに真田昌幸の領地をも脅かしていった。
In the Kozuke district, Ujikuni HOJO put pressure on Takahiro HOJO in Maebashi-jo Castle, and further threatened the territory of Masayuki SANADA.

そのような例では地子が「免許」されたというより「初めからなかった」と捉えたほうが事実に近い。
In this case, jishi was non-existent from the beginning rather than exempt.

当初郡国制では諸侯に貨幣鋳造権や軍事権が認められていたが、徐々にこのような権力は回収された。
Under the Gun Ken system, the right of coinage and military right were granted at first, but those rights were gradually forfeited.

その秦を滅ぼした前漢では郡県を布く地方と新たに諸侯王を封建する地方とに分ける郡国制を行った。
The former Han, which overthrew the Qin Dynasty, adopted the Gun Koku system which separated places of newly appointed lords from places using the Gun Ken system.

頼母子（たのもし）あるいは頼母子講（たのもしこう）、沖縄県では模合（もあい、むえー）という。
It is called Tanomoshi or Tanomoshi-ko, and Moai or Mue in Okinawa Prefecture.

欧州が採択するバブルでは、欧州共同体15カ国のそれぞれの削減目標がEU指令で定められている。
In the bubble system adopted by Europe, individual reduction targets are assigned to each of 15 countries in European Community by the EU directive.

後白河は園城寺に帰信して庇護者となり露骨な優遇策をとったため、延暦寺では不満が渦巻いていた。
Because Goshirakawa came to Enjo-ji Temple, became a patron and showed a conspicuous attitude with favorable treatment, the discontents were whirling at Enryaku-ji Temple.

越後国では守護代長尾氏が実権を握り、上杉謙信を生み、1576年までに北陸地方をほぼ制圧した。
In the Echigo Province, shugodai, the Nagao clan, assumed the real power and gave birth to Kenshin UESUGI and almost took control of the Hokuriku Region by 1576.

しかしながら、観測点に偏りがあることに加え、気象観測だけでは黄砂現象の解明には不十分である。
However, the observation points are not placed uniformly nor weather observations alone are enough for understanding kosa phenomena thoroughly.

この際に参加出来たのは公卿全般ではなく、上皇・法皇が認めた特定の公卿並びに院近臣達であった。
Not all court nobles were allowed to join the decision-making processes, and only specific court nobles and In no Kinshin (the retired Emperor's courtier) could join.

方丈記では、京都市中の死者を4万2300人とし、市中に遺体があふれていたことが記されている。
In the Hojoki, it is written that 42,300 people died in Kyoto City, and that the city was filled with corpses.

6世紀後半から8世紀初頭までは、ヤマト王権の本拠が飛鳥に置かれたことから飛鳥時代と呼ばれる。
The era from the latter half of the sixth century to the early eighth century is called the Asuka period, because the core site of the Yamato sovereignty was placed in Asuka.

この時代区分は明確な区分基準を持っている訳ではなく、歴史研究上の時代区分としては適当でない。
However, this classification of historical periods is not based upon clear criteria for the classification and is inappropriate for classifying historical periods for researching of history.

12世紀末頃から14世紀頃までは鎌倉時代と呼ばれ、中央の公家政権と関東の武家政権が並立した。
The eighth century is called the Kamakura period, and the Kuge (court nobles) government in Kyoto and the military government in Kamakura coexisted during this era.

したがって、武士以外の苗字帯刀禁止によって百姓や町人などが完全に武装解除されたわけではない。
Therefore, the fact that the myojitaito right was given to samurai alone did not mean that people like farmers or merchants were completely prohibited from possessing any arms.

日本では中世頃からこの慣行があり、江戸時代になって法制化され、仇討ち（あだうち）と呼ばれた。
This practice existed in Japan from around the medieval period; it was legislated in the Edo period and was called Adauchi (revenge).

また「群盗蜂起」も多発し、関東では寛平・延喜東国の乱、僦馬の党（しゅうばのとう）が有名である。
In addition, an 'increase in robberies' occurred frequently and Kanbyo-Engi-Togoku-no-ran (Disturbance by robberies in Togoku during the period between Kanbyo and Engi) and Shuba Party in the Kanto region (area around Tokyo Prefecture) were famous.

布施屋内の救護・宿泊施設では食料の配給、けがや病気の手当て、宿泊などのサービスが行われていた。
Relief stations and lodging facilities in Fuseya provided such services as food distribution, lodging and treatment for injuries and illnesses.

なお、現存する算生に関する記録を見る限りでは、渡来人系の氏族に属する者が多かったとされている。
As far as can be told from existing Sansho-related records, there were many people who belonged to the clans of toraijin (people from overseas, especially from China and Korea, who settled in early Japan and introduced Continental culture to the Japanese).

とかく、士大将などの指揮官にとっては五月蝿い存在ではあるが指揮 (軍事)上、必須の存在である。
In general, for a commander such as samurai daisho, they were bothersome, but they were necessary in making (military) commands.

地頭請所ではほぼ例外なく年貢の未進が発生しており、武士の荘園・公領侵出は一層進むこととなった。
As jito ukedokoro with few exception were subjected to non-payment of land tax, samurai got more involved in shoen and koryo.

都市では貨幣経済が定着していたため、地子は銭貨で納入されるのが一般的であり、地子銭と呼ばれた。
In urban areas where the money economy was already in place, jishi was usually paid in coined money and was called jishisen.

国内武士は受領の動員命令ではなく、追捕使の地位を持つ「一国棟梁」の指揮に従うようになっていた。
Samurai in a province came to follow the leadership of 'Ikkoku toryo' provided with the position of Tsuibushi, instead of the mobilization order by zuryo.

これでは禁じた本人が大損害をこうむるばかりか粗悪な贋金を奨励して重大なインフレを招きかねない。
If such a situation occurred, the daimyo himself would have suffered a big loss and a serious inflation might also have ensued, through promoting the generation of low-quality false coins.

なお、江戸時代における城下町の多くは、藩庁が置かれていたため、広義では陣屋町の一種ともいえる。
Since many of Jokamachi (towns below the castle) in the Edo period had hancho (feudal lord's office) therein, those Jokamachi can be categorized as a kind of Jinyamachi in a wide sense.

沖縄県では県民の過半数が参加していると言われるほか、九州各地や山梨県などでもよく行われている。
It is said that a majority of local people in Okinawa Prefecture have joined one, and it is often conducted in various places in Kyushu and Yamanashi Prefecture.

遣明船は遣唐使船と異なり、専用船を新造したわけではなく、国内の民間の廻船（商船）の借り入れた。
Unlike the case of Kentoshisen (envoy ships dispatched to Tang, China), ships of Kenminsen were not the ones that were newly built for exclusive use but the rented private ships (merchant ships).

現代では、国語学において、漢字表記・読み・字体・用字など漢字の用法の知識を得るのに利用される。
In modern times, the setsuyoshu has been utilized in the field of Japanese philology (linguistics) for the purpose of acquiring the knowledge about uses of kanji, such as writing, reading, forms and usage of kanji.

よって、仲麻呂存命中ではあるが、真備の2回目の入唐時のこととして描かれているものと考えられる。
Therefore, it is thought that the story of the Kibi no Otodo Nitto Emaki deals with Makibi's second visit to Tang even though Nakamaro was still alive at that time.

記された各人の官位からの推測では、寛平5年（893年）4月から寛平6年（894年）8月となる。
Conjecture according to the official ranks of each contributor place this date between April 893 and September 894.

紀伊国では高野山・根来寺・熊野三山などの寺社勢力の力が強く、守護畠山氏の支配力は限定的だった。
In the Kii Province, the power of temples and shrines, such as Koyasan, Negoro-ji Temple, Kumano Sanzan (three major shrines, Kumano-Hongu-Taisha Shrine, Kumano-Hayatama-Taisha Shrine and Kumano-Nachi-Taisha Shrine) and so on, was strong and power to control shugo, the Hatakeyama clan, was limited.

精密機械工業や半導体の工場では、黄砂の微小粒子の侵入により不良品ができるなどの被害も発生する。
In factories for precision machinery or for semiconductors, the intrusion of minute particles included in kosa may cause damage that generates defective products.

ただ、発生地周辺の中国内陸部やモンゴルでは、単なる黄砂の降下よりも砂嵐による被害の方が大きい。
However, in the inner part of China and Mongolia located near places where kosa is produced, damage due to sandstorms is more serious than the simple falling of kosa.

中国では619年に隋が滅び唐が建ったので、それまで派遣していた遣隋使に替えてこの名称となった。
Japanese missions to Sui China were replaced by those to Tang China because, in China, the Sui Dynasty fell and the Tang Dynasty appeared in 619.

里倉負名制では、負名と呼ばれるようになった地域の富豪・有力百姓ら請負人は徴税役人に任命された。
In the Riso-fumyo system, undertakers including rich people and influential farmers in local areas, who had come to be called Fumyo (a local tax manager), were appointed to the officials for collecting taxes.

武器と戦闘様式から見ても、平安時代から鎌倉時代、鎌倉幕府の滅亡までの間ではそう大きな変化は無い。
There were no big transformations of weapons and battle formations from the Heian to the Kamakura period and the fall of the Kamakura bakufu.

それは一概に間違いではないが、口伝を基本としている平家の落人伝承が誤って認識される素ともなった。
Though the above practice is not necessarily wrong, it sometimes gave rise to cases where oral traditions of Heike no Ochudo were mistakenly understood since they have been passed down orally.

これは僧尼令や僧綱の対象が僧尼であって仏教そのものを対象にした法令ではなかった事実の反映である。
Therefore, Soni ryo and Sogo were applied to monks and nuns, and they did not regulate Buddhism itself.

四国八十八箇所詣などの霊場巡りでは、巡礼中に着ている白衣（びゃくえ）に御朱印をもらう場合もある。
In a sacred ground tour such as the 88 Shikoku sacred sites pilgrimage, goshuin may be given on a byakue costume to be worn during the pilgrimage.

元側の史料では、綱司の出身国にかかわらず、博多から来航した船は日本船（倭船）として扱われている。
Historical material of the Yuan Dynasty shows that vessels coming from Hakata, no matter where the Goji came from, was dealt with as a Japanese (wako) vessel.

なお、扇面古写経もまた異色の書跡資料といえるが、そこでは和様の使い手数名の筆跡が確認されている。
Senmen Koshakyo (ancient sutra manuscripts on a fan) can be regarded as a unique handwriting reference, and a few handwritings of craftsman using Japanese patterns have been confirmed.

ただし『箋注倭名類聚抄』は下にも書く通り明治時代刊なので、それまでは写本による流布が主であった。
However, 'Senchu wamyo ruijusho' was published in the Meiji period as described below, and until then, its manuscripts were mostly available.

都市部では、最近の経済発展によるスモッグ（煙霧）との相乗効果で、視程がかなり悪くなることがある。
When falling in city areas, kosa and smog, generated due to recent economic progress, produce a synergistic effect, sometimes limiting the visibility considerably.

別符による「郷」は、「郡」の下の「郷」ではなく、独立した徴税単位として「郡」と並列するものである。
The 'go' by beppu was not the 'go' of the 'district' and was at the same level with a 'district' as an independent tax collection unit.

ところが後になって当時流布していた諸本に対して後世の偽書ではないかとする意見が現れるようになった。
In later years, however, a hypothesis appeared arguing that the books circulated at that time may have been forgeries.

1688年『庭訓往来図讃』では、頭書に挿絵を509葉用意、それぞれの挿絵に要語略解をも付けている。
In 1688, the book 'Teikin Orai Zusan' (Home Education Textbook, the illustrated edition) contained 509 illustrations above the sentences, each supplied with simple comments on keywords.

しかし、鎮圧後も、東国では「しゅう馬の党（しゅうばのとう）」の横行が顕著であるなど安定しなかった。
However, even after the war was suppressed, the activities of Shubano-to groups (that were entrusted to the work to convey goods, but sometimes behaved like bandits as well) became rampant conspicuously, making the state remain unstable.

安土城は現在の安土山に建造され、大型の天守（現地では「天主」と表記）を初めて持つなど威容を誇った。
Azuchi-jo Castle was built on now Mt. Azuchi, presenting dignified appearance for its unprecedented large-scaled castle tower (or Azuchi-jo Castle keep) and others.

なお、日本では2002年5月31日に国会で承認され、2004年6月4日国際連合に受諾書を寄託した。
In Japan, the Diet approved the ratification of the protocol on May 31, 2002, then Japan deposited the document of acceptance with the United Nations on June 4, 2004.

王朝国家体制の下では、受領は規定の租税を京進さえすれば、残余の租税を自らの収入とすることができた。
Under the dynastic nation-state, as long as Zuryo paid the specified tax to Kyoto, they could take the rest of the tax as their own income.

だが、三好氏は三人衆と松永久秀の内紛が続き、朝倉氏は一向一揆対策に追われて上洛どころではなかった。
However, the Miyoshi clan was plagued by the continued internal strife between the three men and Hisahide MATSUNAGA, while the Asakura clan was preoccupied with fighting Ikko Ikki (mobbing by mainly peasants faithful to the Ikko sect of Buddhism), both unable to think about sending their Shogun candidates to the capital.

慶長8年（1603年）から慶応3年（1867年）までは江戸時代と呼ばれ、江戸に江戸幕府が置かれた。
The era from 1603 to 1867 is called the Edo period, and the Edo bakufu was placed in Edo.

日本では、鎌倉時代後期ごろから貨幣の流通が活発化したが、主に中国で鋳造された中国銭が流通していた。
In Japan money circulation had become active around the late Kamakura period, and Chinese coins minted and used in China were predominantly circulated.

この体制下では農業、漁業、手工業などの諸産業を田堵が隷属する人民を使役し、名田単位で経営を行った。
In this system, the tato managed several industries such as agriculture, fishery, and handicraft manufacturing on a myoden basis, employing subordinate labors.

また、中世は身分の流動性が非常に高く、五色の賤や近世部落のような固定化された世襲階級ではなかった。
Furthermore, during the medieval period, social status was highly mobile, and these people were not confined within fixed hereditary classes, such as the five lowly castes of the ritsuryo system and buraku (communities of discriminated people) in the early-modern times.

すなわち '俺たち百姓は…' という発話にはある種の誇りの意味合いさえ含まれるといって過言ではない。
Specifically, it is not exaggerated to say that the phrase 'we hyakusho are...' has a meaning that contains connotations of pride.

日本語の分野では、平安時代末期・鎌倉時代の語彙や、単語のアクセントを知る上で貴重な資料となっている。
Japanese linguistics has regarded it as an invaluable material for studying the vocabulary and pitch patterns of words around the late Heian and the Kamakura periods.

源義仲の入京直後に行われた朝廷の論功行賞では、頼朝による政治交渉が功を奏し、勲功第一は頼朝となった。
In the grant of honors awarded by the Imperial Court immediately after MINAMOTO no Yoshinaka entered into the capital, Yoritomo was granted the greatest deed of valor, owing to his political negotiation skills.

松岡2007では、中国の明代に占術一般の革新が行われ、六壬についても改編があったのだろうとしている。
In 'Abe no Seimei 'Senji ryakketsu' Shokai,' Hidesato MATSUOKA asserts that Rikujin might have been reorganized in the era of the Ming Dynasty of China in the wake of general reform of divination.

海津城に入った長可は近隣諸将を鎮撫し、上杉景勝の侵入を防ぎつつ、一方では上杉氏への攻勢を強めていた。
Nagayoshi, who entered Kaizu-jo Castle, conquered neighboring warlords and fought off the attack of Kagekatsu UESUGI, while at the same time mounting an offensive against the Uesugi clan.

この時点ではキリスト教そのものを禁止してもいないし、弾圧や迫害してもいない事には注意するべきである。
It should be noted that the Christianity itself was not prohibited, not oppressed nor persecuted at this time.

これは公家法の中心地である京都に中枢部を置いた室町幕府の建武式目では更にその傾向が強まることになる。
This tendency was to be further increased in the Kenmu Code of the Muromachi bakufu which placed its center in Kyoto, the central place of the court noble law.

11世紀後半には『新猿楽記』が著されており、藤原明衡の晩年の手になるものではないかと考えられている。
In the latter half of the 11h century, 'Shin sarugo ki' was written; it is considered to be written by FUJIWARA no Akihira in his later days.

和歌では、『後拾遺和歌集』、『金葉和歌集』、『詞花和歌集』、『千載和歌集』の勅撰和歌集が編纂された。
As for waka, chokusen wakashu (anthology of Japanese poetry compiled by Imperial command) including 'Goshui Wakashu' (fourth imperial anthology), 'Kinyo Wakashu' (Kinyo Collection of Japanese poems), 'Shika Wakashu' (shika collection of Japanese poems), 'Senzai Wakashu' (Collection of Japanese Poems of a Thousand Years), were compiled.

東北・関東・九州ではより広い荘園・公領単位でのゆるやかな村落が形成され、これを郷村と呼ぶこともある。
In the Tohoku, Kanto, and Kyushu regions, the villages were loosely formed as a wider unit of shoen and koryo and they were sometimes called goson (autonomous village).

その一方で農村部では各地に存在した荘園は戦国大名や国人領主による押領の対象となり、荘園制は解体する。
On the other hand, in agricultural community areas, shoen (manor in medieval Japan) existed in various districts became objects of seizure by sengoku daimyo and kokujin ryoshu and the shoen system was broken down.

日本では江戸時代頃から、書物に「泥雨」「紅雪」「黄雪」などの黄砂に関する記述が見られるようになった。
In Japan, descriptions of kosa started appearing around the Edo period, with the terms of 'dei-u' (mud rain), 'beni-yuki' (red snow), or 'Ki-yuki' (yellow snow).

また、橋本政宣は、信長が就任を受けたのは征夷大将軍ではなく、太政大臣であったとする見解を出している。
Masanobu HASHIMOTO presented that Nobunaga accepted the post of Daijo daijin instead of Seii taishogun.

支払決済の現場では、鐚銭は一般の銭貨よりも低価値とされたり、受け取り拒否されることも少なくなかった。
These bitasen coins were evaluated less than ordinary ones in payments, and it sometimes happened that these coins were not accepted.

これは、寺田および神田が、寺院や神社の所有物ではなく、神仏に帰属するものと認識されていたことによる。
This was because it was recognized that jiden fields or shinden fields were not owned by temples or shrines but belonged to Buddha or gods.

惣村は自治権を確保するために、荘園領主・公領領主ではなく、守護や国人と関係を結ぶ傾向を強めていった。
To secure the right of self-government, the soson increased their tendency to build relationships with the Shugo or Kokujin (local samurai), not with a lord of the manor or a lord of public land.

また、近年では、農作業体験や農家民泊などのアグリツーリズムにより地域を活性化する試みが始められている。
In recent years, attempts to rejuvenate the area by agritourism initiatives such offering visitors farm work experiences and farmhouse accommodation have started to be implemented.

尤も、武者ではなく平家方に随身した武将の姫であったといい、古分屋敷に子孫は10軒の家を構えたとされる。
It is also said that the remnants were not samurai but the daughters of a military commander who attended the Taira family side, and their descendants constructed ten houses at Kobuyashiki.

図書寮本では、漢字を字形ごとに並べて掲出し、反切（発音）・用例・和訓・和音などを多くは出典つきで記す。
The Zushoryo manuscript lists Chinese characters by form with hansetsu (pronunciations), usage examples, semantic readings, and Japanese readings of Chinese characters, many of which are provided with bibliographical information.

また、「日本で初の武家政権」とされたこともあったが、今では平氏政権に次ぐ武家政権と位置づけられている。
Also, it was regarded as 'the first samurai government in Japan,' but now it is seen as the one following Taira clan government.

また京大では沢柳総長辞任の1年後、荒木寅三郎医学部教授を総長として選出、以降総長の学内選出が確立した。
One year after the resignation of Sawayanagi, Torasaburo ARAKI, a professor of the Medical Department, was selected as the president of Kyoto Imperial University, and since then successive presidents were selected from among professors.

浄瑠璃寺三重塔・一乗寺三重塔以降の三重塔では、心柱はすべて初重天井上の梁 (建築)から立つようになる。
Regarding the three story pagodas constructed after the three storied pagoda of Joruri-ji Temple and that of Ichijo-ji Temple, a central pillar was put on hari (a beam) of the ceiling of the first-level tower (architecture).

他の都市としては、京都や、地方では山口・小浜・品川湊なども集積地や中継拠点としての役割を果たしている。
Other than those, Kyoto and local cities such as Yamaguchi, Obama, and Shinagawaminato played the role of a collection center or transit point.

黄砂が飛来するときに細菌やカビを吸着し、それが繁殖しやすい気温や湿度となるためではないかとされている。
The reason is considered that, when kosa came floating, bacteria and mold stuck to kosa particles and multiplied themselves in a condition of an appropriate temperature and humidity for them.

なお、ルイス・フロイスの『日本史』では、信長が大軍を率いて上洛したときのことを、次のように記している。
'Nihonshi (The History of Japan) ' written by Luis Frois describes Nobunaga's march to Kyoto with his many soldiers as follows:

日本では、気象庁により、黄砂とは大陸性の土壌粒子によって視程が10km以下になる現象と定義されている。
In Japan, the Meteorological Agency defines kosa as the phenomenon in which visibility is reduced to less than 10 km due to soil particles originating on the continent.

即ち、中世以前の武家の主従関係は利害を共有することにより成立し、けして絶対的なものではなかったのである。
As shown above, the relationship of master and vassal among samurai until the medieval period was based only on the common interests of both parties and was not absolute.

楽師は令制では唐・新羅・高麗（高句麗）・百済及び呉楽である伎楽・腰鼓に分かれてそれぞれの音楽を担当した。
Gakushis (musicians) were divided into groups of Tang, Silla, Goryeo (Goguryeo), Paekche and gigaku and kurezutsumi which were kuregaku, the music in Wo, and they played each music under the Ritsuryo system.

短陌は銅銭不足であった当時の経済状況に合わせた慣習であり、銅銭の輸送の不便さを軽減する上では歓迎された。
Tanhaku was a custom fit for the economic situation at that time and hailed as a method to reduce the inconvenience of delivering copper coins.

中世日本の荘園公領制では、一つの土地に対して、複数の主体がそれぞれ各自の権利を有することが一般的だった。
Under the shoen koryo sei (social structure of the manorial public territory system) in medieval Japan, it was common for two or more parties to have joint ownership to a piece of land.

これは毛筆による筆跡では决と決の判別が困難なことがあり、翻刻時の判断で决か決が決まってしまうことによる。
Because it is difficult to discern the difference between '决' and '决'from handwriting made with a brush, whether'决' or '决' is used depends on the judgment of persons who made transcripts.

臨時発兵規定で想定されていた兵とは、軍団 (古代日本)や健児ではなく、百姓のうち弓馬に通じた者であった。
The soldiers supposed in the specifications of rinji-hatsuhei were neither those belonging to gundan (in ancient Japan) nor strong adults, but farmers who were skilled at using bows and at riding a horse.

更に北ヨーロッパなどでは伝統的な価値観や共同体の維持と言った保守的な思想のもとで出される場合が多かった。
In Northern Europe, they were issued based on conservative thoughts, which included traditional values and were aimed at maintaining the community.

その後の度重なる交渉により、島主歳遣船は30隻にまで回復していたが、丁未約条では再び25隻に削減される。
Through repeated negotiations thereafter, the toshu saikensen increased in number to 30, but, they were reduced to 25 again by the Teibi Yakujo.

長い論争が繰り広げられたが、結局明確な結論は出ないまま論争は下火になり、現在ではほとんど行われていない。
It was a long dispute but it cooled down with no clear conclusion and is virtually nonexistent now.

高明邸が当時では珍しく西宮（右京）側にあったことから、「西宮左大臣」の異名で呼ばれ、書名の由来となった。
Because Takaakira's house was on the side of Saikyu (west part of capital), which was unusual at the time, he was also known as 'Saikyu Sadaijin,' from which the book title was derived.

スギ花粉症に対する行政の政策に関しては日本人の患者数が多いため、日本では活発に対策・議論が行われている。
There is continued active discussion and implementation of countermeasures in Japan due to the fact that Japanese cedar pollinosis affects such a large number of Japanese people.

当時の中国では印刷術が発達し、日本でも「摺本（すりほん）」と称して好学の人びとが中国の印刷本を珍重した。
The printing technique was developed in those days in China, and also in Japan, educated people preferentially used published books calling them 'surihon' (printed book).

ただしこれのみでは同名の者が多くなって不便であるために、さらにその人の特性を示す言葉を冠することもある。
However, a word that indicates her trait might be added in order to distinguish from others who has same name.

自由農民の保有地が占める割合は、一定範囲内に収まっていたが、小さな荘園では幾分大きくなる傾向が見られた。
The ratio of the land which free farmers occupied was in a certain range, but in small shoens the ratio tended to be somewhat larger.

また、近年では、江戸時代の面影が残る街を小江戸（当初は川越市などの一部の都市を指した）と呼ぶこともある。
In recent years, towns that retain their character from during the Edo period are called Ko-edo (little Edo) (originally meant Kawagoe City and a few other cities).

宇多天皇から後一条天皇まで、887年から1036年の記述は、抜粋ではなく日本紀略編者の作った部分である。
Descriptions of period from the reign of Emperor Uda to Emperor Goichijo between 887 and 1036 are not excerpts but were created by the compiler of 'Nihongi Ryaku.'

朝鮮では、『三国史記』に、新羅時代の174年頃の記述として、「ウートゥ（雨土）」という表現が残っている。
In Korea, the term of 'wutu' is included in descriptions for around 174 A.D. in 'Samguk Sagi' (History of the Three Kingdoms) in the Silla period.

小和田哲男は堀と同様の解釈をとりながら、5月4日以降に将軍任官を考えたのではないかとの見解を示している。
Tetsuo OWADA with the same interpretation as Hori's presented that Nobunaga probably thought of accepting the title of the Shogun after May 4 (old calendar).

この時期の後半、5世紀ころからオホーツク海沿岸地域ではオホーツク文化が成立し、およそ13世紀まで続いた。
In areas along the Okhotsk Sea, Okhotsk culture was established in around the fifth century during the latter half of this period and continued until around the 13th century.

だが、これだけでは必ずしも十分でないため南北朝時代 (日本)・戦国時代 (日本)という区分を設けている。
However, since this classification is not always complete enough, the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (in Japan) and the Sengoku period (in Japan) are also included in the classification as well.

鎌倉時代ごろから貨幣経済が発達していくと、それまでの稲の出挙ではなく、金銭の出挙が行われるようになった。
With the development of a monetary economy since around the Kamakura period, Suiko came to be implemented by using money, instead of the conventional Suiko implemented by using rice.

律令では、まず出挙が私的・自由な契約関係に依るべきであり、官庁の管理を受けないことを共通原則としていた。
In the Ritsuryo codes, it was regarded as a common principle that Suiko should be managed in line with the private and free contract relationship, without being managed by the government office.

守護領国制における人民支配は必ずしも強固なものではなかったが、時代を追うごとに人民支配は深化していった。
The control over people was not always strict in the shugo-ryogoku system, but it became stricter with the times.

それが修整され始めたのは比較的最近のことであるが、しかし研究者の間では40年近く昔から見直しが進んでいる。
This argument was corrected recently, but researchers have been reexamining it among themselves from nearly forty years ago.

以上のように切捨御免は武士の特権としては認められてはいたものの、気ままに実行出来るようなものではなかった。
As shown above, although Kirisutegomen was admitted as a privilege granted to samurai warriors, it was impossible to use the privilege easily.

ただし「元和古活字本」は稀覯書で、昭和7年（1932年）に影印復刻されるまではほとんど世に出回らなかった。
However, 'Genna kokatsuji-bon' was a rare book and was scarcely available in the market until its photo-copy version was published in 1932.

徳川家茂と孝明天皇が死去すると効果を示さなくなり、京都では尊攘派が主流となり幕府に対して攘夷決行を求めた。
However, the effects of the arrangement were lost once Iemochi TOKUGAWA and Emperor Komei died, and the Sonjo group became dominant in Kyoto and led others in demanding that the Shogunate eliminate contact with foreigners.

平安時代の塔建築では、最初に宝塔や大塔といった新形式の導入がみられたが、現存する遺構は層塔形式のみである。
Regarding pagoda architecture during the Heian period, new types of pagodas including hoto (treasure pagoda) or daito pagoda were introduced, however the structural remnants that exist today were in soto (multi-leveled tower) architecture only.

大量飛散の翌年は、たとえ飛散量がある程度少なくとも、症状が軽くてすむ患者ばかりではないことが知られている。
It is known that in years following the dispersal of large amounts of pollen, patients do not merely exhibit mild symptoms even in the event that the airborne pollen level in that year itself is relatively low.

芸能では、貴族層は前代以来の歌謡である催馬楽（さいばら）や神楽歌、漢詩や和歌の名句を吟ずる朗詠を楽しんだ。
As for public entertainment, court nobles enjoyed songs and ballads from former generations; saibara (genre of Heian-period Japanese court music - primarily consisting of gagaku-styled folk melodies), kagura-uta (songs to accompany kagura performances) and roei recitation of famous phrases from Chinese-style poem or waka.

荘園を保有していたのは、必ずしも上位領主へ軍役奉公（または代銭納）を行うような在俗領主ばかりではなかった。
Those who owned shoens were not limited only to the secular lords who did military service (or daisenno (paying dues in cash instead of in kind; commutation)) for the higher-ranking lords.

これを誠実な態度の表れとみる者もいるが、その部分に編者が故意に隠した事実があるのではないかと疑う者もいる。
There are those who regard this as a manifestation of the sincere attitude but there are also those who have doubts that there are facts that were deliberately withheld by the compilers.

甲斐国では甲斐源氏の流れを汲む武田氏が上杉禅秀の乱に荷担して没落し戦国時代に至るまで抗争状態が続いていた。
In the Kai Province, the Takeda clan, that were descended from Kai-Genji (Minamoto clan in Kai) took sides with Zenshu UESUGI's disturbance and fell down, and struggled with situations until the sengoku period.

しかしこれ以来山国隊は郷土の誇りとされ、山国神社の還幸祭と京都時代祭では山国隊姿の行進を見ることができる。
But thereafter, the Yamagunitai became a source of local pride, which is why figures representing the Yamagunitai can still be seen in the processions for the Yamaguni Shrine Kankosai (festival of re-enshrinement) and in the Kyoto Jidai Matsuri (Kyoto's Festival of the Ages).

室町時代、禅宗文化が栄え、茶礼が盛んになったが、上層階級の間では、義政の時代まで闘茶も広く親しまれていた。
The sarei became popular as the Zen culture became prosperous during Muromachi period, and tocha was widely popular within the upper class people until the time of Yoshimasa.

京都では正和年間に330件の土倉があり、近郊の嵯峨野や坂本_(大津市)にも多くの土倉があったとされている。
It is said that, during the Showa period, there were 330 doso in Kyoto and a large number in the Sagano and Sakamoto (Otsu City) outskirts.

地頭請のもとでは、地頭は、豊作・凶作に関わりなく、一定額（一定量）の年貢を領主へ納入する義務を負っていた。
Under the jitouke, the jito was responsible for paying the feudal lord a certain amount of nengu regardless of the yield.

御成敗式目では父祖のための敵討は処罰の対象とされており、江戸時代に見られる敵討の文脈とは異なるものである。
Under the Goseibai-shikimoku, Katakiuchi for the father or grandfather was the subject of punishment; this is different from the context of Katakiuchi seen in the Edo period.

しかし、必ずしも武士だけが落ち延びたわけではないことから平家の落人という言われ方をすることの方が比較的多い。
However, Heike no Ochudo is more commonly used since people other than samurai also escaped and hid themselves.

なお、近年の研究では、荘園の職の体系についての理解としての「職権留保付寄進」という概念に疑問が呈されている。
In addition, recent studies question the concept of 'contribution with reserving authority' as the understanding of the shiki system in shoen.

占った結果が凶の場合、依頼者から『ではこうしたらどうなるのでしょう？』と聞かれることがあり、その場合への対処
In the event where the result was bad and a client asks, 'Can I have a different result if I do a certain thing ?'

このため、本書は平安時代の有職故実の研究のみではなく、現存しない逸文を復原する研究においても有益な書である。
Therefore, this document is useful not only for research on Yusoku kojitsu (court and samurai rules of ceremony and etiquette) but also for the research for restoring descriptions that have been lost.

巻末では、飛倉の巻で登場した倉の朽ち果てたさまが描かれ、それによって主人公である命蓮の臨終を暗示して終わる。
The end of the scroll shows the dilapidated granary of the Flying Granary, which implies the death of the main character, Myoren.

その一方で、実際に取締りにあたる役人（検非違使・弾正台など）の間でも必ずしも徹底されていたわけではなかった。
On the other hand, officials in charge of actual enforcement (including kebiishi (officials with judicial and police powers) and danjodai (Board of Censors)) were not necessarily familiarized with this shinsei.

しかも、応天門の変によって伴善男が流罪となり、再度当該地が没官された後に大学寮ではなく、穀倉院に編入された。
After TOMO no Yoshio was banished due to the Otenmon incident, the above territory was once again confiscated, but it was incorporated into Kokusoin (Grain warehouse), not Daigaku-ryo.

しかし4日には藤原邦綱が兼実邸を訪れて「成親配流の宣下はいまだになく、また変わるのではないか」と語っている。
However, FUJIWARA no Kunitsuna visited the residence of FUJIWARA no Kanezane on the 28th and conveyed that the 'imperial proclamation of Narichika's exile is not issued yet; the decision may be changed again.'

本来こうした荘園の取り分である雑役が国衙が官物とともに一括徴収していたが、負所では荘園領主に直接納入された。
Zatsueki gained from such Shoen was originally collected by Kokuga together with Kanmotsu, but in the case of Ossho, it was directly delivered to the lords of Shoen.

巻六から巻八までは、「元正受朝賀儀」「正月七日儀」「五月五日節儀」などの毎年の年中行事について記されている。
Annual events like 'rite of receiving the New Year's Felicitations to the emperor,' 'rite of the seventh Day of New Year' and 'rite of the Tango-no setsu on the fifth day of the fifth month' are stipulated in volumes six to volume eight.

奈良国立博物館所蔵の『辟邪絵』（へきじゃえ）は、罪人ではなく鬼が責め苦にあう絵巻物で12世紀後半の作である。
'Hekija-e' (Exorcist Scroll) possessed by Nara National Museum is the emakimono created in the latter half of the 12th century, and oni was suffering instead of a sinner in the emakimono.

とくにその「本朝部世俗編」では転換期をたくましく生きる武士や民衆（下衆）の生活がいきいきと描き出されている。
In 'Honchobu sezoku hen' (section describing the secular lives) (本朝部世俗編) the lives of samurai or people who lived through the transition period are vividly described.

西ヨーロッパ旧帝国内の一定の地域では、古代末期に別荘(villa)システムが確立し、中世世界へと継承された。
In certain areas of the west European old empire, the villa system was established in the late ancient period and continued into the medieval world.

しかし、朝廷の彼らに対する処遇は必ずしも彼らが期待したほどではなく、彼らの間には次第に不満が蓄積していった。
However, the Imperial Court did not treat these individuals as well as they expected; therefore, their discontent grew.

執筆年代は明らかではないが、貞陸が大永元年（1521年）に59歳で没していることから、それ以前の著作となる。
It is not clear when Sadamichi wrote the book; however, he wrote it in 1521 or earlier as he died at the age of 59 in that year.

王朝国家体制の下では、国家から土地経営や人民支配の権限を委譲された有力百姓（田堵・名主）層の成長が見られた。
Under this system, influential farmers, (Tato: farm managers who lease public fields from provincial lords and produce agricultural products; and Myoshu: owners of rice fields) to whom the management of land and control of people was transmitted from the government, became powerful.

そのため、時代を区分する対象ではなく移行するものとして捉える「時代移行論」を提唱する研究者も現れ始めている。
Therefore, some researchers have begun to propose 'period change theory' in which periods should not be classified, but changed.

この交流は朝貢貿易の形態を取ったため、渤海からの貢物に対して、日本側では数倍の回賜でもって応える義務が生じた。
Due to the exchanges being in the form of a tribute trade, Japan was obligated to send return gifts of several times more value after receiving tributes from Bokkai.

特に千葉常胤にとっては、源義朝は「御恩」を感じるような相手ではないことは相馬御厨での経緯を見れば明らかである。
It is obvious from the history of Soma-mikuriya that especially for Tsunetane CHIBA, MINAMOTO no Yoshitomo was not someone he felt 'obligated to.'

半済令によって本所領を占拠している地頭が武家ではなく、幕府より勲功によって地頭職を与えられた公家の場合もある。
In some cases, the Jito occupying a territory of a honjo was not a samurai family, but a Kuge (court noble) who was given the position of Jitoshiki (manager and lord of a manor) as a reward by the bakufu for meritorious service

役家制の地域では、賦役を負担する量や種類によって、本役・半役・四(小）半役・水役などに分かれている場合もある。
In regions of the yakuya (peasant) system, there are cases in which they were divided into honyaku (the predetermined amount of tax to be the tax standard for people), hanyaku, shihanyaku, mizuyaku and the like according to an amount and type of fueki (slave labor) to be borne.

この事件が起こった時点では日本共産党は再建されていない（1926年12月の五色温泉での第3回大会により再建）。
When this affair occurred, the Japanese Communist Party, which reconstituted as a result of the third meeting at Goshiki Onsen Hot Spring in December, 1926, had not yet been reconstituted.

または、本陣備中の騎馬隊組頭が足軽組を（明確なものではないが）指揮下に置く事で備の戦闘指揮官を務める事になる。
Or, the captain of the cavalrymen within the army headquarters sonae served as the battle commander of the sonae by placing the foot soldiers (although not clear) under his command.

御朱印は印に寺社名が入っていることから、寺社で授与されるお札などと同等とされ、粗末に扱うべきではないとされる。
Since a goshuin includes the name of a temple, it is regarded as being the same as talismans given at a temple and therefore is always to be handled with respect.

実際の戦闘では毛利方の水軍の使用する焙烙玉・雑賀衆の使用する焙烙火矢の前に織田方の水軍は壊滅的な打撃を受けた。
During the battle, horokudama (cooking-pot bombs), employed by the navy of Mori and horokubiya (cooking-pot fire arrows), employed by Saikashu (a group of local samurai from Kii Province, also on the Mori side) gave devastating damages to the navy of the Oda.

算生の官人登用試験である奉試については、学令で定められていたが、大宝律令と養老律令では微妙に規則が違っていた。
The Hoshi Kanjintoyoshiken (appointment examination for the bureaucracy) for students was defined by the school administration, but the rules were subtly different between the Taiho and Yoro Codes.

朝廷ではその対策として養老5年（721年）に吉田宜（吉宜）を褒賞して医道を奨励し、内薬司に女医博士を設置した。
Against this tendency, the court took countermeasures, such as rewarding KICHITA no Yoroshi (called Kichiyoroshi for short) in 721 for his contribution to I-do, and newly establishing the post of 'Nyoi Hakase' (Female Master of Medicine) in Naiyakushi.

このため、これを提唱する研究者や環境省などでは、二酸化炭素排出量の削減には極めて効果的であると考えられている。
Therefore, researchers and the Ministry of the Environment, which advocate this idea, consider it to be very effective for the reduction of emissions of carbon dioxide.

藤原種継暗殺と早良親王排除の事情に触れた部分では、政治的理由で消された『続日本紀』の削除文を記して貴重である。
The section pertaining to the assassination of FUJIWARA no Tanetsugu and the exile of Imperial Prince Sawara contains valuable text which was deleted from 'Shoku Nihongi' (Chronicle of Japan Continued) for political reasons.

中国北西部では、1960年代から40年間は減少傾向で、特に1980年代から1990年代には大きく減少している。
In the northwestern area of China, the occurrence frequency of kosa has shown a decreasing trend for 40 years from the 1960s, in particular between the 1980s and 1990s.

『平家物語』では、挙兵の動機は、頼政の嫡男・仲綱と平宗盛（清盛の三男）の馬をめぐる軋轢ということになっている。
According to the 'Heike monogatari,' the motive for the uprising was that Yorimasa's son and heir Nakatsuna had become embroiled in discord with TAIRA no Munemori (Kiyomori's third son) over a horse.

例えば、南北朝時代 (日本)に武蔵七党と呼ばれた小武士団は、明らかに「兵の家」の出身と言えるものばかりではない。
For example, all small bushidan that were called Musashi-shichito Parties (seven parties of samurai in Musashi Province) during the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (Japan) did not originate from the 'house of tsuwamono.'

党の構成員は、比較的対等な関係であり、惣領がその党を代表する立場にはあったが、その統制力はそれほど強力ではない。
The forming member of the to had a relatively conflicting relationship, and soryo had the position to represent that, but the controlling power was not so strong.

尚、この安田氏らの武士発生論をデフォルメしたものが教科書の世界に定着し、小中学校では以下のように教えられてきた。
Furthermore, the warped theory about the origin of bushi of Yasuda and others written in textbooks in elementary and middle schools taught as follows.

特に東国では9世紀半ばから後半を通じて俘囚の反乱が相次ぎ、群盗の活動の活発化と相まって、治安悪化が顕著であった。
In particular, in Togoku throughout the era from the middle of the ninth century to the end of the century, barbarians raised rebellions one after another in addition to bandits whose activities had become more active, deteriorating security markedly.

治承・寿永の乱以前から北陸各地では、延暦寺の末寺である白山神社の衆徒・神人たちと国衙勢力との間に対立が見られた。
In various locations in the Hokuriku region, the monk-soldiers and the jinin (associates of Shinto shrines) of Hakuzan-jinja Shrine, a branch shrine of Enryaku-ji Temple, had clashed with kokuga seiryoku (the force of the provincial headquarters) even before the Jisho-Juei War.

これにより、御家人の在地領主としての地位は、本来の荘園領主である本所ではなく幕府によって保全されることとなった。
And thus, the status of gokenin as the local lord was secured not by honjo which was originally the lord of shoen, but by the bakufu.

京都では1459年旧暦8月に台風が直撃し、賀茂川が氾濫して多数の家屋が流出し、数え切れないほどの死者が出たほか、
In September (August in old lunar calendar) 1459, when a typhoon hit Kyoto, the Kamo-gawa River was flooded, sweeping away many houses and killing countless numbers of people.

『平家物語』では、不遇の身を嘆く和歌を詠み、それを知った清盛が、「頼政を忘れていた」と推挙したことになっている。
According to the 'Heike monogatari,' it was because he recited a waka (a 31-syllable classical Japanese poem) lamenting his obscure status that, when Kiyomori learned of it, made him realize 'I forgot about Yorimas' and therefore, he recommended him for promotion.

これらは必ずしも近代的な知識ではなく、少なくとも部分的には古くから知られていたことが「さざれ石」の名からわかる。
These examples are not necessarily reflective of modern knowledge and we can see from the name 'sazareishi (pebble)' that, at least partially, it has been known since olden times.

従って『書紀』が語る東日本全域の蝦夷や、遡って縄文人・弥生人等との関係についての議論では、未だ確定的な説はない。
Thus there is still no definitive conclusion about the Emishi in all of the eastern Japan mentioned in 'Nihon Shoki,' nor about arguments concerning the relationship with people in the Jomon and Yayoi periods.

そのため、室町時代以降の新興の中・下級武士たちの間では、再び名田を単位とした名字の名乗りが一般的になっていった。
This made the surname forming based on myoden popular again among samurai warriors in the newly-rising middle and lower classes from the Muromachi period onwards.

しかしその荘園寄進も、それだけで確実なものではないことは、この相馬御厨、そして大庭御厨の事件の中からも見てとれる。
However, it is obvious from these affairs of Soma-mikuriya, and also affairs of Oba no mikuriya (private estate of Oba ranch), such domination of shoen was not sufficient to ensure the guarantee.

その収入額は明確ではないが、一説には当時の記録より嘉吉年間に月額200貫文が幕府に納付されていたと推定されている。
The amount of revenue is not clear, but based on records of the time, it is estimated that 200 kanmon was paid to the bakufu every month during the Kakitsu Era (1141-1144).

原則的には場所の制約を受けず（質取行為では禁じられているアジール的空間や権力者の保護下でも）に請求が可能であった。
In principle, the levy of a kojichi was not restricted by location and it was possible to claim it even in places with right of asylum or when the debtor was under the protection of authorities (these were regarded as extraterritorial areas in the case of Shichitori, which was the attachment of property of a third party living in the same area of a debtor in default).

戦場では主君の前駆をなし、平時は城内の護衛（徒士組）や中間管理職的な行政職（目付、勘定奉行の配下など）に従事した。
At the battle field, they fought as the forerunners of their lords and in peaceful time, they served as the guards (Kachi-gumi (Kachi teams)) of castles or engaged in administrative jobs (metsuke (police)) or subordinates of kanjo-bugyo (commissioner of finance) as middle class managers.

律令制における租税（租庸調）は、個人に対して課せられていたが、新たな租税制度のもとでは公田に対して課税がなされた。
While Soyocho, three kinds of taxes under the Ritsuryo system, were imposed on individuals, tax was imposed on Koden under the new tax system.

これらのことから、親王は天暦7年10月13日迄日記を筆録していたことがわかるが、いつを下限とするかは明確ではない。
The earliest possible date for the diary's last entry is said to be April 14, 953; however, as this is a date one year and a half prior to the death Imperial Prince Shigeakira (the Imperial Prince passed away on October 18, 954), the possibility that which he did not make any entries in his diary during this period may be significantly low (Morosuke FUJIWARA, who was a court noble contemporary with Imperial Prince and also his farther-in-law, made entries in his diary until two days before his death).

なお、鎌倉幕府は、ある一時期をもって成立したと見るのではなく、徐々に数段階を経て成立したとする見解が支配的である。
Kamakura bakufu is not considered to have been established at one specific time, rather it is the dominant view that the bakufu was gradually established in several stages.

『吾妻鏡』に征夷大将軍の館を「幕府」と称している例が見られるが、当時、武家政権を「幕府」と呼んでいたわけではない。
In 'Azuma Kagami' (The Mirror of the East), there are instances in which the residence of the shogun is referred to as 'bakufu' but samurai government was not called 'bakufu' at the time.

賎民も平民に組み入れられたが、本来の平民からは反発する者が続出し岡山県では旧賎民の平民扱いに反対する一揆も起きた。
As senmin were incorporated into heimin, some inherent heimin opposed this act, resulting in an ikki uprising in Okayama Prefecture to protest the treatment of the former senmin as heimin.

摂関家における歌合で記録に残るものでは、建治元年（1275年）の一条実経による摂政家月十首歌合以来のものであった。
According to the records of utaawase (waka poetry contest) hosted by sekkanke (the families which produced the regent and the chief adviser to the emperor), it was the first utaawase since Sekkanke Tsukijusshu Utaawase was held by Sanetsune ICHIJO in 1275.

これに対して日本では内藤湖南により魏晋南北朝時代・隋唐時代を封建制の時代とすべきと言う論が出された（唐宋変革論）。
In response, Konan NAITO in Japan proposed the view that the period of Wei and Jin in the Northern and Southern Dynasties and the period of Sui and Tang should be regarded as periods of the Hoken system (the Tang-Song Transition Thesis).

朝廷では実力による尊攘派の一掃を図り、八月十八日の政変で薩摩藩が会津藩と結託して長州藩や尊攘派の公家らを追放した。
The Imperial Court planned to oust the Sonjo Group by force, and in the coup of August 18, the Satsuma clan and the Aizu clan joined forces to expel the Choshu clan as well as the court nobles of the Sonjo Group.

これに対し、最高裁は、京都市公安条例は合憲であると判断し、巡査による写真撮影が違憲・違法なものではないと判断した。
In response, the Supreme Court judged that Kyoto City Ordinance was not in violation of the Constitution and the police officer's act was not in violation of the Constitution.

こうした動きとは別に、東京都による音頭とりによって、関東の8都県市では協調して花粉症対策を進めていくことになった。
The example set by Tokyo has spurred on the implementation of pollinosis countermeasures by cooperation between Tokyo, Kanagawa Prefecture, Chiba Prefecture, Saitama Prefecture, Yokohama City, Kawasaki City, Chiba City and Saitama City.

『平家物語』はこの発言を法住寺合戦の直前とするが、実際には狼藉が問題となっていた9月のことではないかと推測される。
'The Tale of the Heike' states that this statement was made right before the Battle of Hoju-ji Temple, but it is presumed that the statement was made in September or October when violence became an issue.

一方では悪いものを寄せ付けない「辟邪」の威力をもつものとも信じられており、経とともに経塚に埋納される例もみられる。
On top of that, a mirror was also believed to have the power of 'Hekija-e (exorcist scroll),' therefore, in some cases, it was buried with sutra into kyozuka.

ただし、当時すでに強固な主従関係が見られたわけではなく、流動的な側面を持つ主従関係だったことに注意する必要がある。
Note, however, these subordinate-superior relationships were not necessarily rigidly established at that time; they seemed to also have flexible aspects.

タクラマカン砂漠以西を除く発生地では、強風の発生頻度の増加および積雪面積の減少に伴って黄砂の発生頻度が増えている。
In the area in the west of the Takla Makan Desert, kosa has occurred more frequently corresponding to an increase in the occurrence frequency of strong wind and also corresponding to a decrease in the snow-falling area.

もっとも信長は代わりに嫡男織田信忠の官位昇進の要望を出している事から朝廷の官位に全く関心がなかった訳ではなかった。
This does not necessarily mean Nobunaga had no interest in the rank awarded by the Imperial Court, for he appealed to the court for the promotion of his eldest son and heir, Nobutada ODA, in rank instead of himself.

2月14日_(旧暦)、空席になっていた関白の後任に左大臣近衛基熙ではなく、それより下位の右大臣一条冬経を任命する。
On March 22, he filled the vacant position of Kanpaku (Chief Adviser to the Emperor) with, instead of Sadaijin Motohiro KONOE, Udaijin (Minister of the Right) Fuyutsune ICHIJO, lower in rank than Konoe.

元は中国古典に見られる『勧課農桑』という句が略されたもので、日本では律令において国司の職務とされたのが初見である。
Originally, kanno was a shortened term for 'kankanoso' written in the Chinese classics and in Japan that was first regarded as the duty of kokushi in the ritsuryo system of governance (a constitutional form of governance).

これらの地域では1つの令制国において、伝統的な武士団から上昇してきた大名家が複数存在し、その領地関係も錯綜していた。
Within these regions, more than one daimyo family developed from traditional samurai groups existed in a ryoseikoku (province) with complicated territorial relations.

有名な例では、貞観 (日本)12年（870年）に行われた西曹に属する菅原道真の対策の出題博士は東曹の都良香であった。
As a famous example, SUGAWARA no Michizane who belonged to the seiso took the taisaku examination in 870 from the MIYAKO no Yoshika of the toso as the setter hakase of the examination.

彼らはその持高に応じた(3)年貢と(4)諸役(の一部)を負担したが、(5)陣夫役は負担しないので、百姓ではなかった。
Although they bore (a part of) (3) nengu and (4) miscellaneous taxes according to their farm, since they did not bare (5) compulsory services in wartime, they were not hyakusho.

常荒田については希望者に賃租（律令では、公田6年・私田3年）して特典を付けて再開発を奨励して土地の維持を図っている。
There was a push for redevelopment and maintaining fields, so Jyokoden were chinso (leased to farmers, 6 years for Koden and 3 years for Shiden under the Ritsuryo system) and benefits were given to those who requested.

一方で西国では百姓が地縁的な結合を強め、村落を形成し、地頭とは別個に荘園経営を請け負う百姓請が見られるようになった。
Meanwhile, in Saigoku (western part of Japan (esp. Kyushu, but ranging as far east as Kinki), peasants strengthened their territorial bonds, formed villages, and established the hyakushouke system (the contract system where the manor's owner entrusts a peasant to manage his manor and pay the customs) to operate shoen independent of jito's management.

一方で西国では百姓が地縁的な結合を強め、村落を形成し、地頭とは別個に荘園経営を請け負う百姓請も見られるようになった。
In the meantime, in Saigoku (western part of Japan (esp. Kyushu, but ranging as far east as Kinki)) as the peasants strengthened their territorial bond and formed villages, Hyakushouke (the contract system that the manor's owner entrust a peasant to manage his manor and pay the customs) began to appear in addition to Jitouke.

現在では地上から失われた多くの佚書を、この医心方から復元することができることから、文献学上非常に重要な書物とされる。
The book is regarded as philologically very important in that it can allow us to reconstruct many books that have been lost from the earth.

たとえば、下記のようにある項目では、「洌」という漢字について、まず、「玉（ごく）に云ふ」と、『玉篇』の説を引用する。
For instance, the entry for '洌' first cites the account in 'Gyokuhen' (Chinese dictionary edited in the sixth century), which is indicated by the phrase '玉云' (according to 'Gyoku') appears as follows:

また一部都市では、錯綜する土地権利ゆえ賦課者が確定できず、地子に代わる新しい都市税制を導入したとみられる場所もある。
In some cities, the rights on land were so complicated that it was impossible to determine who should bear the burden, and instead, a new tax system of the city seems to have been introduced.

信濃では、一益を撃破した北条氏直率いる主力がそのまま碓氷峠を越え、6月26日 (旧暦)には佐久郡の諸豪を臣従させた。
In Shinano, the major force led by Ujinao HOJO, who had defeated Kazumasu, continued its advance over Usui-toge Pass, and on June 26 (old calendar) made a show of power in Saku-gun.

摂津源氏で名の残る武士は、源頼光以外では、源仲政と、その子で、平治の乱の後、唯一生き残った源氏の長老の源頼政だろう。
In addition to MINAMOTO no Yorimitsu himself, the most famous warriors of the Settsu-Genji included MINAMOTO no Nakamasa and his sons, as well as MINAMOTO no Yorimasa, the only senior member of the family to survive the Heiji War.

ただし上州高崎では「四六延」といって、本途米1石について4斗6升ずつの延米を加えることになっていた（地方落穂集5）。
In Joshu Takasaki, though, four to (a measure of volume, approx. 18 liters) and six sho (a unit of measure, approx. 1.8 liters) of nobemai were added to each koku (about 180 liters; an old unit of volume) of hontomai (Jikata Ochiboshu 5).

なお、今日では手箱と称されているものの、当時は装飾経を収める経箱として造られたものである可能性が高いとみられている。
Today, it is referred to as tebako (cosmetic box), it was probably intended as a kyobako to contain a decorative sutra at that time.

また、全ての荘園領主が在俗者だった訳ではなく、司教や修道院長が領主として貢納を伴う土地所有を行っていた例も見られる。
And all the lords of shoen were not secular men and some bishops or abbots owned lands with tributes as lords.

それまでの荘園整理令と異なり、この整理令では摂関家領も審査の対象となるなど、厳重な審査が行われ、大きな成果を上げた。
Unlike the previous Manor Regulation Acts, the Acts also judged the sekkan-ke lands and achieved a big result by the strict judgments.

平安貴族たちの主な収入源は必ずしも荘園ではなく、むしろ官職に応じて国家から給与される田地や禄などが主要収入であった。
The income source of the Heian nobles was not necessarily their shoen (manor in medieval Japan), but rather mainly in farmland and stipend given by the government depending on government post.

このあともずっとこうした傾向がつづいたわけではないが、これは、連歌を開催する場となった会所へとつながる変化であろう。
Such trends did not continue for long, but it probably led to a change which connected to the kaisho becoming a place where renga was performed.

一方、西国では国衙領に権利を有する皇室・公家・寺社の影響が依然として強く、守護の国衙介入はさほど進展していなかった。
On the other hand, in Saigoku (the western part of Japan, particularly Kyushu region, but ranging as far east as Kinki), the Imperial household, kuge (court nobles), and temples and shrines that had a title to the territories of kokuga had invariably maintained a strong influence, which restrained shugo from interfering in kokuga too much.

特に中国大陸の影響を受けて緑釉陶器が平安貴族たちの間で愛されており、畿内に設置された官工房では生産が追いつかなかった。
Influenced in particular by the Chinese continent, ryokuyu toki was so popular among nobles during the Heian period that production in the government craft centers established in the Kinai region (the five capital provinces surrounding the ancient capitals of Nara and Kyoto) were unable to keep up with demand.

朱印地・黒印地は寺社の私有地ではなく公領という扱いであるが、領内の租税は免除されており、収益は全て寺社のものとなった。
Although Shuinchi/Kokuinchi were deemed not as private lands but as public lands, temples/shrines were exempted from tax and all revenues obtained from lands belonging to them.

これが「治癒者としての王」、「王の治癒奇跡」などと呼ばれるものであるが、古ゲルマンの祭司王権との連続性は明確ではない。
It is referred to 'a king as a healer' or 'a king's healing miracle,' but its relationship with the presbyter-sovereignty of ancient Germany isn't clear.

引用文献には、中国ではもちろん、中国で佚した漢籍をしばしば遺している日本においてすら今日見ることのできないものも多い。
Much literature was cited that can no more be seen today not only in China but also in Japan, where some Chinese classic books still exist.

その元で駐屯する兵士は、徴兵制たる府兵制によって集められたものではなく、募兵制である長征健児制によってのものであった。
Soldiers who were stationed under them were not gathered through fuheisei, which was conscription, but through chosei kondeisei (selection of healthy, talented men for military service over an extended distance), which was a voluntary enlistment instead.

特に寛文10年（1670年）に出版された『頭書増補二行節用集』では、江戸時代の節用集の典型となった「頭書」が登場した。
Especially in 1670, 'Tosho' (superscription) first appeared in 'Kashiragaki-zoho-setsuyoshu' (Setsuyoshu with published in Edo period) and became the typical style of the setsuyoshu during the Edo period.

伊予守は四位上臈の任じられる受領の最高峰とも言える地位であり、この時点では後白河も義仲を相応に評価していたと見られる。
Because Iyo no kami was the highest position of zuryo that Shii (Fourth Rank) joro (high-ranking aristocrats) could be appointed, it appears that Goshirakawa properly evaluated Yoshinaka at that time.

単に間伐や植え替えを推進するということではなく、2割削減という具体的な数値目標を打ち出したことは画期的なことといえる。
The project does not simply consist of promoting felling and transplantation, and the agreement of a concrete target value of reducing pollen levels by 20% was groundbreaking.

当時の京都は、このように全体として新都市の様相を呈しており、そこでは王権の強化にともなう各種の美術品の創作がみられた。
Kyoto at that time exhibited an aspect of a new city, and various arts were thriving there due to the strengthened imperial power.

また、内モンゴル自治区などでは、過放牧や工業汚染によって乾燥化が進み、黄砂の新たな発生地になりつつあるといわれている。
It is said that, in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region and some other areas, excessive pasturing and industrial pollution have expanded dry areas, becoming kosa generating areas.

遅くても天正13年5月段階では関白二条昭実・左大臣近衛信輔・右大臣菊亭晴季・内大臣羽柴秀吉が在任していたとされている。
No later than May and June, 1585, Akizane NIJO, Nobusuke KONOE, Harusue KIKUTEI, and Hideyoshi HASHIBA are believed to have been each awarded Kanpaku, Sadaijin, Udaijin, and Naidaijin.

ここには、唐物を唐渡りの珍奇な品物ではなく、文化的、美的価値のある「美術品」として見る視点が生まれていた、ともいえる。
Here, it could be said that karamono viewed not only the unique goods from kara but 'artwork' that had cultural and artistic values.

「公方様の城内では、すでに上京が破壊され焼失されたのを見ていたので、恐怖なり喚声に圧倒されて驚愕は非常なものであった」
In Kubosama's castle, they saw Kamigyo destroyed and burned down and were deeply terrified and screamed.'

これが出挙の前身ではないかと考えられており、少なくとも7世紀中期までに利子の慣行が発生していたことの傍証とされている。
This is believed to be the predecessor of Suiko, regarded as a corroboration of the opinion that a system charging and paying interest had already existed by the middle of the seventh century at the latest.

ただし、地方の武士は開発領主であることを経済的地盤としていたが、開発領主イコール武士であり武士団を率いていた訳ではない。
However, bushi in districts existed as kaihatsu-ryoshu, the financial basis, but kaihatsu-ryoshu was bushi and did not necessarily lead bushidan.

むろん惣領の統制権はあった、しかし鎌倉時代においてさえ、それほど絶対的なものではなかったことは三浦氏の例にも見てとれる。
Although there was a right to control soryo, it was not absolute as could be seen in the case of the Miura clan during Kamakura period.

そこでの「血縁」は、「家」ではなく、嫁と夫、親と子・孫という血縁であって、よく「イエ」と「ミウチ」という言い方をされる。
The 'blood relationship' was not a 'house' but a blood relationship of a wife and husband, parent and child as well as grandchild, and was referred often as 'ie' (currently defined as house) or 'miuchi' (currently defined as close relatives).

また、農民や町人も苗字なしでは家の区別がつかなかったため、地形地物の名などを苗字として私称することが公然と行われていた。
Because it would have been difficult distinguish between houses if farmers and townspeople had no family name, the unofficial practice of using landmarks etc. as family names was common.

これにより、義昭は実質的に信長の傀儡となり、信長の許可無しでは政治に影響力を保つことすらほとんどできなくなったのである。
Accordingly, Yoshiaki virtually became Nobunaga's puppet, and he could even hardly keep his political influence without Nobunaga's permission.

本書の成立年代は詳らかではないが、本書のなかに一条天皇を「今上」と記していることから一条天皇の朝に行われたと考えられる。
It is not well known when this book was compiled, but judging from the fact that the Emperor Ichijo was referred to as 'the present emperor' in the text, it is considered to be edited during the Emperor Ichijo's reign.

上記のように、炭素税は工場等を狙ったものではなく自家用乗用車や民生部門などからの排出を抑制する効果を主にした制度である。
As mentioned above, a carbon tax does not aim at factories or the like, but intends to effectively drive the suppression of the emissions from private cars, civilian sectors and so on.

同様に離脱していたオーストラリアでは世論の高まりを受けて総選挙により政権交代し、直後の 2007年12月3日に批准した。
However in Australia, which had not ratified the Kyoto Protocol likewise, change of government took place through a nationwide election and immediately after that the new government ratified the protocol on December 3, 2007.

兼実は「義仲の申状は穏便なものであり、院中の御用心は法に過ぎ、王者の行いではない」としている（『玉葉』11月18日条）。
Kanezane wrote 'Yoshinaka's moshijo was moderate, but the security measures in the Imperial Palace are excessive. The stance is not regal ('Gyokuyo,' entry of January 9, 1184).

その多くは安土桃山時代に高野山に移り、現在では15巻のみが中尊寺に、4,296巻が高野山金剛峯寺にそれぞれ伝わっている。
Many Issaikyo moved to Mt. Koya during the Azuchi-Momoyama period, and only 15 scrolls have been handed down to Chuson-ji Temple, while 4,296 scrolls have been handed down to Kongobu-ji Temple in Mt. Koya until today.

翌年（723年）には開墾推進政策の一環として三世一身法が発布され、期限付きではあるが開墾農地（墾田）の私有が認められた。
In 723, as a part of the land cultivation promotion program, Sanze-isshin Law (a law allowing farmers who cleared new lands to own them for a period of three generations) was promulgated and the private ownership of newly cultivated land was approved though it had a time limit.

1979年に名古屋で採取された黄砂の分析では、おおむね1μm - 30μmのものが多く4μmくらいの粒子が最も多かった。
An analysis of kosa conducted in Nagoya in 1979 showed that most of the sand grain sizes are distributed roughly between 1 μm to 30 μm, with its distribution peak at 4μm.

更に堆積物の分析結果から、最も古い時代では白亜紀後期にあたる約7,000万年前から、黄砂が発生していたと考えられている。
An analysis of sediments showed that kosa originated as early as in the latter half of the Cretaceous period, or from approx. 70 million years ago.

また別の推定では、1990年代の黄砂に伴う経済損失は年間15億元（Yang および Lu, 2001年）だとされている。
According to another estimate, the yearly damage due to kosa was 1.5 billion yuan in 1980s (according to Yang and Lu, in 2001).

一方では独自性を保つために、在地の農業経営に専念する名主層や百姓らと連携して、国人一揆を結成する国人層も少なくなかった。
However, not a few kokujin organized the Kokujin-ikki (union) in cooperation with the myoshu (owner of rice fields) stratum immersed in farm management, peasants and others, in an attempt to keep individuality.

騎馬武者は中世武士の専売特許ではなくて、弓射騎兵が武力の中心という伝統は律令軍団から中世武士までの一貫したスタイルである。
The cavalry busha was not a specific right of medieval bushi, but a tradition of having cavalry with archers as the main military force that continued uniformly throughout from the cohort of the Ritsuryo system to medieval bushi.

刊本としては、部分的ではあるが、『大日本史料』第3編や『歴代残闕日記』第7冊、『翻刻為房卿記』（『史聚』第10号）に掲載。
Parts of the diary are included in printed and published books, such as the third volume of the 'Dai Nihon Shiryo' (Important Historical Records), the seventh volume of the 'Rekidai Zanketsu Nikki' (Successive Partial Diary) and the reprint 'Honkoku Tamefusa-kyo Ki' (the tenth volume of 'Shishu' [Historical Stories]).

しかし問題はそれよりも、もっと下層の武士の中に、それまでは武士身分を持たなかった多数の「悪党」が加わっていったことだろう。
However, the problem was that many 'akuto' that did not have bushi social status joined the bottom most bushi class.

つまり、現在でいう百姓とは農業専従者で「農人」として分類される存在であるが、江戸時代では範囲の異なる言葉であったのである。
That is to say, hyakusho (peasant) in the current sense is a full-time farmer and categorized as 'nonin' (person engaged in agriculture); but in the Edo period, haykusho held a different meaning.

また、南信濃では義昌に続いて家康の支援を受けた小笠原貞慶が旧領である深志(現在の松本市)に入り他の領主らも徳川氏についた。
In southern Shinano, Sadayoshi OGASAWARA, who was supported by Ieyasu, followed Yoshimasa and entered his former territory, Fukashi (present-day Matsumoto City); other lords also took the side of Ieyasu.

特に明の東林党や遺老の学が有名であり、そこでは官僚が責任者として自発的に地方統治を行うための制度として封建制が議論された。
In particular, the Donglin movement and Iro no gaku in the Min period are famous, where the hoken system was discussed as a system for bureaucrats to voluntarily govern local areas as their responsibility.

これに加え、マラケシュ合意では「森林管理」「放牧地管理」「植生の管理」を利用することも許容された（京都議定書 3条4項）。
In addition, in the Marrakesh agreements, the use of 'forest management,' 'pastureland management,' and 'vegetation management' was also approved (Kyoto Protocol, Article 3.4).

さらに、すでに複数の「関連はみられない」との結果が出ているにも関わらず、環境省では今後も大気汚染との関連を調査するという。
Despite multiple results indicating no relationship, the Ministry of the Environment continues to investigate the relationship between air pollution and such allergies.

リアルタイムデータの観測やシミュレーション技術の向上は、花粉飛散の予報のみばかりではなく、同時に花粉発生源の特定に役立つ。
Improvements in real-time data observations and simulation technology have been utilized not only in pollen dispersion forecasts but also in the identification of pollen sources.

仲綱から知らせを受けた以仁王は、女装して邸を脱出、御所では長谷部信連が検非違使と戦って時間を稼ぎ、以仁王は園城寺へ逃れた。
Prince Mochihito, having been forewarned by Nakatsuna, fled from the mansion dressed in women's clothers, while back at the mansion, Nobutsura HASEBE fought with the Chief Inspector to buy Mochihito some time, allowing him to escape safely to Onjo-ji temple.

戦後、尊氏は対立関係にあった新田義貞の所領を勝手に没収し、建武政権では恩賞方が行う恩賞として分配するなど自立の意思を示した。
After the battle, Takauji showed his will of independence by confiscating the territory of Yoshisada NITTA who was against him without permission and distributing it as onsho (reward grants) which was granted by Onshokata (office to do desk works of Onsho award) in the Kenmu government.

元や明ではすでに銅銭の信用が低下しており、貿易を独占するような権門や大商人たちはこれを安い元手できわめて容易に入手していた。
In the Yuan Dynasty and Ming Dynasty, the credibility of copper coins had been degraded, and the influential families and the merchants engaging in large-scale trade who monopolized oversea trade could get these coins by selling inexpensive things and quite easily.

鎌倉幕府では元日より数日にわたり、北条氏をはじめとする有力な御家人が征夷大将軍に対して太刀・名馬・弓矢とともに椀飯を奉った。
At the Kamakura bakufu, for a few days from the first day of the year, the Hojo clan and other prominent gokenin (an immediate vassal of the shogunate) presented the Seii taishogun (literally, 'great general who subdues the barbarians') with oban together with swords, good horses, and bows and arrows.

また、後北条氏は変に即応して上野や甲斐南東の郡内への侵攻し、上野では武蔵との国境神流川で滝川一益の軍を撃破（神流川の戦い）。
Furthermore, in response to the war, the Gohojo clan invaded districts in Kozuke and southeast Kai, and defeated an army of Kazumasu TAKIGAWA at the Kanna-gawa River on the border between Kozuke Province and Musashi Province (the Battle of Kanna River).

棚板構成は、根棚・中棚・上棚の三階造りと中棚のない二階造りが基本となり、大型船では中棚を二段にした四階造りのものも存在した。
Basic structure of Tanaita was either three layered structure consists of Nedana (the components to structure the lowest part of a ship), Chudana (the components to structure the middle part of a ship) and Uedana (the components to structure the upper part of a ship) or two layered structure without Chudana and in the case of large ships, four layered structure with two layered Chudana was also seen.

棟梁という言葉は今日では「大工の親方」という意味で用いられることが多いが、元は建物の屋根の主要部分である棟と梁を指していた。
Although the term 'toryo' (棟梁) generally refers to 'master of craftsmen' at present, it originally referred to to (棟) (ridge) and ryo (梁) (a beam), the essential parts of a building's ceiling.

これは御成敗式目が武家社会の一般法を目指したものではなく、武家社会と公家社会の法的衝突の回避の意味も含まれていたからである。
That was because the Goseibai-shikimoku was not directed to the general law in samurai society, but it was also intended to evade legal conflicts between the samurai and court noble society.

野菜茶業研究所ではべにふうきという茶品種を開発し、それに含まれているメチル化カテキンが花粉症抑制に効果があると報告している。
The National Institute of Vegetable and Tea Science has developed the Benifuki tea variety, and the methylated catechins that it contains are reported to suppress pollinosis.

発生地に近い地域では、降り積もる砂を建物内に入りにくくしたり、屋根などに砂が積もって重くならないような工夫などがされている。
In areas near places where kosa occurs, the measure to prevent falling sand from entering buildings and that to prevent too heavy sand from accumulating on roofs or similar structural places are taken.

なお、国際的に通用する気象現象の表現方式である、WMO規定の国際式天気図記号では、以下の11種類が黄砂を表す記号に該当する。
Of the WMO-specified international symbols on weather charts, which are internationally usable for indicating meteorological phenomena, the following 11 can be used for kosa:

『沙石集』では、酒宴の場を座席と、詩歌の場を会所と表現し、どちらからも、会所が文芸に関りの深いところだ、ということが分かる。
According to 'Shasekishu,' it described the place of drinking parties as the seating, and the place of poetry reading as kaisho, and either way, it could be seen that kaisho was strongly related to art and literature.

クビーラはガンジス川を司る女神ガンガーのヴァーハナ(乗り物)でもあることから、日本では海上交通の守り神として信仰されてきた。
Kubi-ra is the Va-hana (riding object) of the goddess Ganger who controls the Ganges River and has been worshiped in Japan as the protective god of sea transportation.

畿内・九州以外では、荘園領主（本所）の所在地から距離的に遠かったこともあって、本所権力の作用があまり及ばなかったためである。
This was because the influence of a manor owner (called honjo, a proprietor of a manor) could not reach throughout his manor very much due to a long distance between his ordinary location and his manor in the regions other than the Kinai and the Kyushu regions.

近年では、明国内における銀の使用盛行が同国内部での銭の信用を低下させて、それが日本国内に何らかの影響を与えたという説もある。
In recent years, the following theory has been proposed as well: Wide use of silver in Ming degraded the credibility of coins in Ming, affecting, in some way, situations in Japan at that time.

平安時代、律令制下では庶民は租税や労役、兵役を課せられていた。その運搬や出向は全て本人が自ら都まで出向かなければいけなかった。
下の文を統合しました.

遠国を中心として年料租舂米を負担しない国を中心に負担した（ただし、年料舂米と重複することでは、年料租舂米負担国と同様である）。
This was collected mainly in provinces that were far away from the center and did not pay Nenryo soshomai (however, the fact that it is duplicated with Nenryo shomai is the same as provinces that pay Nenryo soshomai).

一方、日本では隋の制度を基にして大化の改新の際に導入され、大宝律令賦役令にて定められ親王を除く全人民がその貧富に応じて納めた。
In Japan, this system was implemented in the Taika Reforms based on the system in the Sui Dynasty and set forth in Fuyaku ryo (tax structure) of Taiho Ritsuryo (Taiho Code), and all people excluding Imperial princes made contributions according to their levels of wealth.

このように日本では本来の設置意義と違って朱子学を奉じた支配階層主導による設置も多く行われ、支配階層による義倉との混同が進んだ。
Unlikely to the initial purpose of the establishment of Shaso, many Shaso warehouses were constructed at the initiative of the dominant class of people who were embracing the doctrines of Zhu Xi (Neo-Confucianism) in Japan and therefore, the mixture with giso warehouses constructed by the dominant class of people was spread.

これを　「常に月将を以て占時に加え、日辰陰陽を視て以て四課を立つ。」　と読み下すことは、漢文の知識があればさほど困難ではない。
For persons who have a knowledge about kanbun, it may not be so difficult to read it as 'tsuneni gessho wo motte senji ni kuwae, Nisshininyo wo mite motte shika wo tatsu.' (Gessho and the time should always be used for divination and Shika should be derived by seeing Nisshinonmyo).

儒教では、贅沢は君臣・尊卑の名 (倫理)と分 (倫理)からの逸脱を意味するとされ、社会秩序に対する重大な挑戦と考えられてきた。
Confucianism has stated that luxury is against Mei (ethics) and Bun (ethics) of Kunshin Sonpi (knowing the difference between the ruler and the ruled or between the aristocrat and the plebeian) and is a great defiance against social order.

また、英俊（興福寺僧侶）による『多聞院日記』などでは、政策の主目的が一揆（盟約による政治共同体）の防止であったと記されている。
It was recorded in some documents such as 'Tamonin Nikki' (Diary of Tamonin) written by Eishun (a monk in the Kofuku-ji Temple) and the like that the primary objective of the katanagari policy was preventing ikki (political community based on a league).

基本的には同時代人の記述にかかる「信長公記」や「安土日記」に基づき、イエズス会宣教師の記述を加味するところまでは一致している。
Referring to 'Shinchoko-ki' (Biography of Nobunaga ODA) and 'Azuchi Nikki' (diary of Azuchi) written by the people living in those days, they uniformly adopted the description made by Jesuit missionaries.

会議では、信長の三男・織田信孝を推す柴田勝家と織田信忠の子である三法師（のちの織田秀信）を推す羽柴秀吉との間で激しく対立した。
In the conference, there was an intense conflict between Katsuie SHIBATA, who fielded Nobutaka ODA, the third son of Nobunaga, and Hideyoshi HASHIBA, who backed Sanboshi (later Hidenobu ODA), the son of Nobutada ODA.

この段階では、神と仏は同一の信仰体系の中にはあるが、あくまで別の存在として認識され、同一の存在としてみるまでには及んでいない。
In this phase, although deities and the Buddha were under the same belief system, they were recognized as a different existence; they were not yet considered same existence.

一般的に不入の権を持っている荘園は、不輸の権 (日本)も合わせて持っている場合が多く、両者がセットとして考えられがちではある。
In general, shoen with funyu no ken in many cases also had fuyu no ken (the right of tax exemption) (Japan) and these two rights are often considered as a set.

中には神仏習合の風習を受け継いだり復興させたりするところもあるが、神道、仏教のそれぞれの内部では、お互いに忌避するむきもある。
Although some shrines and temples inherit or try to revive the custom of the syncretism of Shinto and Buddhism, Shintoists and Buddhists basically dislike and avoid each other in fact.

多くの武家では宗家と主従関係を結ばれた結果、宗家の一門としての待遇を離れ主家と祖先を同じくする家臣として位置づけられていった。
As a result of establishing a relationship between a lord and vassal, many warriors relinquished being treated as the head of the family and positioned themselves as vassals from the same ancestors as those of their employer's house.

しかし、それに対抗して神官の間では『日本書紀』神話の講読が盛行し、神道の立場を中心として神話と歴史を結合させる思想が起こった。
For this, however, mythologies in 'Nihonshoki' were read actively by Shinto priests, and the concept of connecting history with the mythologies was created centering on the standpoint of the Shinto religion.

畿内諸国や九州では荘園領主の権力が強く及んでおり、領主が荘園経営を効率的に行うため、名田を均等化して百姓へ割り振ったのである。
The lords of the manors were so powerful in the Kinai provinces and the Kyushu region that they could divide their myoden equally and allot each peasant a portion of myoden in order to manage their manors effectively.

1933年に朝鮮史編集会から「朝鮮史料叢刊」として影印刊行され、日本では1991年に詳細な訳注本が岩波文庫から出版されている。
A facsimile edition entitled 'Chosen Shiryo Sokan' (Joseon History Collection) was published by the Korean History Compilation Committee in 1933 and a detailed translated edition was published in Japan by Iwanami Paperbacks in 1991.

世界各地の農業社会では、その初期の頃から、播種期に種子を貸与し、収穫期に利子を付けて返済させる慣行が生まれたと考えられている。
In the agrarian society worldwide, it is thought that a system, in which seeds were loaned to peasants in the planting season to make them pay back the loaned seeds and the born interest in the harvesting season, was launched in the early days.

地子の割当を受けた令制国では、公田から賃租された地子稲を財源として沽価に基づいて絹や鉄などを調達して中央の太政官厨家に送付した。
Governors of provinces that were required to submit a land tax quota would use rice collected from koden as a financial resource in order to purchase silk or iron based on koka (selling prices) and sent it to the Daijokan chuke (manager of the kitchen of the Great Council of State) in the central government.

日本固有の大和言葉では、 '天皇が慈しむべき天下の大いなる宝である万民' を意味する、 'おおみたから' の和訓がふられている。
In yamato-kotoba, words of Japanese origin, the Japanese reading 'omitakara,' which indicates 'people who are great treasures of the country and should be cared for by an emperor,' is given.

更に東山御文庫旧所蔵本（現在お茶の水図書館所蔵）では「詩四病」「諸句体」などの項目が付けられているなど、諸本によって違いがある。
Further, items of '詩四病' and '諸句体' are seen in a book formerly owned by Higashiyama Gobunko (currently owned by Ochanomizu Library) and as seen above, there are differences among shohon.

なお、平治の乱では、摂津源氏の源頼政は源義朝に対して独自行動をとって義朝の子の義平と戦い、結果的に平家の勝利に貢献したとされる。
In the Heiji War, MINAMOTO no Yorimasa of Settsu-Genji acted independently from MINAMOTO no Yoshitomo and fought against Yoshihira, a son of Yoshitomo and as a result, contributed the victory of Heike

また、武士社会では恩給地の永代売が禁止されていたが、武士の経済状況の救済を目的として年期売を例外的に認めていた分国法も存在する。
And although with the advent of warrior society warriors were forbidden from permanently selling the lands from which they drew their stipends, some daimyo allowed the existence of laws within their own domains that permitted warriors to sell their land via nenki-uri under exceptional circumstances, in an attempt to provide financial relief for warriors in dire economic straits.

そのため、巻数が様々で記録では4巻・10巻・15巻・16巻などと伝えられているが、現存本には17巻・18巻本なども存在している。
As a result, there are different theories about how many volumes the book came in, but among the existing books, there is a book in 17 volumes and one in 18 volumes, although the record indicates various numbers including 4, 10, 15, and 16.

絵画では、物語や説話を題材に、詞書（ことばがき）を織り交ぜながら場面を展開していく絵巻物という独自の手法があみだされて隆盛した。
A new method of painting, emakimono that develops a story with Kotobagaki (captions) based on a story or setsuwa (anecdotes) was created and prospered.

その一方で自己の専売を確立した市場では座外の商人・職人の営業を禁止して座衆による独占を図り、座に属する小規模業者の維持に努めた。
In the market where a za obtained an exclusive right to sell their merchandise, at the same time, they attempted to monopolize the market by prohibiting merchants and artisans who did not participated in that za from engaging in trade, and thus they sustained small traders belonging to the za.

頼朝は、九州の抑えとして、関東では無名に近いが近臣として取り立てていた少弐氏、大友氏、島津氏を代官的存在として九州の守護とした。
Yoritomo appointed the Shoni clan, the Otomo clan and the Shimazu clan, which were not known in Kato but are supported by Yoritomo as reliable vassals, to shugo for Kyushu as existence like daikan (deputy).

なお、経営政策の面では、理研コンツェルンを除いて既存の財閥同様に同族運営がなされており、その点で「新興財閥」という言い方もある。
Regarding the management policy, the emerging zaibatsu in the Showa period (except for the RIKEN conglomerate) were run by families or their kinships, like the existing zaibatsu, and in that sense they can be called 'emerging zaibatsu.'

ただし、摂関政治においても摂関が全ての決定権を握っていたのではなく、議政官が衆議する陣定の場でほとんどの政治決定が行われていた。
However, even in this system, Sekkan didn't decide everything, yet almost all policies were discussed and determined by Giseikan (Legislatures) at Jin no sadame (ancient cabinet council).

なお、古今和歌六帖では、上の句が「我が君は千代にましませ」となっており、古今和歌集も古い写本には「ましませ」となったものもある。
In Kokin Waka Rokujo, the first three lines of waka is 'wagakimiha chiyonimashimase (literally, 'my lord may live a thousand years) and also in a certain old manuscript of Kokin-Wakashu, it is written 'mashimase.'

しかしそもそも吹奏楽は西洋のものであって、明治初年の日本ではなじみがなく、当初はNational anthemの訳語もなかった。
As wind-instrument music originally belonged to the Occident, however, it was not accustomed in Japan in the beginning of the Meiji Period and, at first, there were no words to translate 'national anthem.'

そのような意味では、今日のスーパーマーケット、コンビニエンスストア、デリバリー・ショップを合わせたような存在であったともいえる。
In that sense, it can also be said that such sakaya were places that provided the services of supermarkets, convenience stores, and of delivery shops.

これらは、本来、農民による生産を促進・拡大を意図したものだったが、一方では、支配者にとって租税収入を確保するという側面もあった。
These were originally intended to promote and enhance production of farmers, and also ensued tax collection for the rulers.

曾我兄弟の仇討ちでは敵討後に捕えられた弟五郎時致は斬首されており、頼朝の代の先例に準じる御成敗式目の規定はこの処置に沿っている。
In the Adauchi by the Soga brothers, the younger brother, Goro Tokimune SOGA, who was captured after Katakiuchi, was beheaded; and the provisions of Goseibai-shikimoku, which conform to the precedents during the reign of Yoritomo (MINAMOTO no Yoritomo, a shogun), reflect this disposition.

このため、伊勢神宮側では常胤側の領主となっていた禰宜荒木田明盛（正富の一族）と義宗側の領主となっていた禰宜度会彦章の対立が生じた。
This resulted in a conflict between the negi Akimori ARAKIDA, who was a member of the Masatomi family and a feudal lord on Tsunetane's side, and the negi Hikoaki WATARAI, who was a feudal lord on Yoshimune's side, in the Ise-jingu Shrine.

一つの備しか持つ事のできない大名と複数の備を編成できる大名では、特に後者の大名が直率する本陣備においてその構成に大きな違いがある。
There was a large difference between a daimyo who could have only one sonae and a daimyo who could organize multiple sonae in terms of sonae organization, particularly in the army headquarters sonae led directly by the latter daimyo.

それまでは、受領の権限のもとで地方行政が展開しており、郡司・富豪層らが開発してきた荘園も国衙の承認によって存立していた（国免荘）。
Until then, local administration functioned under zuryo's authority, and the manors that had been developed by gunji or rich and powerful persons could exist by obtaining approval from the kokuga (kokumensho [the manor whose obligations were exempted by kokushi]).

分国法には、先行武家法である御成敗式目および建武式目の影響が見られるが、一方では、自らの分国支配の実情を反映した内容となっている。
Bunkokuho was influenced by Goseibai Shikimoku and Kenmu Shikimoku while its contents reflected the actual conditions of control over one county.

甲斐では、岡崎へ逃れた徳川家康が、光秀討伐の軍を起こすと同時に秀隆を支援するという名目で家臣を甲斐に派遣し、梅雪遺領の掌握を図る。
In Kai, Ieyasu TOKUGAWA, who had escaped to Okazaki, dispatched his vassals to Kai in an effort to seize the property inheritance of Baisetsu in the name of mobilizing a punitive force against Mitsuhide and supporting Hidetaka at the same time.

ただし、講義の詳細な内容は明らかではなく、律令を補完する格式・官符などについての学習が行われたのかどうかも明らかにはなっていない。
Details of the lectures and whether or not Kakushiki (ordinances) and Kanpu (government documents) etc. were studied to complement ritsuryo are unclear.

なお、神社建築様式のうえでは、今日、流造とともに神社本殿の普遍的な形式となっている春日造が平安時代末期には成立していたとみられる。
Regarding shrine architectural style, kasuga-zukuri style which is a universal form of the main building of a shrine was established before the end of the Heian period as well as nagare-zukuri style (a style of shrine architecture).

それまで利息は高額なところでは8文子、10文子（元金100文につき月利8〜10文）であったが、4文子以下にするように法令を出した。
Doso set high interest of eight to ten mon-ko (monthly interest was eight to ten mon on a borrowing of 100 mon) but the bakufu passed a law that the interest should be four mon-ko (four mon of interest per month) or less.

また、「棟梁」級の武士を追えば確かに天慶の勲功者につながる「武者」「兵の家」の者だが、「武士団」を追えば必ずしもそればかりではない。
In addition, one will led to the 'busha' or 'the house of tsuwamono,' who performed a distinguished service during Tengyo era, by following the 'toryo' (head of the clan) level bushi, but it is not definite by following 'bushidan.'

家系としての「兵の家」の形成過程で忘れてはならないのが、10世紀後半に現役武官ではないのに「朝家の爪牙」として動員されたことである。
What should not be forgotten in a formation process of 'tsuwamono-no-ie' (house of soldiers) as the family line was that 'choka no soga' mobilized in the late tenth century without the presence of a military officer.

惣領制における武士団の結合も、決して絶対君主的な統制があった訳ではないが、更にゆるやかな団結と言えば、「党」と呼ばれる武士団もある。
The unification of bushidan by the Soryo System did not have absolute sovereignty, but there was bushidan called 'to' (party) for a looser bonding group.

特に最近では住宅の気密化によって本来の役目が失われつつあるため、重さによって掛軸が傷まないよう合成樹脂製の風鎮なども生産されている。
In particular, the original function of fuchin is being lost due to recent airtight houses, thus synthetic resin is used for producing a fuchin to prevent damage of kakejiku due to the weight.

定免法では、過去5年間、10年間または20年間の収穫高の平均から年貢率を決めるもので、豊凶に関わらず一定の年貢を納めることになった。
In jomen ho, the ratio of land tax was determined based on the average crop in the past 5 years, 10 years or 20 years and a fixed land tax was imposed regardless of the crop situation.

通常の寺社縁起のごとく、開山の縁起を記したものではなく、平安時代中期に信貴山で修行して当山の中興の祖とされる命蓮に関する説話を描く。
Unlike other Jisha Engi picture scrolls, which generally depict origins of shrines and temples, it depicts stories related to Myoren, the restoration patriarch of the mountain, who trained himself in Mt. Shigi in the middle of the Heian period.

なお、「令宗」（よしむね）の姓は、惟宗氏全員の改姓ではなく、長保元年（999年）頃、允亮と彼の弟と思われる惟宗允正のみに与えられた。
By the way, the surname 'Yoshimune' was not another name for all members of the Koremune clan, but was granted around 999 only to Tadasuke and KOREMUNE no Tadamasa, who is thought to be Tadasuke's younger brother.

日本では、身分制度の維持を図る観点から身分相応以上の服装を着用する行為が道徳風俗違反であるとして「過差（かさ）」であると非難された。
In Japan, to maintain its class system, 'extravagant behavior' such as wearing clothes beyond one's means was criticized as an offense against public morals and decency.

883年（元慶7）に上総国で勃発した俘囚の武装蜂起（上総俘囚の乱）に際し、朝廷は発兵勅符ではなく、「追捕官符」を上総国司へ交付した。
In the armed fushu's uprising that occurred in 883 in Kazusa Province (Kazusa Fushu War), the Imperial Court issued 'Tsuibu kanpu' (warrants of pursuit and capture) to the kokushi of Kazusa Province, instead of hatsuhei-chokufu.

この間、時宗は非常事態への迅速な対処を名目として、時間のかかる合議ではなく、一門や側近（御内人という）らと専断で政策決定していった。
During this time, in the name of a rapid response to the emergency, Tokimune made policies at his own discretion with only clansmen and close aides (Miuchibito (private vassals of the tokuso)), bypassing the parliamentary system which took a lot of time.

しかし、弘文院を大学別曹ではなく一種の図書館であったとする説もあり、和気広世個人が和気氏の氏上としての立場から支給した可能性もある。
However, some people asserts that Kobun-in was a kind of library, not Daigaku-besso, and there is a possibility that WAKE no Hiroyo personally granted as the chief of the Wake clan.

さらに、たとえ「今シーズンは少ない」との予測が出されても、それは毎日の飛散量が少ないことを保証するものではないので注意が必要である。
Moreover, a forecast of 'levels for this season will be low' does not guarantee that airborne pollen levels will be low every day, so it is important to be cautious.

モンゴル国、中国、大韓民国などでは住民の生活や経済に多大な支障が出る場合があり、黄砂への対策や黄砂の防止が社会的に重要となっている。
In Mongolia, China, and the Republic of Korea, kosa sometimes causes significant damage to activities of the people and the economy in these areas, and it becomes socially important to take measures against kosa and to prevent kosa from occurring.

カザフスタンでは、アラル海の例を見ると分かるように、農業政策の失敗により地下水や湖水をくみ上げすぎるなどして、土地の乾燥化が進んだ。
In Kazakhstan, as known from the example in the Aral Sea, inappropriate agricultural policies caused underground water and wake water to be pumped excessively, expanding dry areas.

当然このような劣悪な状況では途中で飢餓や病により倒れたり、死亡したりして行旅死亡人となる者も多く、初期の頃から社会問題化し始めていた。
As a matter of course, the severe conditions caused many people to collapse from starvation and illnesses or even die en route, causing the issue to be recognized as a social problem.

しかし、実際のところ歴史学者や仏教学者の間でも何をもって「国家仏教」と定義づけるのかについては統一した見解が出されているわけではない。
However, historians and Buddhist scholars have not yet reached a united opinion regarding what would define 'National Buddhism.'

しかし、それでは撰銭令は、室町幕府などが自ら大量に所有する粗悪な渡来銭などを市民に押し付けるための、利己的な悪法に過ぎないことになる。
However, Erizenirei then became that only a bad law to force the general public to use the low-quality Torai-sen, lots of which were held by the Muromachi bakufu and others.

昌幸は岩櫃城が要害であることを説明して岩櫃城行きを勧めたが、信茂が、岩櫃城までは遠路に加えて雪が深いことを理由に岩殿城行きを力説した。
Although Masayuki recommended going to Iwabitsu-jo Castle, which was an impregnable fortress, Nobushige insisted on going to Iwadonoyama-jo Castle on the grounds that Iwabitsu-jo Castle was too far and that the snow was too deep.

通説では、中世の国家の性格として鎌倉幕府を中心とする在地領主層を基盤とする封建国家、すなわち鎌倉幕府を中心とした国家観が定着している。
The prevailing theory is that the medieval Japan was a feudalistic nation based on manor lords centered around the Kamakura Bakufu, so the view that the state centered around the Kamakura Bakufu has become firmly established.

この時の頼朝政権の在地支配は、まだ従来の権門勢家による支配に優越した訳ではなく、地頭の設置も平氏の旧領（平家没官領）に限定されていた。
The control of local lands by the Yoritomo administration during this time did not excel the traditional control by the great and powerful and the appointment of Jito was limited to territories once held by the Taira clan (Heike Mokkanryo (Land rights confiscated by Kamakura bakufu from the Taira family)).

そして百姓の生業も農業に限られるものではなく、百姓身分で「商」や「工」に属するはずの海運業や手工業などによって財を成した者も多くいた。
Besides, peasants were not limited to living on farming and many of them actually built a fortune through marine transportation or handicrafts, which should have belonged to trades of 'sho' or 'ko'.

ヒノキは関東以西（中部～関西）に多く植えられたといわれるが、その地域では、関東などとは違う系統のスギが多く植えられたという指摘もある。
It is said that many Japanese cypress trees were planted in the west of the Kanto region (central area to the Kansai region) but it has been identified that a large number of a different type of Japanese cedar tree were also planted in this area.

蓮華王院本堂（通称三十三間堂）は横に長く、千一体の千手観音像を安置したもので、阿弥陀堂ではないが大型化した九躰堂タイプと見なしてよい。
Rengeo-in Temple Main Hall (commonly called Sanjusangen-do Hall) in which to put 1,001 statues of Senju Kannon (Thousand Armed Avalokiteshwara) elongated sideways, and it is not the Amida-do Hall, but it can be regarded as one in larger Kutai-do Hall types.

神仏分離令は仏教排斥を意図したものではなかったが、これをきっかけに全国各地で廃仏毀釈運動がおこり、各地の寺院や仏具の破壊が行なわれた。
Although the Edict for Separation of Shinto and Buddhism was not issued for the purpose to exclude Buddhism from the country, it triggered a nationwide anti-Buddhism campaign, and people destroyed temples and Buddhist altar fittings across the country.

しかし、京都では酒屋は延暦寺などの有力寺社の影響下にあり、また朝廷でも壷銭などの形で臨時の課税を行う代わりに営業を認める方針を採った。
However, sake breweries were under the control of powerful temples or shrines such as Enryaku-ji Temple in Kyoto, so the Imperial Court had to sanction dealing sake in return for contingent taxation such as tsubo-sen (the tax charged on sake dealers).

特に畿内では国人の独立志向が非常に高く、山城や丹波などで、守護（細川氏）が数十年をかけても国人層の被官化を達成できない事例も見られた。
Especially, kokujin in the Kinai region (provinces surrounding Kyoto and Nara) had quite a strong inclination for independence, which was exemplified by the case that the shugo (the Hosokawa clan) failed to achieve the 'Hikanization' of kokujin in Yamashiro Province, Tamba Province and other provinces despite having spent several decades.

本書は、著者自身の見解を叙述するのではなく、律令格式や国史の記事、和漢の典籍を引用することによって語らしむ引証主義的方法を採用している。
This document was not described based on the author's own opinions, but was written using the reference-based method in which explanations were made by citing laws of codes and ethics (conduct), descriptions in national histories and Japanese/Chinese dictionaries.

一般的に日本で神祇信仰と仏教との間に起こった現象を指すが、広義では、世界各地に仏教が広まった際、土着の信仰との間に起こった現象をも指す。
Although it generally refers to the syncretism of Japanese faith in Jingi (gods of heaven and earth) and Buddhism, in a broad sense, it may refer to a syncretism of an indigenous belief and Buddhistic that had happened in various parts of the world as Buddhism was spread.

なお、平安時代には三代格式と合わせて三代儀式（さんだいぎしき）が編纂されたとする説もあるが、近年ではこれを疑問視する意見も出されている。
Some said that the Sandai Gishiki (three major Gishiki books) were compiled in parallel with Sandai Kyakushiki (Laws and Regulations of the three reigns) in the Heian period, but recently, others have questioned that opinion.

林業におけるスギ伐採量の見通しや地球温暖化など気象の影響を考慮すると、ゆるやかではあるが今後も花粉の飛散量は増え続けると考えられている。
It would be expected that prevalence and severity will decrease when one considers the projected number of Japanese cedar trees that will be felled by the forestry industry and meteorological effects such as global warming, but it is believed that the airborne pollen levels will actually continue to rise.

中国や韓国では、黄砂の濃度が高い場合に、マスク等の着用を奨励したり、外出を控えるよう促したりする情報が、公的機関によって発表されている。
In China and South Korea, public organizations announce information to recommend wearing a mask or to urge people to avoid going outdoors, when a high-density kosa arrives.

特に、この時に交替した上総国・相模国では有力在庁の上総広常・三浦義明は平氏の目代に圧迫を受け、源頼朝の挙兵に積極的に加わる要因となった。
Tsunehiro KAZUSA and Yoshiaki MIURA of the powerful government officers of the alternated Kazusa and Sagami Provinces, were pressurized by Mokudai (deputy kokushi, or a deputy provincial governor) of Taira clan, and this became a trigger for them to greatly contribute to the mobilization of the army of MINAMOTO no Yoritomo.

なお、これとは別に中世の前期の頃までは、他者に対して実力による制裁権を行使できる者を公卿クラスを含めて「武士」と言い表す呼称も存在した。
And apart from this, until the early medieval times, those who could have the right of enforcing sanctions to others on their merits, including the kugyo (the top court officials) class, were called 'bushi.'

そのため、時代の潮流で、賀歌の「我が君」という直接的な表現が、「君が代」という間接的な表現に置き換わったのではないか、と推測されている。
Therefore, it is surmised that, in line with the trend of the times, direct expression, 'wagakimi,' in the gaka might be replaced with the indirect expression 'kimigayo.'

田堵と名田は荘園単位、また公領では郡・郷・保単位で把握され、荘園領主に任命された荘官、国衙に任命された郡司、郷司、保司らの支配を受けた。
The tato farmers and the myoden fields were administered on a manor basis and supervised by a shokan (a manor officer) appointed as the lord of the manor, while the Imperial demesnes were administered on a gun (district), go (village), or ho (settlement) basis, and gunji (a district officer), goji (a village officer), and hoji (a public land officer) supervised respective lands.

事件後、その動機を追究された眉輪王は「臣元不求天位、唯報父仇而已」（私は皇位を狙ったのではない、ただ父の仇に報いただけだ）と答えている。
When Prince Mayowa was pressed for his motive after the affair, he replied: 'I wasn't seeking the Imperial Throne, I was only avenging my father.'

実際、日本の僧尼令では僧尼が私寺を建立することは禁じたものの、その他の私寺に関しては平安時代の延暦年間の太政官符において初めて規制された。
In fact, although Japanese Soni ryo prohibited erection of private temple by monks and nuns, other private temples were regulated for the first time by Daijokanpu (official documents issued by Daijokan, Grand Council of State) in the Enryaku era of the Heian period.

「戸主高志公」（名を欠く）の戸では1年間に6名もの人が亡くなっているが、9世紀前半は日本古代史上でもまれにみる天変地異の続いた時代である。
In Ko 'headed by KOSHI NO KIMI' (no given name), as many as six members died in one year, because the first half of the ninth century was a rare time in ancient Japanese history when natural disasters occurred continuously.

これは、古代遺跡の木簡等の遺物出土例から推して、京進文書ではなく、地方の役所にとどめ置く公文書に特徴的な、「実用的」な記載様式とみられる。
Guessing from unearthed relics from ancient remains such as mokkan and so on, it is considered that this Shibocho adopted a 'practical' description style which was characteristic of official documents retained in regional offices, not of documents sent to Kyoto.

ただし、無礼な行為によって武士の名誉が傷つけられる事を制止するための正当防衛的な行為と認識されており、無礼を働いた事自体への処罰ではない。
It was considered a type of justifiable defense to protect the honor of warriors and it did not mean a punishment to the insult itself.

ただし、日本では「士」は「侍」に置き換えられ、工と商に区別はなく一括して町人と認識されており、百姓（農）と「町人」との間に序列はなかった。
In Japan, shi '士' (government official) was replaced with '侍' (samurai or warriors), ko (artisans) and sho (merchants) were collectively recognized as townsman without being differentiated, and no order existed between peasants (no) and the 'townsmen.'

また、『入明諸要例』では同次遣明船について500～2500石の船が門司、富田、上関、柳井、尾道、鞆、田島、因島、牛窓に配されたとしている。
According to 'Nyumin shoyorei,' ships of 500 to 2500 goku were on standby at Moji, Tomita, Kamiseki, Yanai, Onomichi, Tomo, Tajima, Innoshima and Ushimado respectively for the same fleet of Kenminsen.

村井章介は、この船は博多を拠点とする貿易商人が主体となったもので、東福寺や幕府は多くの荷主の中の一つに過ぎなかったのではないかと推測する。
Shosuke MURAI suggests that trading merchants based in Hakata were main sponsors for this ship and that Tofuku-ji Temple and the bakufu were only the shipper.

その8都県市でのアンケートでは、市民が花粉症対策として行政にもっとも進めてほしいと考えているのはスギの伐採や枝打ちで、56.4%であった。
In a survey conducted in the above four prefectures and four cities, 56.4% of citizens responded that the pollinosis countermeasure that they most wanted the administration to implement was the felling and pruning of Japanese cedar trees.

『太平記』では、必死に弁明する高経に対し、義詮は涙を浮かべながら、今の世は将軍の自分でも思い通りにならないので下国してくれと頼んだという。
According to 'Taiheiki,' Yoshiakira asked in tears Takatsune, who was defending himself desperately, to go to his province by saying he was not able to decide things to his satisfaction though he was shogun.

太閤検地では室町期以来、慣行となっていた地下請を継承して、村が一括して年貢を納入する村請（むらうけ）が採用され、江戸幕府も村請を継続した。
In Taiko-kenchi, the jigeuke, which had been a customary practice since the Muromachi period, was succeeded and the murauke system (village-wide, collective responsibility for tax payment), where one village was responsible for the collective tax payment, was applied and the Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) also succeeded the murauke system.

しかし6月26日頃には、仁位郡（実録では尼老郡）で対馬側の伏兵に遭い多大な損害を受け、李従茂の軍は尾崎浦まで退却、戦局は膠着状態に陥った。
But around June 26, Korean forces fell into an ambush by warriors from Tsushima in the Nii district (or the Amaro district according to the True Record), in which they suffered significant casualties, prompting Jong Mu YI to withdraw his army back to Osaki inlet and leaving the outcome of the war an uneasy stalemate.

しかし、人為的な処置によって黄砂の量を減らすことはできるのではないかと考えられており、発生地の砂漠化の防止を中心とした対策が行われている。
However, it is considered that the amount of kosa can be reduced by taking appropriate measures, and various measures have been taken centered on the prevention of desertification of the areas where kosa occurs.

「君が代」の真の誕生地は、糸島・博多湾岸であり、ここで『わがきみ』と呼ばれているのは、天皇家ではなく、筑紫の君（九州王朝説の君主）である。
The real place of birth of 'Kimigayo' is Itoshima on the shore of Hakata Bay and 'wagakimi (my lord)' is not the emperor, but tsukushinokimi (lord of tsukushi) (lord of the theory of Kyushu Dynasty).

現在では、考古学からする文化圏の検討と、北東北に分布するアイヌ語地名から、7世紀以降の蝦夷についてアイヌとの連続性を認める説が有力である。
Nowadays, the leading hypothesis is derived from a theory that considers the issue from the perspective of cultural areas based on archaeology; another theory considers the continuity of Emishi after the seventh century with the Ainu, as examined from the perspective of toponyms of the Ainu language distributed in the northern Tohoku region.

しかしながら、一応のところ、（原始・）古代・中世・近世・近代（・現代 (時代区分)）とする時代区分法が歴史研究では広く受け入れられている。
However, roughly it can be said that classifying the periods into (the primitive period), ancient times, the medieval period, the early-modern times, modern times, and the contemporary period is widely accepted in the researching of history.

それまでの年貢徴収法は、年毎に収穫量を見てその量を決める検見法がとられていたが、これでは収入が安定しないので、享保の改革の一環で導入された。
Until then, kemi ho (annual crop inspections), in which the amount of tax is determined based on the amount of crop that was produced each year, was adopted as the method of land tax collection, but the income was unstable with this method and jomen ho was adopted as part of the Kyoho reforms.

『占事略决』を伝授されるということは、安倍家内での六壬の伝授の仕上げとしての目録の伝授であったのではないかと、松岡はその著作で指摘している。
Matsuoka pointed out in his book that in the Abe family, a person who was given instruction in 'Senji ryakketsu' received its list as the finishing of instruction.

群盗海賊の頻発に対し、朝廷と国司は、ほとんど形骸化した軍団兵士制では満足のいく対応ができなかったため、別の鎮圧方策をとる必要に迫られていた。
Bobbers and pirates appeared frequently, but the imperial court and kokushi could not cope with the situation using the gundan-soldier system that had become a dead letter and were forced to take a new measure to combat them.

こうした状況下では、算道は実質上明経道に吸収された書道・音道に代わって成立した紀伝・明経・明法・算の4道の中で最下位に転落することとなった。
Under these circumstances, Sando fell to the bottom among the four studies of Kiden (biographical history), Myogyo (study of classic Confucian writings), Myobo (law), and San (arithmetic); these had been established to replace Shodo and Ondo, which were actually absorbed into Myogyo-do.

また、保科氏は将軍徳川秀忠の庶子・保科正之が継ぎ、小笠原氏は豊前小倉藩で九州の押えを任じられるなど徳川政権下では重く用いられている家は多い。
There were many families which were given important positions under the Tokugawa government as seen in the fact that the Hoshina clan was inherited by Masayuki HOSHINA, who was an illegitimate child of the shogun, Hidetada TOKUGAWA, and the Ogasawara clan was given Buzen Kokura to keep an eye on Kyushu.

大気中の黄砂の濃度が比較的薄いならば、多少の黄味を帯びた霞が発生し、普段よりも視程が悪くなる程度で、日常生活に大きな支障が出るほどではない。
When the density of kosa in the air is relatively low, slightly yellowish mist is generated and visibility is affected slightly, but everyday lives are not affected seriously.

武士の概念は時代により微妙に変化しており、一言では言い表すには難しいが、各時代でも共通しているのは武装した私兵集団の構成員だという点である。
The concept of bushi slightly varies depending on the periods and it is difficult to express it in one word, but the common theme through the periods is that they were members of a private army group of armed fighters.

反対の立場からは、歌詞は天皇崇拝の意味合いが強く（君＝天皇）、軍国主義を象徴しており、君主制ではない日本にはふさわしくないとする意見がある。
From the opposing standpoints, there is the opinion that the words have too strong a shade of meaning of worshiping the emperor ('kimi' = the emperor) and it symbolizes militarism and, therefore, it is not fit to Japan which is not a monarchy.

『吾妻鏡』には書かれていない相馬御厨での経緯を見れば、特に千葉常胤にとって、源義朝は「御恩」を感じるような相手ではなかったことは明らかである。
By looking at the progress of Soma-mikuriya (private estate of Soma ranch) not written in 'Azuma Kagami,' Tsunetate CHIBA was especially not the person whom MINAMOTO no Yoritomo felt 'indebted' to.

自主規制が盛んになる前ではヤクザものや不良抗争ものの漫画・映画などでのフィクションでもケンカ相手に対して '百姓' と呼ぶシーンが散見された。
Before self-restraints became popular, there were many scenes in fiction such as cartoons and films about mafia and conflicts between juvenile delinquents where the term 'hyakusho' is used to refer to someone whom he or she is fighting with.

その一方で農業生産性の低い土地では、連作が不可能なために人為的に耕作と休耕を繰り返す土地利用も現れたこうした土地を片荒（かたあらし）と呼んだ。
On the other hand, property with low agricultural productivity could not sustain continuous cropping and property that was deliberately cultivated on alternate years was called Kataarashi.

しかし、土地課税原則のもとでは、田地の存在さえ把握していればそこを実質的に経営している富豪層から収取すべき租税を収取することが十分可能となる。
Under the principle of tax on land, however, the government can collect tax from wealthy peasants who eventually manage the land in question only by confirming the existence of land.

むしろ撰銭を「制限」する一方で、混入比率や交換比率など、一定の撰銭行為を「公認した」という面に注目すべきだという意見が、今日では強まっている。
Rather, the following opinion has been gaining strength today: The erizeni act was restricted actually, but more attention should be paid to the aspect that certain erizeni acts were 'officially permitted,' for example, through the use of a mixing ratio or of an exchanging ratio.

今日、歴史学上では初の武家政権及び武家政治の創始は平氏政権にあるとされるが、朝廷から独立した本格的な武家政権が鎌倉幕府であることは間違いない。
Today, historians consider Taira clan government to have founded samurai government and politics but there is no doubt that the first full-fledged samurai government independent from the Imperial Court was the Kamakura Bakufu.

この考え方では、古代律令社会の解体から各地に形成された在地領主の発展を原動力として、領主層の独自の国家権力として鎌倉幕府が形成されたとみなす。
In this view, the Kamakura bakufu was formed as an independent state power of feudal lords driven by the development of local feudal lords in various places after the breakup of ancient society based on the ancient Ritsuryo codes.

もっとも、律令制以前及び初期の世習では継承者の能力についても問われたが、世襲が固定化されると能力と継承資格との関係は次第に希薄となっていった。
And yet, before the Ritsuryo system and in early Seshu the competence of successors also mattered, but as hereditary was established, the competence became less related to qualification of the successors.

『吾妻鏡』では信兼の息子たちが事件の張本であったとするが、彼らは義経の屋敷に出向いている事から、反乱と深い関わりは持っていなかったと見られる。
According to 'Azuma Kagami,' Nobukane's sons were responsible for the incident, but from the fact that they went to Yoshitsune's residence, they seem not to have been deeply involved in the rebellion.

兵卒の身分は依然として武士と農民の間に位置して低かったが、功を認められれば侍や特異な例ではあるが豊臣秀吉のように大名にまで出世する者もあった。
The low status held by ashigaru was intermediate between that of samurai and peasants but there were those such as Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI whose abilities were recognized and who rose to the rank of daimyo (feudal lord), although it was a peculiar case.

ただ、清盛も当初から軍事独裁を考えていたわけではなく、左大臣・経宗、右大臣・兼実、左大将・徳大寺実定など上流公卿には地位を認めて協力を求めた。
However, Kiyomori was also not planning the military dictatorship from the beginning, and he accepted the positions of the upper class kugyo such as FUJIWARA no Tsunemune, who had the title of Sadaijin, Kanezane, who had the title of Udaijin (Minister of the Right), and Sanesada TOKUDAIJI, who had the title of Sadaisho (Major Captain the Left Division of Inner Palace Guards) and sought cooperation.

安田元久などの旧来の学説では、在地経営が私営田経営であった平将門から平忠常の時代は、「兵」の時代であって、「武士」はその次ぎの段階であるとする。
The former academic theory of Motohisa YASUDA referred to the period of TAIRA no Masakado when local land managing was shieiden management of TAIRA no Tadatsune during the period of 'tsuwamono' and 'bushi' was the next step.

給主側では、散在している免田を一箇所に集め、浮免を固定して定免田（じょうめんでん）化することで、土地と耕作権者の一体的な把握を目指すようになる。
The Kyunushi side collected the scattered Menden in one place and fixed the Ukimen to become Jyomenden (stationary concession) and aimed for a unified control of the land and person who had the cultivation rights.

その後の三・一五事件の影響で公判は紆余曲折の経緯をたどり、1929年12月の大阪控訴院判決では18名に対し懲役7年以下とより厳しい量刑となった。
Under the influence of the Affair on March 15, the public trial underwent a complicated processes, and in the decision by Osaka koso-in (Osaka court of appeal) of December 1929, 18 criminals were sentenced to severe assessment of a case of imprisonment with hard labor less than seven years.

一方神社では社家が荘園を分割支配して安定した収入確保を図ろうとするが、次第に自己の家領として私物化して場合によっては第三者に譲渡する例も現れた。
On the other hand, in the shrines, shake (hereditary priest at a shrine) divided and ruled the shoen to secure stable income, but gradually privatized the shoen as its own karei (hereditary land), even sold the shoen to the others in some cases.

その中にあって、東部イングランド低地では、スカンジナビア入植者の遺産の一部として、当時としては例外的とも言える農民の広範な自由が確保されていた。
Among them, in the eastern England lower zone, a wide variety of farmers' freedom was secured, which was exceptional in those days, because of a part of Scandinavian settlers' heritage.

これ以降、家督の相続を巡って相克のあった蘆名・田村・岩城・最上・南部などの諸家では、国人一揆と大名の契約関係の一元化により戦国大名化を果たした。
After that, in various clans such as Ashina, Tamura, Iwaki, Mogami, and Nanbu had struggles with respect to inheritance of the reigns of the family had been transformed into sengoku daimyo through unification of relations between kokujin ikki and daimyo.

それを機会に肥前では少弐氏に対する謀反で勃興した龍造寺氏が勢力を拡大、龍造寺隆信の代になってほんの一時期、大友・島津と肩を並べるまでに伸張した。
Taking advantage of such situations, the Ryuzoji clan that rose from the rebellion of the Shoni clan expanded its power in Hizen and, for a short period in the age of Takanobu RYUZOJI, grew to compete with the Otomo clan and the Shimazu clan.

こういった調査により、黄砂の粒子は、粘土粒子同士が凝集したり、やや大きい鉱物の粒子に粘土粒子が付着したりしてできたのではないかと推定されている。
Based on these investigations, it is supposed that particles of kosa are cohered clay particles or comparatively large mineral particles to which clay particles are stuck.

また近年、地上では視程も低下しないため黄砂として観測されない時に、自由大気（自由対流圏）と呼ばれる高層で薄い砂塵が観測されることがわかってきた。
Recently, it has also become known that, even when no kosa is observed on the ground level because no visibility is affected there, thin dust is observed in the high-altitude atmospheric layer called the free atmosphere (also known as free troposphere).

また、畿内から遠い東北・関東・九州では、惣村よりも広い範囲（荘園・公領単位）で、ゆるやかな村落結合が形成されたが、これを郷村（ごうそん）という。
In the Tohoku, Kanto and Kyushu regions far from the Kinai region, moderately unified villages were formed within a range larger than that of a soson (as a unit of manor or public land), and such villages were called goson (autonomous villages).

惣村は、原則としては荘園・公領領主や地頭・守護などによって支配される建前であったが、これら支配者の規制を唯々諾々として受け入れていた訳ではない。
Although soson was technically governed by the lord of a manor and Imperial estate or shugo and jito (military governor and estate steward), the people of soson had not necessarily accepted the control of these rulers obediently.

もちろん、「私営田領主」「私営田経営者」の説明がそれで済む訳ではないが、それに続く「開発領主」との対比においては、そのひとことが大きな特徴となる。
Of course, this did not fully explain the 'lord of shieiden' and 'manager of shieiden' but pointed out their special characteristics in contrast to later 'kaihatsu-ryoshu.'

一方でそれら守護や国人の支配権は無条件に強固になったわけではなく、被官が他の守護に寝返ったり、他の国人と一揆を結んで守護の干渉を防ぐこともあった。
On the other hand, strengthening the ruling power of a Shugo or Kokujin was not necessarily accomplished smoothly, due to vassals often changing loyalty to other Shugo or rebelled against a Shugo in an alliance with another Kokujin.

その後の1980年代以降では、義江彰夫、関幸彦、元木泰雄その他の方が、それら両論の成果を発展させるべくそれぞれの視点から積極的に論を展開している。
Since the 1980s, Akio YOSHIE, Yukihiko SEKI, Yasuo MOTOKI, and others have passionately debated those two arguments from their respective points of view to develop each other's theory.

領地再分配では、次男・織田信雄は尾張国を、3男・信孝は美濃国を相続し、信長の4男で秀吉の養子である羽柴秀勝は明智光秀の旧領である丹波国を相続した。
As the conclusion to the issue of territory redistribution, Nobukatsu ODA inherited Owari Province as the second son, and Nobutaka inherited Mino Province as the third son, while HideKatsu HASHIBA, the fourth son of Nobunaga as well as the adopted son of Hideyoshi, inherited Tanba Province, which had been the territory of Mitsuhide AKECHI.

外国との条約締結を巡り幕府では朝廷に勅許を求めるべきであるとする意見が出され、鎖国政策を維持するか、開国するかにあたり朝廷の判断を仰ぐ事となった。
Some in the Shogunate had the view that they should acquire Imperial permission from the Imperial Court in order to sign a treaty with a foreign country, and a decision was made to seek the judgment of the Imperial Court on whether to maintain the sakoku policy (seclusion) or an open-door policy.

武家政権や朝廷のように権力中枢があったわけではなく、各寺社が独立して行動し、また一寺社内でもさまざまな集団がせめぎ合っていたため、「勢力」と呼ぶ。
It is called 'seiryoku' because there was no center of power as with the military government and Imperial Court, but each religious institution acted independently and even in one institution there were many counteracting groups.

こうした古代・中世史研究の深まりとともに、農民ではなく貴族に武士のルーツを求める見方が生まれ、両者を繋ぐ概念として提起されたのが、軍事貴族である。
A new understanding that the origin of the samurais was aristocrats instead of farmers grew as ancient and medieval studies progressed, and the concept of a military aristocracy was formed as a link between aristocrats and samurais.

一方、飛来地側の日本では、春にあたる2月 - 5月の4ヶ月間に年間の約90%が集中し、夏にあたる7月 - 9月は全くと言っていいほど観測されない。
On the other hand, in Japan where kosa is brought, approx. 90 percent of kosa arriving is concentrated in the four months from February to May corresponding to spring, with almost no kosa observed in July to September corresponding to summer.

なお、中世の法慣習では、支配権を有する領主や地頭などが検断権を持つこととされていたが、支配される側の惣村が検断権を持っていた点に大きな特徴がある。
A major feature was that the laws and customs of the medieval period specified that a lord or a Jito who had the right to rule should have the right of kendan, but the soson under control had such a right.

現在でも納経をしないと御朱印がもらえない寺院が存在するが、多くの寺社では少額の金銭（初穂料・御布施）を納めることで御朱印がもらえるようになっている。
There are still some temples that will not give goshuin unless sutra copies are submitted, but at many temples, goshuin will be given by donating a small amount of money (hatsuho-ryo (ceremony fee) or offerings).

また、個別人身支配を受けるべき個々の民は、かつてのように地域首長層の末裔たる郡司の首長権への精神的服従意識によって統率された存在ではなくなっていた。
Further, individuals who were supposed to be subject to people-based governance were no more the people who were led by mental obedience consciousness to the chieftaincy of Gunji, the descendants of the chiefs of village communities.

但し、近年ではより厳密な定義として、上記摂津源氏の中でも特に多田庄を相続した系統のみを指して「多田源氏」と呼ぶ用い方もなされている（以下にて詳述）。
A recent, precise definition says, 'Tada-Genji' means only the line which inherited Tada Manors among Settsu-Genji branches (for further details, see below).

温室効果ガス削減が容易ではない国は少ない費用で削減が可能となり、削減が容易な国は対価を求めて大量の削減が望めるという、2つの効果を念頭に置いている。
Two effects are taken into consideration, that is, the countries which have difficulty in reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases can realize it at low cost, whereas the countries not having difficulty in reducing the emissions can achieve remuneration for the emissions reduction in large quantities.

現在では、新聞・テレビ（天気予報など）・インターネット（携帯電話、電子メール含む）・テレホンサービスなどで、地域ごとの毎日の飛散予測が出されている。
Daily airborne pollen forecasts by area are now available in newspapers, on television (weather forecasts), via the internet (including mobile telephones and E-mail) and by telephone.

遺存状況が極めて良く、国内では発見例の極めて少ない八角塔が検出され、建築史上重要な寺院跡として、1971年（昭和46年）3月1日に史跡に指定された。
This site was designated as a National Historic Site on March 1, 1971, because the remains were excellently preserved and an octagonal tower that has been rarely discovered in this country was recognized to have existed, and they are valuable remains of a temple in terms of architectural history.

今日の日本では嫡流という価値観や概念は日常的なものとしては存在していないが、それでも本家や長男を中心に家の祭祀や家名存続を考える志向が強いといえる。
The values and concepts of chakuryu no longer exist in the daily life of today's Japan, and yet there is a strong tendency to consider the family's religious services and the continuation of the family name mostly in terms of honke and the eldest son.

その後の源平の争乱時にも、彼らは国衙を、或いは荘園を通じ、公権に基づき動員される場合には「駆武者」（かりむしゃ）と呼ばれ、戦闘の中核部隊ではなかった。
Even during the later the Genpei War, they negotiated through either Kokuga or shoen (manor in medieval Japan), called as 'Karimusha' when mobilized due to civil rights, and were not a central fighting force of a battle.

これは、かつての寄進地が茨城県北相馬郡近辺であったものから、千葉県南相馬郡側に広がり、推定では、東西7km、南北20kmに及ぶ広大な地域となっている。
While the land donated in the past was around the Kitasoma-gun, Ibaraki Prefecture, the area was extended toward the Minamisoma-gun, Chiba Prefecture, which was presumed to be a broad region of 7 km in the east and the west and 20 km in the north and the south.

以仁王の令旨の文中に王自らの即位について触れているために、京都では以仁王の挙兵が後白河－高倉天皇系統からの皇位簒奪のための謀叛行為と受け取られていた。
The rising of Prince Mochihito was regarded as a rebellious act aiming at the usurpation of the imperial throne from the lineage of the retired Emperor Goshirakawa and Emperor Takakura because Prince Mochihito's order included a reference to his own enthronement.

領主の支出面を見てみると、荘園管理は大きな出費を伴うものであり、小規模な荘園では農奴保有に依存しない傾向があったのも、このためだったと考えられている。
As for the expense of the lords, the management of shoens cost a lot and that was why the small-scaled shoens were not likely to depend on the ownership of serfs.

これらの村落では、惣内部の法規定として、明文化された惣掟（そうおきて）を全構成員の合意のもとに制定し、惣掟に違反した者へ厳しく検断権を実行していった。
These rural communities enacted as a legal provision within sosons a clearly-stated so okite (rules) under the agreement of all constituent members and exercised severely their rights to judge criminal cases against those who broke the so okite.

戦闘に堪え得る乗馬と鎧、そして馬を乗りこなしての騎射（弓）の訓練ができる者とは、平安時代後期ではごく一握りの特種技能集団でしかあり得なかったはずである。
Only a handful of special skill unit forces existed during the late Heian period, that could go through horseback training, wear armor, and practice horseback skills that could stand battle, and could shoot arrows while riding a horse.

イタリアの都市国家では支配階層であり貴族層の権力伸張を抑える手段として用いられ、続いて女性の発言力増加を危惧してこれを抑圧するための手段として出された。
Italian city-states used this kind of law as a means to restrain the extension of power of the nobles who were then the ruling class and to suppress the increasing influence of women, which was becoming a concern of the country.

近代以前の日本における教科書（きんだいいぜんのにほんにおけるきょうかしょ）では、明治の学校制度確立以前の日本の教科書（学習教材）の歴史について解説する。
This article will explain about the history of the school textbooks in Japan until the school system was established in the Meiji period.

日本の学界では中国の荘園に対する理解（主に「世界史の基本原則」及び中世ヨーロッパの荘園との対比）について大きく分けると2説に分かれて論争が行われてきた。
Concerning the understanding on Chinese shoens in Japanese academia (mainly the contrast between 'the basic principle of world history' and European shoens in medieval times), opinions have been divided roughly into two theories and disputed.

このため、鎌倉期以前の荘園では、住居がまばらに点在する散村が通常であったが、室町期に入ると、民衆が自己防衛のため村落単位で団結する傾向が強まっていった。
For this reason, in the shoen before the Kamakura period, the dispersed rural settlements where the houses were sparsely scattered were normal, but in the Muromachi period the common people increasingly tended to consolidate as a village unit for self-defense.

ただし、武装集団である武士社会の行動原理に、現代社会ではヤクザなどの暴力団組織に特徴的に認められる行動原理が無視できないほど共通しているのも確かである。
It is certain that the behavioral principle of bushi society, which were an armed group, is significantly similar to the behavioral principle which is characteristically seen in a gangster organization like yakuza and so on in modern society.

そのため、幕府の支配権の及ぶ範囲は主として頼朝傘下の武士に限られ、少なくとも承久の乱までは朝廷側勢力（権門勢家）の支配権を侵害しないことを原則としていた。
Thus, the extent of the bakufu's control was limited mainly to the samurai under Yoritomo and, in principle, at least until Jokyu War, it did not infringe on the control of Imperial Court forces (the great and powerful).

1582年（天正10年）6月の本能寺の変の後に行われた清洲会議では、明智討伐に功があった堀秀政に与えられ、その後、堀家の転封にともない堀尾吉晴が入城した。
At the Kiyosu Council, which occurred in the sixth month of 1582 following the Honnoji Incident (in which Nobunaga died, betrayed by his vassal Mitsuhide AKECHI), the castle was awarded to Hidemasa HORI, who had won distinction during the hunting down of the Akechi forces, but thereafter, following a transition of the leadership of the Hori clan, it was Yoshiharu HORIO who occupied it.

京都入りした天皇の訪問先となっていた島津製作所三条工場では、訪問直前まで賃上げストが行われ（労資の紛争を天皇の目に触れさせたくない）関係者の気を揉ませた。
At Sanjo Works, Shimazu Corporation, one of the destinations of the Emperor's visit, a strike demanding wage increases was conducted until just before the Emperor's visit and it had relevant people (who didn't want a scene of labor-management conflicts to catch the eye of the Emperor) worried.

六朝時代の南朝 (中国)では、別墅（べっしょ）・別業と呼ばれて江南貴族の中には数百頃の田畠を持つ者も存在したが、あくまでも別荘の一部として捉えられていた。
In the Nan-Dynasty during the Rikucho period they were called bessho (villa) or betsugyo (villa), some of the Ciangnan aristocracy had hundreds of fields (of rice and other crops), but they were regarded as a part of the villa.

韓国で同国の農村振興庁が黄砂を採取して行った検査では、地域差があるものの、細菌の濃度が通常の大気の7 - 22倍、カビの濃度が15 - 26倍と高かった。
An investigation conducted by the Rural Development Administration of South Korea for sampled kosa showed that, although depending on the area, the samples included bacteria with a density of 7 to 22 times more than that of the ordinary air and mold with a density of 15 to 26 times that of the ordinary air.

そのため、中国北部や西部では、砂漠化しやすい土地でありながら、農耕や牧畜を従来の移動型から土地への負荷（水不足のリスク）が大きい定着型へと変えてしまった。
Therefore, in the northern part and western part of China, the way of farming and livestock-farming has been changed from the moving type to the stationary type, though use of the stationary type is likely to change areas in these parts into desert.

中世前期（平安時代～鎌倉時代）までは、民衆（百姓など）を規制する法令は、律令・公家法・本所法・武家法など支配者により定められたものしか存在していなかった。
Before the early medieval period (from the Heian to Kamakura periods), the general public (peasants etc.) were regulated only by the laws established by rulers, such as the Ritsuryo codes, court noble law, honjo (proprietor or guarantor of manor) law, and samurai law.

西洋諸国のように大形の大砲を製造できるほどにまだ鋳造技術が優れていなかった当時の東アジアでは、こうしたロケット型の兵器が攻城戦や海戦で比較的多く導入された。
At the time, East Asia had not yet created superior metal casting technology similar to Western countries, which meant that large cannons were unable to be produced and relatively numerous rocket-shaped weapons were introduced in siege warfare and naval battles.

しかし、初期・前期の村落内では前代を引き継ぐ階層差が大きく、(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)のどれかを欠く家(小百姓あるいは多様な隷属民)も多数存在していた。
In the early villages, the hierarchy which was inherited from the previous period was significant, and there were a large number of families who lacked any of (1), (2), (3), (4), and (5) (peasants who owned little plow land or various subordinate people).

これは、今川氏は既に室町幕府の権威によって領国を統治する守護大名ではなく、自らの実力によって領国を統治する戦国大名であることを明確に宣言したものでもあった。
This was also clear declaration by the Imagawa clan that he was no longer the shugo daimyo who ruled his territory backed by the authority of the Muromachi bakufu, but the Sengoku daimyo who ruled his own territory with his own capability.

更には本陣備のみならずその他の備も視野に収めたより大規模な小荷駄も含まれている（図3では省略しているが家康本陣備には陣場奉行・小屋営作奉行などが存在する）。
Moreover, it also included large-scale provisions transporters which oversaw other sonae in addition to the army headquarters sonae (it is omitted in Figure 3, but there exist a jinbabugyo (camp commissioner) and a commissioner managing the temporary quarters construction in Ieyasu's army headquarters sonae).

日本では『日本書紀』以下六国史など史書は編年体で編纂されるのが常で、『史記』のような紀伝体の史書が編纂された先例はなく、史館員からの反対意見もあったという。
History in Japan such as the six histories including 'Nihon shoki' were commonly compiled chronologically and because there was no history like 'Shiki' written along events, compiling staff had objections.

2002年4月に黄砂の発生・飛来地域で行われたエアロゾルの成分分析では、カルシウム鉱物に占める石膏の割合が、東の地域にいくほど増加したという調査結果がある。
A component analysis of aerosol conducted in April, 2002 at a kosa-producing place and a kosa-falling place showed that the ratio of gypsum included in calcium minerals was larger in more eastern places.

この体制を担う貴族や官人の家組織の中では、子弟や外部から能力を見込んだ弟子に対し、幼少期から家業たる専門業務の英才教育をほどこして家業を担う人材を育成した。
Aristocrats and government officials who undertook such authority and duty developed human resources: they pampered their children as well as gifted disciples.

会所では、付書院とか違い棚とか押板とか、唐物の飾りの場としての性質、後世の書院造につながる設備が注目されるが、そういったものがあるのは、附属の小部屋である。
People focused on the characteristic of Kaisho having the Tsukeshoin (a type of window), Chigaidana (a set of staggered shelves), oshiita, the place to decorate with karamono and equipment that would lead to the later Shoinzukuri (architecture of a study room), but it is the adjoining small room that has those items.

明治2年（1869年）、明治維新に伴う官制改革によって廃止されたが、律令制に基づく機関の中では、最後まで設置当初の職掌を名実ともに保った稀有の存在であった。
In 1869, the Tenyakuryo was abolished during the reform of government institutions that followed the Meiji Restoration, but among all the institutions based on the ritsuryo system, the Tenyakuryo had the rare distinction of having managed to maintain, both in word and in deed, its official functions from when it was founded right up until the moment it was dissolved.

その後、千葉常胤と源義朝の間でどういう決着を見たのかは不明であるが、保元の乱では千葉常胤は源義朝の率いる関東の兵の中に、上総介常澄の子広常とともに名が見える。
It is unknown how Tsunetane CHIBA and MINAMOTO no Yoshitomo were settled thereafter, but Tsunetane CHIBA's name appears, together with Kazusa no suke Tsunezumi's son Hirotsune, in the Kanto forces led by MINAMOTO no Yoshitomo in the Hogen War.

密教絵画では、京都市東山区青蓮院の『青蓮院国宝』（絹本着色、通称「青不動」、国宝）があり、「不動十九観」に依拠する現存最古の画像であり、11世紀の製作である。
Among Esoteric Buddhist paintings, 'Shorenin National Treasure' in Shoren-in Temple in Higashiyama Ward, Kyoto City (color painting on silk, commonly called 'Ao Fudo' [Blue Fudo], a national treasure) is the oldest existing image based on 'Fudo Juku-kan, nineteen Characteristic Signs of Fudo Myoo,' and it was created during the 11th century.

例えば、大分県豊後高田市の田染荘（たしぶのしょう）では、中世前期の荘園景観が残存している全国でも珍しい地区であり、このことを核として地域振興に取り組んでいる。
For example, in Tashibu no sho in Bungo-Takada City, Oita Prefecture, the view of shoens of the early medieval times remains unusually even across Japan and they promote regional development through this.

周囲を山脈に囲まれたタクラマカン砂漠などの高低差が大きい発生地では、ほぼ毎日同じ時間帯に山谷風と呼ばれる強風が吹き、これが砂塵を舞い上げているとの指摘もある。
It is also pointed out that, in areas where kosa can originate that are surrounded by mountain ranges, for example, the Takla Makan Desert, a strong wind called yamatanikaze (mountain-valley wind) blows at the same time every day, making dust fly up.

延暦寺の支配下に置かれて浄土真宗の活動を禁じられていた本願寺では蓮如が救済活動の傍ら延暦寺からの独立を図ってその怒りを招き、いわゆる寛正の法難の原因となった。
At the Hongan-ji Temple that was put under control of the Enryaku-ji Temple and was prohibited to conduct any Jodo Shin Sect-related activities, Rennyo tried to regain the temple's independence from the Enryaku-ji Temple while engaging himself in rescue efforts, but was met with anger, which triggered the so-called religious persecution in the Kansei Era.

武士は、一般に「武芸に通じ、戦闘を職業とする軍人、あるいは兵法家のこと」とされるが、これだけでは平安時代以前の律令制体制下の「武官」との違いがはっきりしない。
Generally, bushi refers to 'a service member who is a master of military art and battle or a military strategist,' but by this definition, the difference between the 'military officer' under the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code) before the Heian period and the bushi is not clear.

そのため、国衙は国司四等官全員が郡司層を介して戸籍に登録された公民単位に徴税を行うのではなく、筆頭国司たる受領が富豪層を把握して彼らから徴税を行うようになった。
Thus, instead of having all kokushi shitokan (four officials of the provincial governor) collect tax via the gunji class from each citizen unit registered in a family registry, kokuga collected tax from zuryo, the head of the provincial governors, who grasped people of the rich and powerful class and collected tax from them.

すでに9世紀後期の頃から、実際に租税収取を担当する地方行政の現場では、戸籍・計帳を基盤に置いた課税方式が後退し、土地に対する課税が積極的に行われる傾向にあった。
As early as from the late 9th century, local administrative bodies, which were actually in charge of tax collection, tended to impose tax on land rather than collecting it based on family registration/keicho.

左方のチームカラーは暖色系統（当時は紫から橙色まで）で、大きな催しなどではアシスタントの女童たちの衣装や品物を包む料紙なども赤紫から紅の色合いで意匠を統一する。
The left team was dressed in warm colors, ranging from purple to orange at the time, and in big events, the designs of costumes of assistant menowarawa (girls) and of writing paper for wrapping items were also unified in colors ranging from reddish purple to red.

歌合などでは、小貴族であっても和歌の腕がよければ選ばれて光栄に浴することも出来たので、身分の低い参加者のうちには文字通り命がけの覚悟で歌を練るものもいたと言う。
Since even minor nobles would be able to have the honor of being selected if they were skilled at waka (a traditional Japanese poem of thirty-one syllables), especially utaawase, it is said that some of the people of low birth were desperate to come up with good poems, literally for their lives.

保元の乱では、惣領の座を巡って激しく争った多田頼盛・多田頼憲兄弟が後白河天皇方と崇徳上皇方とに別れて戦い、上皇方に与した頼憲とその嫡子多田盛綱が処刑されている。
Yorimori TADA and his brother Yorinori TADA who had disputed over the head of the Tada clan fought each other at the Hogen Disturbance as Yorimori supported the reigning Emperor Goshirakawa and Yorinori supported the Retired Emperor Sutoku, and then Yorinori and his heir Moritsuna TADA were executed.

戦国末期には宗族組織はほとんど崩壊あるいは変質していたため、諸侯は支配地の住民を宗族に基づいて支配するのではなく、個別人身的な支配関係を構築していったとされる。
By the end of the Zhangguo period, Sozoku organizations collapsed or changed their nature, therefore, lords started to build rulers-and-subjects relations with people in their domain individually instead of ruling them based on Sozoku.

京都議定書の上位概念である気候変動枠組み条約では、一部の経済移行国を除き、基準年reference yearとして 1990年しか選択できないこととされている。
According to United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, which is a superordinate concept of Kyoto Protocol, the base year, or the reference year must be 1990 for the participating countries except a part of economically developing countries.

この時、周辺にいた公卿・官人らが巻き込まれ、公卿では大納言民部卿の藤原清貫が衣服に引火した上に胸を焼かれて即死、右中弁内蔵頭の平希世も顔を焼かれて重傷を負った。
The court nobles and government officials at the scene were injured: among the court nobles, Dainagon (Major Counselor), Minbukyo (Minister of Popular Affairs) FUJIWARA no Kiyotsura's robe caught fire, his chest was burnt and he died instantly, and Uchuben (Middle Controller of the Right) Kura no kami, (Chief of Kuraryo, Bureau of Palace Storehouses) TAIRA no Mareyo, suffered burns on his face, which was a serious injury.

日本側では南北朝の動乱が（特に博多を含む九州においては）収まっておらず、当時九州の有力者であった南朝側の懐良親王が明の使者に応じて「日本国王」に封ぜられている。
In Japan, where disturbances between the Northern and Southern Courts had not been contained (in particular in Kyushu district including Hakata), Imperial Prince Kanenaga (Kaneyoshi) of the Southern Court who received a messenger from Ming was sealed as 'King of Japan.'

また、城砦としての防衛能力を重視した場所は必ずしも交通の便が良いところではなく、交易都市の色彩を強めるにつれ城が放棄され陣屋などに行政中心が移ったケースも多い。
Additionally, places that placed an emphasis on defensive ability as a castle retreat were not in places with good transportation, and as they started to increasingly become trade cities, Jinya instead of castles became the center of government.

これらは、長年議論の対象となってきた（「座論争」）が、今日では座とは本来は一定の有資格者が一同に会する場を指し、両方の意味合いを有していたとする説が有力である。
These theories have been discussed over a long period of time (this discussion is called 'the za debate'), and the current dominant theory explains that the word 'za' originally indicated a place where certain qualified persons gathered all together and thus the word included both the meanings.

1995年 - 1998年の春に韓国で行われた疫学調査では、黄砂の飛来時に高齢者の死亡率が2.2%上昇したほか、呼吸器・循環器・眼科の入院率や通院率が上昇した。
In an epidemiological survey conducted in South Korea between 1995 and 1998, death rate in the higher age range increased by 2.2 percent and the persons who visited or were admitted to hospitals due to diseases related to respiratory organs, circulatory organs or eyes increased, when kosa arrived flying.

ただし、中国では、「黄沙」などの名称は主に研究者の間で用いられており、一般には日本語の「黄砂」に当たるような黄砂現象全体を表現する言葉がほとんど浸透していない。
However, in China, the term of '黄沙' is mostly used among the researchers concerned, and the term indicating the kosa phenomena as a whole, for example, the one corresponding to 'kosa' in Japan, is hardly used.

日本では第二次世界大戦前に三井財閥・三菱財閥・住友財閥・安田財閥などの財閥があったが、敗戦後、連合国軍最高司令官総司令部の指令により分散させられた（財閥解体）。
In Japan, there were several zaibatsu prior to World War II, including Mitsui Zaibatsu, Mitsubishi Zaibatsu, Sumitomo Zaibatsu and Yasuda Zaibatsu, but after the war they were dismantled by the order of the General Headquarters of the Allied Powers (GHQ) (i.e., the dissolution of Zaibatsu).

更に従来の半済令が期限を「当年一作」、施行地域を「戦乱の国々」としていたのに対して、この法令では期限が「暫く（当分の間）」、施行地域を「諸国」と文面が改められた。
Additionally, in contrast to the former series of Hanzeirei which defined their time frame as 'this year's crop' and enforced in areas deemed 'provinces in a state of war,' this law defined the time frame as 'for the time being' and the areas as 'various districts.'

以上のことが通説とされるが、翌年には毛利水軍は籠城中の三木城への兵糧搬入作戦も大々的に行っており、最近の研究では通説で言われるほどの大敗であったかは疑問とされる。
These are commonly accepted theories, but in recent studies the theory of the Mori navy's major defeat is questioned because the Mori navy conducted an operation to deliver provisions to the besieged Miki-jo Castle on a massive scale in the next year.

一方、田畠の少ない山地河海周辺や都市部では、住屋や宅地に対する地子（賃借料）を名目とした在家地子（ざいけじし）が賦課されて鮎・薪・炭などの非農業生産物が課された。
Meanwhile, in areas that were scarce in paddies and fields - such as mountainous districts, riverside areas, coastal areas, and merchant districts - 'jishi' (a kind of rent, called 'zaike-jishi') was imposed on a house and its premises, and people were also obliged to provide non-agricultural products, such as sweetfish, firewood, and charcoal.

何ら暴力的な事件が起こっていなかったにもかかわらず、翌11月13日、衆議院文部委員会では、大学管理法案審議の過程で天野貞祐歴代の文部大臣がこの「事件」に言及した。
Although there wasn't any acts of violence, the Minister for Education, Teiyu AMANO, mentioned this 'incident' the next day, November 13, at the Lower House Education Committee in the process of the deliberation of the draft law of the university administration.

2005年（平成17年）6月17日、大韓民国慶尚南道馬山市では、毎年6月19日を『対馬の日』とする条例が宣布され、400人以上の市民が参加し『宣布式』が催された。
On June 17, 2005, in the city of Masan in South Gyeongsang province in the Republic of South Korea, the date of June 19 of every year was declared 'Tsushima Day' by the local government, with more than 400 citizens of Masan participating in 'the proclamation ceremony.'

これによって大学寮に残って博士などの教官職を目指す者以外にとっては卒業は任官の必須の要件ではなくなり、大学寮の試験そのものが形骸化・簡略化されるきっかけとなった。
As a result, for students other than those who stayed in Daigaku-ryo and aspired to a teaching career such as hakase (professor), graduation was no more a prerequisite for job appointment, and this prompted Daigaku-ryo's examinations to lose substance and to become simplified.

ただし、戦において落人が発生することは珍しいことではなく、まして西海に覇を唱え、大軍を擁しながらも大敗・滅亡した平家にとって多くの落人が発生したことは当然といえる。
However, given the fact that a war usually creates many fugitives, it is natural to consider that many people of the Taira family became fugitives since the Taira family was defeated and collapsed though it held sway over the western part of Japan and held a large army.

しかし、その後北部では家康に従う依田信蕃が戦死し、武田旧臣で、一時は織田政権に臣従した真田昌幸が新たに築城した上田城に拠り、上杉氏の援助を得て徳川氏の支配を拒んだ。
Subsequently, however, Nobushige YODA, who was on Ieyasu's side, was killed in battle in the northern region, and Masayuki SANADA, a former vassal of Takeda who had also served under Nobunaga ODA, resided in the newly built Ueda-jo Castle, resisting the rule of the Tokugawa clan with the support of the Uesugi clan.

なお、林野庁ではこの削減を達成するために、例えば間伐tree thinningについては平成19〜24年の 6年間に 330万ヘクタールで実施することとしている。
For example, Forestry Agency has announced that tree thinning will be carried out in three million and three hundred thousand hectares in six years from 2007 to 2012 to achieve the reduction target.

永和 (日本)元年（天授 (日本)元年/1373年）から3年にかけて、東寺が幕府に依頼した訴訟に関して引付方ではなく仁政方での裁決を求める遣り取りが記録されている。
During the term from 1373 to 1375, the proceedings which appealed not to Hikitsukeshu, but to Jinseigata for a ruling had been recorded.

鋳造品では、中尊寺円乗院所蔵品として神仏習合思想を端的に示す『金銅釈迦如来像御正体』（重要文化財）、金色堂内陣長押に掛けられた『金銅華鬘』（国宝。金色院蔵）がある。
'Kondo Shaka Nyorai zo mishotai' (an important cultural property) possessed by Chuson-ji Temple Enjo-in that partly represents the thoughts of syncretization of Shinto with Buddhism and 'Kondo-Keman' (a national treasure, possessed by Konjiki-in Temple) are some of the casting products.

また、黄砂自体はアレルギー物質ではないものの、汚染物質が付着したときに何らかの相乗効果を及ぼし、汚染物質が人体に及ぼす悪影響を増幅させている可能性も指摘されている。
Although kosa itself is not allergen, the following possibility is pointed out: When pollutants stick to kosa, some synergistic effects are generated and the bad effects that the pollutants would affect human bodies are amplified.

発生地ではない日韓も、黄砂に付着する大気汚染物質の発生源である自国企業関連の工場や、砂漠化につながる木材・農産品・畜産品の輸入などを通しても関わっており責任がある。
Japan and South Korea, where no kosa is produced, are concerned with kosa as well because the factories of companies in these nations generate air pollutants that stick to kosa and because they import wood, agricultural products and livestock products that may cause desertification, and therefore, they are also responsible.

更に予定では菊亭晴季の辞任を前提に秀吉を右大臣に昇進させ、二条昭実は1年程度の関白在任を経て近衛信輔に関白を譲り信輔は引き続き左大臣を兼ねる予定であったようである。
It seems the plan was to promote Hideyoshi to Udaijin on the premise of Harusue KIKUTEI's yielding the position to him, to let Akizane NIJO serve as Kanpaku for a year and him relinquish the position to Nobusuke KONOE, and to let Nobusuke serve both as Sadaijin and Kanpaku.

したがって、この「君」は特定の個人をさすものではなく、治世の君（古今和歌集の時代においては帝）の長寿を祝し、その御世によせる賛歌として収録されたものとも考えられる。
Therefore, we can also understand that this 'kimi' does not mean any specific individual person, but this waka was included as an anthem to celebrate the longevity of the reigning lord (the emperor at the time of Kokin-Wakashu) and was dedicated to his reign.

源義朝が相馬御厨を寄進しえたということは、単なる書類上のことだけではなくて、現地での徴税の請負の意味をもっていた以上、事実上の在地支配を離れて可能であったはずはない。
He also discusses that since the fact that MINAMOTO no Yoshitomo could donate Soma-mikuriya, it was not just a piece of paper and indicated a contract for the local collection of tax, and the donation could not have been made independently from the de facto land ruling.

8世紀初頭に成立した律令制のもとでは、公田のうち口分田を班給した後に余った乗田を国衙が百姓らに貸し付けて、収穫物の2割を納入させる賃租の規定があった（「田令公田条）。
Under the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code) established at the beginning of the 8th century, there was a provision of chinso (land taxes under the Ritsuryo system) that, after hankyu (allotment) of kubunden (the field given to each farmer in the Ritsuryo system), kokuga (provincial government offices) lent peasants joden (rest of the field after kubunden was given) from the remaining koden (fields administered directly by a ruler) and charged 20 percent of their harvest as jishi (according to 'Denryo-koden-jo).

ただし、いくつかの写本では表題として明確に占事略决の表記が採用されており、最も入手しやすい村山1981でもそれにならっていることから、これが一般的な表記となっている。
However, '占事略决' is the commonly used title, as the titles of some transcripts can be clearly discerned, and the most easily available 'Nihon Onmyodoshi Sosetsu' by Shuichi MURAYAMA also followed suit.

朝鮮出兵における五島勢（ちょうせんしゅっぺいにおけるごとうぜい）では、豊臣秀吉の文禄・慶長の役における、肥前国五島藩（福江藩、現長崎県五島列島）の動きについて述べる。
Here is the article 'The Goto troops in Japan's Invasion of Korea' about the activities of Goto Domain in Hizen Province (Fukue Domain, the present Goto Islands in Nagasaki Prefecture) in the Bunroku and Keicho War led by Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI.

第一に、本判決は、最高裁が、肖像権を初めて認めた事例である（「肖像権」という権利を認めたわけではないが、実質的にこれと同じ憲法上の利益を認めたものと認識されている）。
First, in this judgment the right of portrait was guaranteed for the first time (it was not 'the right of portrait' itself that was guaranteed, but it has been recognized that the same constitutional benefit was guaranteed).

中世社会では、信仰の形として刀を仏にささげる行為が一般化しており、鎌倉時代には執権北条泰時が鎌倉市中の僧侶の帯刀を禁じた際に、没収した刀を高徳院に寄進すると述べている。
In the Japanese medieval society, an offering of sword to Buddha was generally accepted as an expression of belief such that when regent Yasutoki HOJO prohibited the Buddhist monks in the city of Kamakura from wearing swords in the Kamakura period, he declared that he would contribute the confiscated swords to Kotoku-in Temple.

史料の吉川家文書には1591年（天正19年）と記されているが、最近の研究においてはこの日付には否定的で翌年の1592年（文禄元年）の誤りではないかとする説が有力である。
The Yoshikawa family documents, historical material, state that it was executed in 1591, but recent researchers doubt the date and strongly suggest it was executed in 1592.

天皇の来学に先立ち、京大吉田（本部）キャンパスでは、2,000人にのぼる学生・教職員などが正門近くの本部（時計台）前広場（画像参照）に見物（あるいは歓迎）に押しかけた。
At Kyoto University Yoshida (headquarter) campus, two thousand students/school personnel gathered, before the arrival of the Emperor, at an open space in front of the university headquarter building (clock tower) (refer to the picture) in order to see (or welcome) the Emperor.

韓国人の間では、対馬は朝鮮王朝の属国であり、韓国に領有権があるとの主張がなされることがあるが、その根拠の一つに、応永の外寇における対馬への『倭寇討伐』が上げられている。
Some Koreans advance the claim that Tsushima was a vassal state of Korea during the Joseon dynasty and should therefore be under South Korea's territorial control; proponents of this view cite 'the military expedition to suppress the Wako' that was sent against Tsushima during the Oei Invasion as proof of this.

また、芸能者では主要な大夫を家元とする芸能集団としての座が形成され、江戸時代以後に「○○座」という呼称で呼ばれるようになり、転じて劇場や映画館の名称としても用いられた。
Additionally, entertainers formed some za as entertainer groups whose headmen were major tayu (the headmaster of a school of performing arts), and people began to add the term 'za' to the end of their group names beginning in the Edo period. By further extension, such use of 'za' also began to be applied to theater names and movie theater names afterward.

翌年にも大雨による水害と旱魃が交互に訪れ、更に虫害と疫病も加わって飢饉が全国で拡大、畠山氏の家督争い、斯波氏の長禄合戦などによって、両氏の領国では更に事態が深刻化した。
The following year, a seemingly endless cycle of rain-induced floods and droughts that was followed by insect damage and plague led to a nation-wide famine; a succession battle within the HATAKEYAMA clan and the battle of Choroku that the SHIBA clan fought made the situation in their respective territories even worse.

これに対して立憲君主制の国歌（たとえばイギリスの『女王陛下万歳』など。）と比較しても極端な天皇賛美の意味はなく、天皇象徴制の国歌ではごく普通の国歌だと考える意見もある。
On the other hand, there is an opinion that, compared to national anthems of a constitutional monarchy (for example, 'God Save the Queen'), Kimigayo does not have a meaning of extreme praises for the emperor and it is a quite normal national anthem for the system that recognized the emperor as a symbol of the unity of the people.

更に大学寮の教官の間でも学説のみならず学生の立身を巡って一種の学閥が形成されるようになり、その中でも紀伝道では菅原氏と大江氏、それ以外の諸氏の間で激しい争いが行われた。
Furthermore, a kind of academic cliques were formed among Daigaku-ryo's professors, who disputed over not only theories but also students' success in life, particularly in the Kidendo department, where fierce conflicts among the Sugawara clan, the Oe clan, and other clans took place.

幕府では井伊直弼が大老に就任し、日米修好通商条約の締結、紀伊藩の徳川慶福（徳川家茂）を将軍後継に決定して将軍継嗣問題の解決を図るなど朝廷の意向を無視した強硬政治を行った。
Naosuke II was appointed Tairo (Chief Minister) in the Shogunate and drove policies against the wishes of the Imperial Court, such as signing the Japan-US Treaty of Amity and Commerce and arbitrarily naming Yoshitomi TOKUGAWA (Iemochi TOKUGAWA) of the Kii Domain as the next shogun.

反対に貞観式では序文（現在は『類聚国史』所収）に式とは別に儀式次第を作成することが明記されており、「貞観儀式」（もしくは単に「“儀式”」）がそれにあたると考えられている。
In contrast, Joganshiki (Palace regulations of the Jogan era) stated in the preface (presently contained in 'Ruiju kokushi' - Classified National History) that the prescription of rules and customs was provided separately from shiki (Regulations) -- 'Jogan Gishiki' (or, simply 'Gishiki') was considered to be that prescription.

庶民の寺子屋においては、『庭訓往来』をはじめとする往来物や『童子教』・『実語教』や『貞永式目』、儒学関連では『三字経』・『大和小学』・『孝経』・『小学』などが採用された。
Private elementary schools for the common people adopted for their textbooks like Oraimono, which included 'Teikin Orai,' as well as 'Dojikyo,' 'Jitsugokyo,' 'Joeishikimoku,' and other books related Confucianism such as 'Sanjikyo,' 'Yamato Shogaku,' 'Kokyo,' 'Shogaku,' etc.

後者は当初は『文選 (書物)』と『爾雅』を採用していたが、『延喜式』では『爾雅』に代わって「三史」（『史記』・『漢書』・『後漢書』）が採用されていずれも大経とされている。
And the latter adopted 'Monzen' and 'Jiga' at first, but in the 'Engishiki,' 'Sanshi' (three history books) ('Shiki,' 'Kanjo,' and 'Gokanjo') were adopted in place of 'Jiga' and all were categorized as large scriptures.

また、同じく韓国で2003年、黄砂の飛来する前後に行われた疫学調査では、尿の成分測定で多環芳香族炭化水素(PAH)に属する発ガン性物質が平均で25%増加したと発表された。
Also in South Korea, it is reported in 2003 that analyses of urine samples in epidemiological investigations conducted before and after kosa arrived showed that carcinogens belonging to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) increased by 25 percent on average when kosa arrived.

このため、禅宗以外の寺院を含めて本来の祠堂銭だけではなく、余剰資金の運営手段として貸付を行うようになり、室町時代に入る頃には寺院は営利目的の金融業と同じようになっていった。
Consequently, temples other than those of the Zen sect began to lend money as a way to manage surplus funds as well as Shidosen, and in the early Muromachi period, temples were operating similar to for-profit financial institutions.

周代から春秋時代には、特に古来の '姫' や '姜' といった族集団名でもある '姓' を持つ卿士大夫層(宋代の科挙試験エリートではなく、古代の族長層）を指す用語であった。
From the Zhou period to the Chunqiu period, the term indicated the Keishitaifu class (not the Kakyo [Imperial examination] elite in the Song period but the patriarch class in the ancient times) having a 'surname,' which was also a clan name of ancient times such as 'Ji' and 'Jiang.'

百姓に属する民の主体であった公民は、平安時代初期までは古来の地方首長層の末裔である郡司層によって編成され、国衙における国司の各国統治、徴税事務もこの郡司層を通じて成された。
The citizens, who were main constituents of people belonging to the hyakusho class, were organized by the gunji class, the descendants of classes of ancient local governments' heads up to the early Heian period, and the ruling and tax collection by kokushi (provincial governors) at kokuga (provincial government offices) were conducted through the gunji class.

1910年代前半より、各旧制大学・旧制高等学校・旧制専門学校などでは社会科学研究会（社研）が組織され、1924年9月には49校の社研が参加する学生連合会（学連）が発足した。
From the first half of the 1910s, Shakai Kagaku Kenkyu-kai (Society for the Study of Social Science), or Shaken, has been organized in universities, high schools, vocational schools and so forth under the old system of education, and Gakusei Rengokai (Federation of Students), or Gakuren, in which Shaken from 49 schools participated, was inaugurated in September 1924.

また、復元図のもとになった史料、『室町殿行幸御餝記』、『小河御所并東山殿御餝図』の解釈のちがいにより、主室にあったのはつくりつけの押板ではなく置押板である、という説もある。
Due to a difference in the interpretation of the historical documents in which the reconstructed image was based upon, 'Ogawagosho narabini Higashiyamadono Okazarizu' within 'Muromachidono Gyoko Okazariki,' there was a theory that stated that the master bedroom did not have the built-in oshiita but oshiita that was simply placed there.

また一方では、王朝国家と呼ぶべき政治実態は、鎌倉幕府成立後の朝廷にも見られるとして、13世紀の朝廷による支配体制も王朝国家体制期に含める意見（佐藤進一,1983など）もある。
On the other hand, some people assert that the ruling system adopted by the Imperial court in 13th century should be included in the Dynastic polity period on the ground that the regime which should be regarded as the Dynastic polity was seen after the establishment of the Kamakura bakufu (Shinichi SATO, 1983 etc).

しかし、現地での実際においては、地頭は風水害など様々な理由をつけ、年貢を押領することも多く、領主との紛争は訴訟だけでは解決できず、訴訟の結果も実効性を持たないことも多かった。
At local shoen, however, jito often embezzled nengu on the pretext of natural disasters etc. and many of these disputes couldn't be resolved through litigations alone or the results of litigations were virtually ineffective.

更に寺院の財物である祠堂銭は本来は仏の所有物であり、返済を怠れば死後の成仏もままならないのではという利用者の信仰心に由来する不安感が祠堂銭の返済に対する心理的圧力として働いた。
On account of Shidosen being the property of a temple, people were afraid of being unable to rest in peace after death if they failed to repay their debts, which worked as psychological pressure to repay Shidosen.

『荀子』や『春秋穀梁伝』のように「士商工農」とするものもあるが、中国では伝統的に土地に基づかず利の集中をはかる「商・工」よりも土地に根ざし穀物を生み出す「農」が重視されてきた。
'Xun Zi' (or Hsun Tzu) and 'Shunju Kokuryo-den' (Annotation of Guliang on Spring and Autumn Annals) described 'shi-sho-ko-no'; though in China, much more importance has traditionally been attached to 'no' who settled in the land and produced crops, as opposed to the 'sho' and 'ko' who did not till the land and aimed at reaping profits.

しかし名田が確立できなかった地域や、供御人・神人など名田体系では把握できなかった人々が存在したので、これらに対しても年貢などを賦課するために、在家を単位として収取したのである。
However, the myoden system could not catch hold of some areas, nor could it catch hold of some people, such as 'kugonin' (privileged people who contributed provisions to the emperor) and 'jinin' (associates of Shinto shrines), so instead, zaike was newly introduced as the unit of taxation and labor enforcement in order to seize those areas and people.

その後の治承・寿永の乱では、行綱が摂津武士を率いて源氏方の一翼として活躍したが、東国武士の棟梁となり清和源氏の嫡流を自認した源頼朝によって多田荘を奪われると多田源氏は没落した。
Although Yukitsuna commanded Settsu warriors and participated actively in the Jisho and Juei Disturbances on the Genji side, MINAMOTO no Yoritomo, the head of the eastern warriors and heir of Seiwa-Genji, seized control of Tada Manor, resulting in the fall of the Tada-Genji.

黄砂の発生地である砂漠の一部では、砂嵐などによって砂丘が移動し、住居が砂に埋まったり、道路が通行不能になるなどして、住むことができなくなった村もあり、被害ははるかに深刻である。
In some parts of the desert where kosa occurs, the extent of damage due to kosa is by far more serious, because accompanying sandstorms may move sand dunes, may bury dwelling places, may make roads unusable, and may resultantly make a whole village inhabitable.

清盛の強硬姿勢に驚いた法皇は、静憲（信西の子）を使者として今後は政務に介入しないことを申し入れたため、一時は関白父子の解任で法皇と清盛が和解するのではないかという観測も流れた。
The cloistered emperor was surprised by the firm attitude of Kiyomori, and used the Joken (the son of Shinzei) as the messenger, and said that he would not interfere with political duties hence forwards, and it was interpreted that the dismissal of Kanpaku father and son from their posts made the cloistered emperor and Kiyomori reconcile temporarily.

19日の源氏一族の会合では後白河を奉じて関東に出陣するという案が飛び出し（『玉葉』閏10月20日条）、26日には興福寺の衆徒に頼朝討伐の命が下された（『玉葉』閏10月26日条）。
At the meeting of the Genji clan on December 12, an idea was put forth that they should depart to the front in the Kanto region, setting Goshirakawa up as the lord ('Gyokuyo,' entry of December 13), and on December 19, an order to hunt down and kill MINAMOTO no Yoritomo was given to monk-soldiers of Kofuku-ji Temple ('Gyokuyo,' entry of December 19).

1934年に中国から日本にかけて行われた調査では、粒の大きさは0.001mm - 0.5mmのものが多かったという（光学顕微鏡による調査のため微小な粒子は観測できない点に注意）。
In an investigation conducted in 1934 over the area from China to Japan, the sand grain sizes were concentrated in the range of 0.001 mm to 0.5 mm (note that optical microscopes used could not measure minute grain sizes).

日本の気象庁の観測では、1967年の観測開始以降、2002年に黄砂観測の日数・延べ日数が共に最多を記録したが、年ごとの変化が大きいため長期的な変化傾向ははっきりと判明していない。
The Japan Meteorological Agency has observed kosa since 1967, and the data obtained there shows the following: Both the number of kosa occurrences and the total number of days when kosa was observed were maximum in 2002, but the long-term trend is not clear because the data changed considerably depending on the year.

また、ヨンストン著『動物図譜』などの洋書を模写することによって、従来の東洋画では定型化されていた獅子やヘビ、ウマなどの動物表現についても、陰影をつけて立体感をあらわす方法を学んだ。
Also, by copying Western books including Jonston's 'Dobutsu Zufu' (Zoological Encyclopedia), he learned techniques of drawing animals such as lions, snakes and horses, which had been a stereotype of Oriental paintings, in three dimensions by using shadow effects.

そして、江戸のように全く新しくあるいはそれに近い都市改造の結果誕生した都市では、初期段階において領主への国役などの負担と引換に新設された町屋敷地を拝領する方式が取られた地域もある。
In some cities - newborn ones and renewed ones - such as Edo, residents offered 'kuniyaku' (public duties) to the feudal lord at the early stage of the city development, and in exchange, they received the land of the town's residential area that was newly developed.

全日本学生自治会総連合では少数派（非主流派）であった所感派の思想的・政治的影響下にあった当時の同学会（京都大学の全学学生自治会）は、1950年度のレッド・パージ粉砕闘争を主導した。
Dogakukai (students' self-governing association of Kyoto University) which was under the philosophical/political influence of the Shokan sect, a minority group (a non-mainstream faction) of the All-Japan Federation of Students' Self-governing Associations, played a leading role in the anti Red Purge struggle in 1950.

第二に、本判決は、撮影対象となる被疑者の同意や令状がなくても、写真撮影が適法とされる余地を明確に認めた（そして、本件写真撮影は適法であり、憲法35条に違反するものではないとした）。
Second, the judgment allowed room clearly that photographing was not in violation of the Constitution, even if the photographs had been taken without the citizen's consent or a warrant issued by a judge (and the photographing in this case was not in violation of Article 35 of the Constitution).

現存の『儀式』（『貞観儀式』）は、全10巻77篇目から構成されており、第一から第五までは、「祈念祭儀」「践祚大嘗祭儀」「天皇即位儀」など、主要な恒例祭儀と代始諸儀に充てられている。
Existent 'Gishiki' ('Jogan gishiki') consists of ten volumes/seventy-seven clauses and volume one to volume five are allotted for the explanation of principal ceremonies and rites, such as 'Kinensaigi' (a ceremony of praying for the harvest), 'Senso daijosai' (the imperial enthronement ritual) and 'Tenno sokuigi' (rite of the emperor's enthronement).

輸租田と不輸租田の区別は時期によっても異なるが、通説では口分田・位田・功田・賜田・国造田・郡司職田・墾田が輸租田、職田・公廨田・駅起田・官田・寺田・神田・釆女田が不輸租田にあたる。
Though the distinction between yusoden and fuyusoden varied depending on the times, it is commonly understood that kubunden (rice fields given to each peasant), iden (rice fields given based on the court rank), kuden (rice fields given to those who did meritorious deeds for the state), shiden (rice fields given by the Emperor), kokuzoden (rice fields given to local officials), gunjishikiden (rice fields given to gunji (local magistrate) and konden (newly developed rice fields) were categorized as yosoden and shikiden (rice fields given to high-ranking officials), kugaiden, ekiden, kanden (imperial rice fields), jiden (rice fields associated with temples), shinden (rice fields associated with shrines) and unemeden were categorized as fuyusoden.

応仁の乱では足軽集団が奇襲戦力として利用されたが、足軽は忠誠心に乏しく無秩序でしばしば暴徒化し、多くの社寺、商店等が軒を連ねる京都に跋扈し暴行・略奪をほしいままにすることもあった。
During the Onin War, ashigaru groups were used in surprise attacks but their lack of loyalty and their disorder meant that they frequently formed unruly mobs, and there was an incident in which they ran riot and looted Kyoto with its numerous shrines, temples and shops.

また、殺生禁断を建前とする寺社領域の拡張が全国的に広まったため、これまで山野河海を生活の場としてきた民衆たちが苦境に立たされ、悪党となったのではないかとする見解が近年出されている。
Also, as the expansion of temple or shrine premises, in which it was theoretically prohibited to kill animals, became a nationwide tendency, common people who had lived on the blessings of mountains, fields, rivers and seas ran into difficult situations and some of them became bandits, according to recently published views.

「一定の時代」に存在するということは、その時代の社会構造の中に存在基盤を持つということであり、武士団の中核たる武士は、単なる武芸者ではなく一定の「社会的・階級的特質」を体現している。
Because it lasted for a 'fixed period' it meant that it had already established a fundamental existence within society, and bushi that formed the core of bushidan embodied not simply someone who practiced martial arts, but had a fixed 'social and class aspect.'

荘園公領制では、本家－領家－荘官・地頭らの関係に見られるように、土地や百姓に対する支配関係、また土地からの収益に関する権利関係が重層的に絡み合っており、著しく複雑な様相を呈していた。
Under the stratified land ruling structure of shoen koryo sei, the right to rule lands/peasants and the right to the proceeds of lands were very complicated because these were entangled in a multi-layered way, as seen in the structure of honke (official/nominal owner of shoen (manor)) - ryoke (lord of shoen) - shokan/jito (officer of governing shoen/manager of shoen).

その反面では、こうした寺社の世俗化をきらって特定の寺院に属さない「聖」や「上人」とよばれる民間布教者があらわれ、とくに浄土教の教えを京都の都はもとより地方へも広めていった時期である。
On the other side, missionaries emerged who did not like the secularism of temples and shrines, did not belong to a particular temple or shrine and were called 'hijiri' (a saint) or 'shonin' (a high priest), and they brought the teachings of Jodo (Pure Land) sect to people from the capital, Kyoto through local regions.

平安貴族という明確な実態があったわけではないが、平安中期-後期にかけて貴族層による政治的・社会経済的・文化的支配が展開したため、同時期の貴族を表すための用語として使われることが多い。
Although there was no clear and actual condition of the Heian nobles, since the political, socioeconomic, cultural domination by the nobility was achieved from the mid to late Heian Period, this term is often used to refer to the nobles in this period.

物語ではあるが、『曽我物語』（真字本：まなぼん）に見る頼朝挙兵前の開発領主の姻戚関係を見ると、大庭御厨の濫妨から、石橋山の合戦までの相模近辺の武士団の関係、勢力範囲がよく表されている。
The relationship of bushidan and range of power of Sagami Province was described in detail from the disturbance in Obamikuriya estate to the Battle of Ishibashiyama Mountain by looking at the matrimonial relation of kaihatsu-ryoshu prior to the mobilization call by Yoritomo in 'Soga Monogatari' (the tale of Soga) (Manabon - a book written only in Chinese characters) despite being just literature.

尾張国の戦国大名織田信長が、農民の子から足軽になった羽柴秀吉（豊臣秀吉）を家臣に登用したように、実力次第では出世が可能になるのも、戦国大名の家臣団において見られたひとつの傾向であった。
Within the Kashindan under a Sengoku daimyo, however, there was a trend to give promotions based on abilities; this was seen in the case of Hideyoshi HASHIBA (Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI) who had been born from a peasant family, became an ashigaru (common foot soldier) and was promoted to a vassal by Nobunaga ODA, a Sengoku daimyo in Owari Province.

そのため、戦国大名家の職制では、武者奉行と同格の戦闘経験が豊富な熟練の老臣が任じられるケースが多く、直接戦闘に参加して武功を上げるよりも輸送する小荷駄を敵軍から防衛する事が求められた。
As a preventative measure, an accomplished roshin (key retainer) with a wealth of combat experience in rank with Musha bugyo (magistrate of warriors), who was often appointed in the organization of a Sengoku daimyo (Japanese territorial lords in the Sengoku period) family, was given the task of protecting the transport of Konida from enemy armies rather than directly joining the battle in order to distinguish himself.

京都地裁による1927年5月の第1審判決では出版法違反および不敬罪については特赦となったが、治安維持法違反については是枝恭二（東大文学部）ら4名の禁固1年を筆頭に37名が有罪となった。
At the first trial in May 1927, the Kyoto District Court sentenced amnesty for the violation of publishing law and lese majesty, while as for the violation of the Maintenance of Public Order Law, Kyoji KOREEDA who was in the Faculty of Letters at the University of Tokyo and three other people were sentenced to imprisonment for one year and 37 people were judged guilty.

加えて、有能な人材を民間から登用する際、一時的に足軽として藩に在籍させ、その後昇進させる等の、ステップとしての一面もあり、中世の無頼の輩は、近世では下級公務員的性格へと変化していった。
In addition, the status also had the aspect of serving as a career stepping stone such as when capable individuals who were appointed from among ordinary citizens were temporarily be enrolled with the domain as ashigaru before their subsequent promotion, and what were once gangs of villains during the middle ages took on the identity of low-level public servants.

いずれにしても、「武士団」の時代は平安時代後期から室町時代までであり、その境はあいまいながらも、少なくとも近世、江戸時代については「武士」ではあっても「武士団」として語られることはない。
Despite this, the period of 'bushidan' was from the late Heian to the Muromachi period, and there was reference to 'bushi' during the modern Edo period, but not 'bushidan.'

具体的に中央政府機構の変革についてはまだ明確となっていないが、例えば摂関政治の成立、官司請負制の登場などが、王朝国家体制に対応した中央政治の変化を表しているのではないかとする議論がある。
Although the concrete content of reform in the central government organization is not yet clear, some people assert that the establishment of sekkan-seiji (regency) and kanji ukeoisei (government office contract system) demonstrate the change in the central government corresponding to the Dynastic polity.

また、河内源氏という呼称を本拠地ではなく系統という視点から見れば、河内を本拠地としなくても河内源氏の子孫ならば、系統の名称として河内源氏と呼んでもいいという観点（「系譜的」視点）もある。
Also, from the viewpoint that the name of Kawachi-Genji refers not to the base but to the family lineage, it is acceptable to call those who are descendants of Kawachi-Genji even though they were not Kawachi-based ('Genealogical' viewpoint).

ただ、業として無尽と、無尽管理業務についてのみの規制に留まり、住民や職場などで、業者を関与させずに無尽をする行為を禁止するものではなかったので、その後も無尽は続けられ、現在に至っている。
However, it regulated Mujin as business and the Mujin management task and did not prohibit any Mujin conduct in a residence, working place, and other without involving the dealers, therefore, Mujin has continued up to the present date.

また、娘が姦通した場合には親権の侵害として父親が娘を殺害することも許された（なお、同法令では従来黙認されていた武士以外の庶民の妻敵討は分 (倫理)を弁えないものとして厳罰に処せられた）。
Furthermore, when a daughter committed adultery, it constituted a violation of parental authority, and her father was allowed to murder her (yet, megataki uchi by a commoner was severely punished as he was deemed one who does not know his place, although megataki uchi by samurai was tolerated).

関東では京都で応仁の乱が起きる以前より、享徳の乱・長享の乱・永正の乱の3つの大乱が立て続けに起こっており、古河公方と関東管領山内上杉家・その庶流の扇谷上杉家が3つ巴になって覇権を争った。
In Kanto, even before the occurrence of the Onin Disturbance in Kyoto, three great uprisings, the Kyotoku Disturbance, Chokyo Disturbance, and Eisho Disturbance, occurred successively and Koga-kubo, the Yamanouchi-Uesugi family that was Kanto Kanrei (shogunal deputy for the Kanto region) and its branch family, the Ogigayatsu-Uesugi family, competed for dominance in a three-cornered struggle.

また立花説では、5月4日付けの記事にある「将軍になるべき」との晴豊の言葉を朝廷公式の意向であったとし、「御らん」（森成利）を派遣した信長の意図を真意を隠しわざと当惑して見せたものとする。
Tachibana's interpretation also claims that Haretoyo's words 'should be the Shogun' in an article on May 4 (old calendar) were the official intention of the Imperial Court, and Nobunaga intentionally expressed his false embarrassment concealing his true meaning by having 'Oran' (Naritoshi MORI) meet the envoy.

史学上の用語としては戦前にはしばしば用いられたが、鎌倉時代以後においても朝廷機構が存在して一定の影響力を有していたことから、実情を反映したものとは言えないために今日では用いられていない。
It was often used as a historical term before the war but is no longer used today because it does not reflect the actual state of affairs due to the fact the Imperial Court existed and possessed a certain degree of influence even after the Kamakura period.

これは本来伊達氏特有の現象ではなく、この地域の戦国大名家の洞は周辺部にある国人領主たちによる小規模な洞をいくつも包括していく中で自己の洞という形で大名領国を形成していったと考えられている。
This was not particular to the Date clan, since Utsuro of the Sengoku daimyo families in this region are considered to have developed into daimyo ryokoku (territories ruled by daimyo) by integrating many small-sized Utsuro of Kokujin ryoshu in neighboring regions.

能の起源について正確なことはわかってはいないが、7世紀頃に中国大陸より日本に伝わった日本最古の舞台芸能である伎楽や、奈良時代に大陸より伝わった散楽に端を発するのではないかと考えられている。
Although the origin of Noh is not clear, it is generally believed that Noh originated from gigaku (ancient pantomime in which performers wear masks), Japan's oldest theatrical art that was introduced from China during the seventh century, and sangaku (form of theater popular in Japan during the eleventh to the fourteenth century) introduced from the Asian continent during the Nara period.

1834年『庭訓往来具注鈔』という本では、一通の手紙文を数段にわけ、段ごとに割注（漢字かな交じり文・総ふりがな付き）を挿入、最後に必ず「文意」の項を設け、この段全般に及ぶ意味を要約している。
In 1834, the book 'Teikin Orai Guchusho' (Commentary of Teikin Orai), each letter was broken down into several paragraphs and each paragraph had a let-in note that contained both kanji and kana with all kanji accompanied by furigana, always closing with a section on 'sentence meaning' that summarized the whole paragraph.

天皇の訪問が同様に予定されていた京都市役所前の「組合掲示板」ではそうした事態を皮肉り、（天皇の巡幸が社会問題の存在を掃き出し隠蔽するという意味で）「天皇はほうきである」という大書がなされた。
On the 'union signboard' placed in front of the Kyoto Municipal Office, which was also the destination of the Emperor's visit, a phrase saying 'the Emperor is a broom' was written in large letters with sarcasm (in the sense that the Emperor's tour was intended to sweep out and conceal social problems).

これまで足軽は戦闘の主役ではなかったが、戦国時代 (日本)を迎え集団戦が本格化・大規模化していくと、訓練された槍・弓 (武器)・鉄砲の足軽隊が組織され備の主要な部隊として活躍するようになる。
Ashigaru had not yet been utilized as the main element of battle forces but as they became more well organized and increased in number during the Sengoku period (Japan), they were given training and ashigaru units bearing spears, bows (weapons) and guns were created, going on to form the backbones of armies.

特に東国では武士身分の下級貴族が多数、開発領主として土着化し、所領の争いを武力により解決することも少なくなかったが、次第に武士団を形成して結束を固めていき、鎌倉幕府樹立の土台を築いていった。
Especially in Togoku (the eastern part of Japan), many lower-ranking nobles from the samurai class were indigenized as kaihatsu-ryoshus and they often solved land disputes by force, but they gradually became closely united by forming groups of samurai and laid down the foundation for the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun).

その一方、一般の御家人層では、異国警固番役や長門警固番役などの新たな負担を抱えるとともに、貨幣経済の普及に十分対応しきれず、分割相続による所領の細分化などもあり、急速に階層分化が進んでいった。
On the other hand, common gokenin had to shoulder new burdens such as Ikokukeigobanyaku (military service imposed on gokenin in the Kyushu area by the bakufu in order to protect themselves against the invasion force of the Yuan dynasty) and Nagato keigoban (guards to protect Nagato Province against an invasion by a foreign country), which made it difficult for them to cope with the emerging monetary economy; moreover, their territories were broken up due to divided inheritance, so the social hierarchy rapidly diversified.

やがて、南北朝時代 (日本)や戦国時代 (日本)の戦乱によって荘園制が崩壊すると、多くの寺社領が失われ、統一政権では検地の強化によって、一部の朱印地が幕藩体制によって保護されるに過ぎなくなる。
When the shoen system collapsed in the disturbances during the Nanbokucho period (North and South Dynasties period) and the Sengoku period (Warring states period), many of the jisharyo were lost -- In the Toyotomi administration, kenchi (cadastral surveys) was strengthened, whereby merely a part of shuinchi (estates of temple and shrine confirmed by the shogun and exempted from tax) was protected under the bakuhan system (power structure of bakufu and daimyo domains).

反証可能性に至っていないもの、地球温暖化の進行程度の差を指摘するものなどが多く見られ、いずれの場合も化石燃料由来温室効果ガスの地球温暖化効果自体を否定する科学的根拠が示されているわけではない。
There are many theories, some of which are not convincing and some of which point out the difference in degree of the progress of global warming; in summary, any of them does not show a scientific ground for denying the influence of global warning caused by greenhouse gases originated from fossil fuel.

『日葡辞書』では寄親は「ある主君の家中とか、その他の所とかにおいて、ある者が頼り、よりすがる相手の人」、寄子は「他人を頼り、その庇護のもとにある者。あるいは他の配下にある者」と解説されている。
'Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Japan' (Japanese-Portuguese dictionary published 1603-1604) explains that Yorioya was 'a person that a certain person depended upon and clung to in a certain lord's Kachu (family-related communities which existed in the late Muromachi period and the Azuchi-Momoyama period) or in other places' and that Yoriko was ' a person dependent on and under the patronage of others, or a person under control of others.'

ManorismやSeigneurialismの語は、それぞれ、農村において代々相続される伝統的な支配地域を表すmanors、seigneuries（日本語では荘園と訳される）に由来している。
The words 'manorism' or 'seigneurialism' respectively originate from the words 'manors' or 'seigneuries' (they are translated into 'shoen' in Japanese) which express the traditionally dominated region by heredity in villages.

平成11年（1999年）には広島県立世羅高等学校で卒業式当日に校長が自殺し、君が代斉唱や日章旗掲揚の文部省通達とそれに反対する日教組教職員との板挟みになっていたことが原因ではないかと言われた。
In 1999, the principal of Hiroshima Prefectural SERA Senior High School committed suicide on the day of the commencement ceremony and it was rumored that the cause of this suicide was the fact that he had been caught in the middle of the instruction by the Ministry of Education chorus reading Kimigayo and raising the Japanese (rising sun) flag and opposing teachers who belonged to Nikkyoso.

その風潮は大学にも及んで博士の地位を世襲させるために特定の家系の家学として知識の独占を図るようになり、授業も大学寮ではなく自らの私邸を用いて限られた子弟や門人に対してのみ行われるようになった。
This trend also reached Daigaku-ryo, where professors, with the aim of bequeathing the post of hakase to their descendants, tried to monopolize knowledge by denying access to education to people other than their household, and they gave lectures only to their children and a handful of disciples not at Daigaku-ryo but at their private residences.

ところが、室町時代になると、自立した百姓らによる自治村落（惣村）の形成が進み、こうした惣村では、惣内部や時には対立する他の惣との紛争解決の検断沙汰についてすら自ら検断権を行使するようになった。
However, during the Muromachi period, self-governing communities (sosons) by independent peasants were formed and these communities started to exercise the right themselves against Kendan-sata to settle conflicts within the communities and sometimes even between communities.

それほど多いものではないという理由は、当時必要とされた武力は、京の治安維持、要人の護衛、受領として赴任する際に引き連れ、在庁官人を押さえる程度のものであり、大規模な争乱などほとんど無かったこと。
The reason why it might not be as big was because military power required at that time was for sustaining the peace of Kyoto, guard a person upon request, followed as a retainer when one left a post due to zuryo, and arrest the Zaichokanjin (the local officials in the Heian and Kamakura periods), but there was hardly any turmoil.

それらの絵巻には、信貴山は大和国、粉河寺は紀伊国、と畿内でも隣接した地方の長者の家が描かれているが、前者には警護の武者も、門の前の空堀も、門の上の櫓も無いのに対し、後者ではそれらが描かれている。
These picture scrolls of Shigisan depicted the residence of the head of the Yamato Province, and Kokawadera depicted that of Kii Province, Kinai, and neighboring regions, but latter had samurai guards, karabori (dry moat) before the gate, and tower over the gate while former lacked them.

相互銀行では、無尽に類似した制度である相互掛金という相互銀行専用商品が可能であったが、相互掛金制度自体が無尽とは大きく異なるものであったことや、取扱が面倒なことから早期に有名無実の制度となった。
For mutual banks, it was possible to have dedicated products for mutual banks called mutual premiums, a system similar to Mujin, but it became in name only in the early stages because the mutual premium system itself was very different from Mujin and managing it was tiresome.

この一文は、武士論を正面から展開する中でのものではなく、南北朝時代に武士の家が敵味方に分裂したことに関連してサラッと書かれた一文なのだが、しかしその後の武士・武士団研究に大きなインパクトを与えた。
This was not included within the main part of the developed samurai theory, but a lightly stated sentence related to how the bushi families split into enemies and allies during the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (Japan) that left a great impact in later bushi and bushidan studies since that time.

しかし、当時銭貨を鋳造していなかった日本では貨幣経済の発達に伴い、大量の銅銭を必要とし、また「唐物」と呼ばれる陶磁器を初めとした中国の文物の需要も依然旺盛で、貿易船の必要性が減ずることはなかった。
However the necessity for the trading vessels never faded because the development of money economy required a large quantity of copper coins in Japan, where coins were not cast in those days, and because the demands for Chinese products of culture including ceramic ware, pottery, and chinaware called 'karamono' (things imported from China) were still intense.

関東を意識しての話しとなるが、記録に残る開発領主となった武士らが、戦闘集団である「武士団」を組織したとき、それはかき集めた農民兵ではなく、また「傭兵」でもなく、領主間で私的に結ばれた戦闘集団である。
When the bushi became kaihatsu-ryoshu and formed the 'bushidan' military group in the Kanto region, they were not peasant soldiers, 'mercenaries,' but a privately contracted fighting group of manor lords.

それは、京の治安維持に必要な武力が、旧来の武官や、随身だけでは間に合わなくなり、平将門の乱での「朝家の爪牙」の役を果たした「兵の家」が、「家業」として、「武」を請け負いはじめるということでもあった。
It was because the military force required to sustain peace in Kyoto was not enough with just a military officer and zuijin (a guard) from old, and the 'house of tsuwamono' that served as the 'choka no soga' during TAIRA no Masakado's War started to provide 'mu' as a 'family business.'

しかし、全ての雑役免田・半輸地が消えたわけではなく、薩摩国・大隅国・日向国にまたがる摂関家最大の荘園である島津荘の寄郡（よせごおり）と呼ばれる部分は、鎌倉時代になっても国衙と荘園領主に両属していた。
However, it was not that Zoeki Menden and Hanyuchi disappeared completely, but the part of Yosegori of the Shimazu Sho, which was the largest Sekkan-ke (the families which produced regents) Shoen covering Satsuma, Okuma and Hyuga Provinces was still under the governance of the Kokuga and Shoen landlord even in the Kamakura Period.

例えば、これは公家政権における新制では堂舎社殿の修復、神事仏事の再興、訴訟における便宜、寺社領内での殺生禁断などが掲げられ、施設や儀式の維持とそのために必要な所領などの経済的基盤の確保を図っている。
Under the new system of the imperial court administration, the restoration included repairing buildings of the religious institutions, restoration of Shinto rituals and Buddhist memorial services, assistance in lawsuits, and prohibition of shooting and fishing in the precincts; therefore, they managed to maintain the facilities and support the rituals, and secure economic base including shoryo (estate) necessary for the maintenance and support.

日本より高い削減目標を掲げた欧州連合などの西欧諸国が抑制に努めているのに対し、日本では +0.6% どころか +8% と増加しており、この状況になっても政府当局は効果的な対策を実施できずにいる。
Western countries such as European Union, having a higher reduction target than Japan, aggressively promote the suppress of the emissions, while in Japan, the emissions amount increases not by +0.6% but by +8%, and in spite of facing such a situation, the government authority cannot take effective measures at present.

中世の荘園公領制では、本家-領家-開発領主-荘官-地頭らの関係に見られるように、土地や百姓に対する支配関係、また土地からの収益に関する権利関係が重層的に絡み合っており、著しく複雑な様相を呈していた。
As seen in relationships among honke (head family), ryoke (lord of the manor), kaihatsu-ryoshu (local notable who developed the land), shokan (officer governing shoen), and jito (manager and lord of manor), dominance relationships involving lands and farmers and also relationships involving rights such as land and profit were related to each other in multiple ways; therefore, the Shoen Koryo system of the Middle Ages was extremely complicated.

これは、公出挙の貸付先として利払いが滞りがちな小規模広範囲の百姓ではなく、大規模で少数の有力百姓等を指定し、彼らが公出挙により受け取った本稲（元本の稲）を私出挙の財源とすることを認めたものであった。
Under this system, local administrative organizations designated a small number of influential farmers as debtors, instead of small-scaled and extensive peasants with a tendency of stagnant interest payment, allowing those designated debtors to use the 'Honto' (rice plant as capital), which they had received through Ku-Suiko, for the financial resources of Shi-Suiko.

こうして、農奴制とフューダリズムを土台とした西欧封建社会が成熟していった（ただし、実際には各農村ごとにかなり相違があったと考えられている上、多くの農村では農奴だけでなく自由農民も相当数存在していた）。
Thus, the Western European Hoken society based on serfdom and Feudalism matured (but the situation was quite different from village to village and most villages had a large number of free peasants as well as serfs).

また天龍寺船の天龍寺船が入元の際、倭寇を警戒する元の官憲に入港を阻止されていることは、幕府の公的な公認というものが実質上の意味（密貿易船（倭寇）ではないことの証明）を有していなかったことを示している。
Also a record that Yuan officials on the alert for wako obstructed the entry of a Tenryujibune into harbor when it tried to land Yuan shows that an official approval of the bakufu was substantially ineffective (which did not establish its identity of not being a smuggling ships [wako]).

例えば、関東では鎌倉公方が古河城に逃れて古河公方と名乗って関東管領上杉氏との全面戦争（享徳の乱）を引き起こし、将軍が後任の鎌倉公方として派遣した足利政知も鎌倉にさえ入ることができなかった（堀越公方）。
For example, in Kanto, Kamakura Kubo (Governor-general of the Kanto region) escaped to Koga-jo Castle and, using the name of Koga Kubo, started a total war with the Uesugi clan that was Kanto Kanrei (a shogunal deputy for the Kanto region) (Kyotoku Disturbance), and Masatomo ASHIKAGA, who was dispatched by the shogun as the successor of Kamakura Kubo, could not enter Kamakura (Horigoe Kubo).

岩沢の解釈では、「太政大臣、関白、将軍の三職いずれかに推任するのがよい」と言った主体を天皇の意向を受けた晴豊としており、以後もこの解釈を受け、信長はこの天皇の意向を突っぱねたとする説が通説化していた。
Iwasawa's interpretation of the line 'he should be endorsed for Daijo daijin, Kanpaku, or Shogun' was that it was Haretoyo who said it in line with the Emperor's wish, and later this interpretation prevailed to form a common belief that Nobunaga refused the Emperor's wish.

安田元久などの旧来の学説では、源義家の後三年の役の頃から、「武士の棟梁」たる清和源氏と、在地武士団との主従関係が生まれ始めたとするが、『奥州後三年記』に見える義家の郎党の主力は京武者コネクションである。
According to the former academic theories by Motohisa YASUDA, the master and servant relationship between the local bushidan and toryo of bushi of Seiwa-Genji (Minamoto clan) began from the time of the Gosannen War (the Later Three Years' War) of MINAMOTO no Yoshiie, but the power of Yoshiie to be master over his retainers seen in 'Oshu-gosannen-ki' (A Chronicle of Later Three Year's War in Oshu) was connected with samurai in Kyoto.

封建制に代わる、中国史上の経済制度を特徴づける概念や歴史像はいまだ構築されていないが、最近では階級構造を描き出そうとする従来の方法に代わって、地域社会の中における地主の役割に注目した研究がなされている。
Concepts and views of history which characterize the economic system in Chinese history have yet to be constructed, but recently, more studies are focusing on the role of landlords in a local community, instead of describing the class structure by conventional methods.

中世後期に入ると、下記（世阿弥『風姿花伝』別紙口伝）に代表されるように「家学」そのものの継承を優先として血縁者ではなくても教えに忠実な門人が継ぐ場合でも結果的には「家学」は守られるという考え方も生じた。
In the late medieval period an idea came about that 'kagaku' was consequently upheld even when it was inherited, not by relatives, but by pupils who were committed to the doctrine with a view to giving priority to the inheritance of 'kagaku' itself, as represented as follows ('Fushikaden' [The Flowering Spirit] Besshi Kuden [a separate secret teaching] written by Zeami).

なお、東日本・西日本に関わらず、漁港の適地が海沿いの山に囲まれた入り江であることも多かったため、漁港から離れた平地の所有権争いに敗れた漁村では、漁港近くの山に漁民の主食用の棚田がつくられる例がみられる。
As the best place for building a fishing port was often a cove surrounded by coastal mountains, in some fishing villages which lost a contest for ownership of flatlands far from fishing ports, Tanada was made in the mountain near the port for the purpose of securing the fisherfolk's staple food, both in eastern and western Japan.

発生地付近では黄砂の元となる「砂嵐」（砂塵嵐）、大気中を浮遊する黄砂は「大気エアロゾル粒子」であり、風の有無にかかわらず黄砂が空中に大量に浮遊・降下している状態は「風塵」や「煙霧」・「ちり煙霧」である。
In the area where kosa is being generated, kosa indicates 'a sandstorm' that causes kosa, the kosa floating in the air are 'ambient aerosol particles,' and the state in which lots of kosa is floating and falling is called 'drifting dust,' 'haze' or 'dust haze.'

さらに、1997年（平成9年）には、指定地域の北方で民間の宅地開発に伴い発掘調査が実施され、寺域北辺を画する回廊跡と掘立柱建物3棟が検出され、続いて実施された確認調査では塔の北側に建物基壇が検出された。
In 1997, since a private housing development was planned in an area north to this site, another excavation was conducted, when remains of cloisters on the northern border of the temple and of three buildings supported by hottate bashira (earthfast posts) were found, and research that followed recognized that a stylobate of a building to the north of the tower still remained.

こういった傾向は、院政期に入って顕著になってくるもので、王朝が摂関政治の否定、そして武家勢力との対決へと向かう中で、勅撰集において天皇の存在を大きく打ち出していく必要があったのではないか、とされている。
Such tendency became conspicuous during the insei period (during the period of the government by a retired Emperor), and they say that it could be because it was necessary to emphasize existence of the emperor in Chokusenshu during the period in which the dynasty negated regency and moved toward conflicts with the power of the samurai.

私領といってもその地の課税が免除される訳ではないが、国衙は旧来の郡とは別の、新しい徴税単位として、特別な命令書により税を軽減し、開発領主の私領領有を認め、同時に開発領主がその地の納税義務を負うことになる。
Even though it is called a private estate, it did not mean that one was exempt from tax, but Kokuga were treated differently from former districts as a separate tax unit, lowered tax under a special order, permitted cultivating land owners to have their own private estates, and the kaihatsu-ryoshu gained the responsibility to collect other taxes simultaneously.

理論通りに行われれば、検見法のほうが負担がより公平になり採用されるはずであったが、これにもまた、幕府側にとっては経費がかかり、農民側では苦労が多かったし、不正が行われ、調査が確実でないなどの問題があった。
In theory, kemi ho evens the tax burden, but it costs the bakufu a lot of money and peasants had a lot of trouble, also there were frauds such as uncertainty of the inspection.

国衙軍制成立の過程で武芸、すなわち軍事を専門とする諸大夫身分の貴族（軍事貴族）や侍身分の官人層が出現し、これらの層の上層身分たる軍事貴族層では、特に東国を中心として、自ら国司として現地赴任する者も現れた。
In the process of establishing the kokuga forces system, shodaibu (aristocrat lower than Kugyo) (military aristocrat) or samurai officials who specialized in military arts appeared and some of the military aristocrats went to various provinces, especially those of eastern Japan, in order to serve as kokushi.

一方、西国では承平 (日本)年間（930年代）に瀬戸内海で海賊行為が頻発し（「承平南海賊」）、936年（承平6）、追捕南海道使に任命された紀淑人とその配下の藤原純友らによる説得が功を奏し、海賊が投降した。
On the other hand, piracy occurred frequently in the Seto Inland Sea in the Johei era (in Japan) (in the 980s) ('Joheinankaizoku' [literally, pirates in the southern area in the Johei era]), and in 936, KI no Yoshito, who was appointed Tsuibu Nankai Doshi (the officer to capture criminals in the southern area), and FUJIWARA no Sumitomo, his subordinate, succeeded in convincing the pirates to submit themselves to surrender.

しかし、実際には領主の財政状況や所領や個々の土地の条件などによってまちまちであり、かつ分・厘・毛単位まで定められている場合が多かった（特に上方では厘毛単位まで免を定めたために、免を「厘取り」とも称した）。
Although it actually varied depending on the financial condition of a feudal lord, the feudal estate or each land condition, and the rate was often defined in tenths, hundredths or thousandths, and in the Kyoto-Osaka area, Men was called 'Rin tori' (literally, collecting in units of Rin) because the rate was fixed to Rin.

塵芥集や六角氏式目では姦婦の殺害を定め（ただし、寝所で姦夫を討ち取った場合には姦婦の殺害は必要としない）、長宗我部元親百箇条に至っては本夫が姦婦を殺害しない場合には、姦夫・姦妻・本夫全て死刑と定めている。
Jinkaishu (bunkokuho enforced by Tanemune DATE) and Rokkakushi shikimoku (bunkokuho of the Rokkaku clan) prescribed murder of the adulteress (however, if the adulterer was murdered in the bedroom, it was not required to murder the adulteress), and in an extreme case of Chosokabe Motochika Hyakkajo (bunkokuho by the Chosokabe clan) prescribed that if the husband didn't murder the adulteress, the adulterer, the adulteress and the husband would all be sentenced to death.

第二は、最高裁は、上記3つの要件を充たさない写真撮影は全て違法であるとまでは述べておらず、それ以外の場合（特に、(1)現行犯的状況がない場合）でも、写真撮影を適法とする余地は残している、という解釈である。
Second, it was interpreted that the Supreme Court left room that photographing without the three conditions above was not always illegal and even in cases without those conditions (especially without (1) Circumstances in which a crime is being committed or it does not seem long since a crime was committed) photographing could be legal.

当時の財務記録には訴訟のために経費として役人などへの礼銭・一献料の存在が公然と計上され、また村同士のいさかいによる訴訟では村が属する荘園領主が礼銭・一献料を立て替えて後日村側に請求した記録も残されている。
The reisen and ikkenryo were openly booked as expenses for lawsuits on the financial records at that time, and also there is a record that in the lawsuit arising from a dispute between villages, the lord of the manor where the village belonged to paid the reisen and ikkenryo for the village and charged them later.

氏族単位での技能・学術の「世習」による継承は大和時代以前の日本の氏族において見られる現象であるが、律令制のもとではこうした方法を排除して公的機関である大学寮・典薬寮・陰陽寮において教育を行う制度を採用した。
Handing down skills and learning by 'Seshu' (hereditary) within the clan was a phenomenon seen among Japanese clans before the Yamato period, but under the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code) these customs were abolished and the education system at public institutions such as Daigakuryo (Bureau of Education), Tenyakuryo (the Bureau of Medicine), and Onmyoryo (Bureau of Divination) was adopted.

確かに国民皆兵性のような1戸（行政上の単位、平均30人ぐらい）から1名、年間60日の軍事訓練を受けるという段階では歩兵の比率が高そうに思えるが、騎兵部隊も確認され、軍事力の中核はそちらが担っていたようである。
Certainly, there seemed to be a higher ratio of foot soldiers by looking at mandatory military service where one member of a family (average of around 30 members for the administrative unit) had to go for less that sixty days of military training and service, but it was the confirmed presence of cavalry that held the central military power.

「本所」とは複数ある職のうち、荘園内において荘務すなわち、司法・行政・警察活動を行う権限を有して法的支配を行使した者を指す（領家・本家の別称としての「本所」という語も存在するが、本来の意味での使用ではない）。
Among a variety of shiki, 'Honjo' exercised legal control over Shoen with the authority to carry out Shomu (management and control of encouragement of agriculture, taxes and so on in Shoen) or judicial, administrative and police activities (The word, 'Honjo' is also used when referring to Ryoke and Honke, but it is not the original meaning of the word.).

かつての通説によると、鎌倉幕府は、1192年（建久3年）に源頼朝が征夷大将軍（以下、将軍）に任官されて始まったとされていたが、頼朝の権力・統治機構はそれ以前から存続しており、現在ではこの説は支持されていない。
According to an old popular theory, the Kamakura Bakufu was thought to have started in 1192, when MINAMOTO no Yoritomo was appointed to seii taishogun (literally, 'great general who subdues the barbarians') (hereinafter, shogun), but the power and governing system of Yoritomo had existed before that and now this theory is not believed.

このため、穀倉院領となった旧勧学田を大学寮に返還することは、財政政策上採るところではなかった朝廷はその代償として、穀倉院から一部学生への学問料支給を行うことで大学寮側からの不満の緩和に努めたと考えられている。
Under such circumstances, the Imperial court couldn't return the former kangakuden, which was then the territory of Kokuso-in, to Daigaku-ryo and intended to ease the dissatisfaction of Daigaku-ryo by getting Kokuso-in to grant Gakumonryo to selected students in return.

また同じく釜山で、2007年に人体への摂取量を調べた調査では、通常時は約0.01pg-TEQ/kg/日なのが、黄砂の日は0.028 - 0.038pg-TEQ/kg/日と、2倍以上になるという結果が出ている。
In an investigation in 2007 also in Busan in which the amount of these components taken into human bodies was measured, it was found that 0.028 to 0.038 pg-TEQ/kg/day was taken in the day when kosa fell, more than double 0.01pg-TEQ/kg/day that was taken in an ordinary day.

だが、その行幸のとき、三船御会の詩歌の会が催されたり、義満の北山殿の会所も義教室町殿の会所も、その飾りつけは唐物がほとんどだが、決して和物といえるものが飾られていないことから、二項対立だけでは語りつくせない。
However, the poetry contest performed during the Mifunegokai was carried out during gyoko and although most decorations at Kitayamadono of Yoshimitsu or Muromachidono of Yoshinori were of karamono, they were not decorations that were Japanese that cannot be compared as dichotomic.

王朝国家体制では四位、五位どまりの受領に任命されるクラスの実務官人である下級貴族を諸大夫（しょだいぶ）と、上級貴族や諸大夫に仕える六位どまりの技能官人や家人を侍（さむらい）と呼び、彼らが行政実務を担っていた。
In the system of the dynasty state, lower-ranking nobles who were officials for practical works appointed to the zuryo and who were promoted up to shii (Fourth Rank) or goi (Fifth Rank) were called shodaibu (aristocracy lower than Kugyo) and the technical officers and kenin (retainers) who were promoted up to rokui (Sixth Rank) and served upper-ranking nobles or shodaibu were called samurai (warrior) and they were in charge of administrative affairs.

一代限りの身分ではあるが、実際には引退に際し子弟や縁者を後継者とすることで世襲は可能であり、また薄給ながら生活を維持できるため、後にその権利が「株」として売買され、富裕な農民・商人の次・三男の就職口ともなった。
The status of ashigaru was restricted to a single generation but in actuality could be inherited by a child or relative upon retirement and, this right later went on to be bought and sold as 'kabu' and also became a position of employment for the second and third sons of wealthy farmers and merchants, because they could make their living by being an ashigaru although their salaries were low.

同じく戦国大名として活躍した毛利元就を出した毛利氏では、鎌倉時代以降毛利氏より輩出された安芸坂氏や福原氏などの庶子の一族が庶家衆として、毛利氏当主の兄弟子弟より構成された一門衆に準ずる地位に位置づけられていた。
In the Mori clan which produced Motonari MORI who played an important role as a daimyo, similarly to the Takeda clan, a shoshi family such as the Akisaka and the Fukuhara clans produced from the Mori clan since the Kamakura period were positioned next to ichimonshu which included the siblings and children of the family head of the Mori clan, as shokeshu.

「武士団」の時代は、主にその院政時代以降であり、その意味では「イエ」による結合、継承は徐々に強まってはいたが、しかし後の世の「嫡流」、「本家」というような「父系家族制度」の概念に捕らわれ過ぎるとこの時代を見誤る。
The period of 'bushidan' was mainly after that insei period, and the union by 'house' and inheritance became stronger gradually but will be misinterpreted if one is looking too much at 'a direct descendant' and 'honke' (the owner of the highest-graded patches of land under the stratified land ruling structure of Shoen) and 'paternal family system' notion of later generation.

これは、当時の関東では土地はいくらでもあり、要は土地を耕す労働力の編成が問題なのであって、敵を滅ぼすとは、その敵の兵力であり、同時に労働力であるそれら与力伴類にダメージを与えて四散させることが重要であったのである。
It was because there were such a great amount of land in Kanto, and the labor organization that cultivated the land was a problem, and damaging and scattering yoriki (police sergeant) consisting of both the military and labor force of the enemy was required in order to annihilate the enemy.

三浦の乱の講和条約である壬申約条では、島主歳遣船（対馬から通交のため毎年派遣される貿易船）を50隻から25隻に削減、多くの深処倭（対馬以外の日本人のこと）名義の歳遣船の停止等、宗氏に通交の抑制を強いるものであった。
The Jinshin Yakujo, which was a peace treaty ending the Sanpo War, forced the So clan to restrain the dispatching of trade ships so as to force the reduction of toshu saikensen (Annual Tribute Ships to Korea from the Lord of Tsushima, and trade ships annually dispatched from Tsushima for trading and diplomatic visits) from 50 to 25, and to stop dispatching saikensen under the name of many shimuchowe (Japanese people other than the residents of Tsushima).

『平家物語』では、頼政が夜半に不遇の以仁王の邸を訪れ、謀反を持ちかけたことになっているが、当時頼政は77歳という高齢であり、皇位への道を断たれて不満を持っていた以仁王の方から頼政に挙兵を持ちかけたという見方もある。
The 'Heike monogatari' describes Yorimasa visiting the down-on-his-luck prince Mochihito at his mansion in the dead of night and proposing that they overthrow the government, but at this point Yorimasa was 77 years old, which has prompted some to suspect it was the other way around--that it was prince Mochihito, distressed at the disruption of imperial succession, who approached Yorimasa about raising an army.

堀説では、信長は天下統一まで任官できないとして右大臣兼右近衛大将を辞官しており統一前に任官する理由が立たないことを指摘し、信長には任官の意思はなく、律令体制に留まらず中華皇帝を指向していたと推察できるともしている。
Hori pointed out that Nobunaga had resigned as Minister of the Right and Major Captain of the Right Division of Inner Palace Guards because he would not take any official post until his unification of the whole country, and Hori also said Nobunaga probably did not want any official post, and instead he had the aim of becoming an emperor outside the Ritsuryo system (a system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code).

更に応仁の乱以後になると、地方にあった公家や奉行衆の所領が戦国大名や国人達の押領を受けて収入が途絶え、礼銭収入無しでは日常生活も送れないほどの経済的苦境にも陥っていたため、禁令を出すこと自体が困難となってしまった。
Since the Onin War, furthermore, Court nobles and the bugyoshu, whose shoryo in rural area were usurped by Daimyo in the Sengoku period and the kokujin (local samurai), lost their income and were too poor to sustain their lives without the income of the reisen, making it difficult to even issue a ban on the reisen.

彼らは、元々は武士では無かったかもしれないが、印東庄司を兼ねる上総介平常澄から動員が掛かれば、鎧を着、弓箭・兵仗を帯びて、何人か十何人かの郎党とともに騎馬武者として駆けつける立場の者も相当含まれていたと思われている。
They may not have been bushi but many were in a position to rush in while wearing armor, holding bows, and staffed as cavalry busha leading dozens of retainers when mobilized by TAIRA no Tsunezumi, who was Kazusa no suke (vice minister of Kazusa Province) that also served as Into no Shoji (administrator of a manor of Into no sho).

幕府とは、そもそも将軍の陣所を指す概念であり、源頼朝が右近衛大将に任官したことで、その居館　大倉御所を幕府と称されたことがあるが、それは私邸を指す言葉であり頼朝の開いた武家政権としての鎌倉幕府を指す概念ではなかった。
Bakufu was originally a concept which referred to a shogun's camp and when MINAMOTO no Yoritomo was appointed to Ukone no daisho, his house, the Okura palace, was called bakufu, but it was not a word for Kamakura bakufu as a samurai government established by Yoritomo, but a word for the private house.

中華人民共和国では、気象観測において黄砂は「砂塵天気」に含まれ、視程（水平視程）10km以内で風が弱い場合「浮塵」、風が強く視程10km - 1kmの場合「揚沙」、風が強く視程1km以下の場合「沙塵暴」とされている。
In weather observations in the People's Republic of China, kosa is included in 'dust weather,' the air state in which the visibility (horizontal one) is within 10 km and the wind is weak is called 'floating dust,' the air state in which the wind is strong and the visibility is in the range of 10 to 1 km is called 'floating sand,' and the air state in which the wind is strong and the visibility is within 1 km is called 'shachenbao.'

この時代には、勅撰集で二十一代集のひとつの『新古今和歌集』が編まれたが、その編集作業もかねて行われた歌合では、会の効率をあげるため、屋内という閉ざされたところで、身分の高きも低きも一緒のところで歌をよむようになった。
The 'Shin-Kokinwakashu' (New Collection of Old and New waka (Japanese poems)), one of the Nijuichidaishu (twenty one representative collection) and Chokusenshu (Imperial-commissioned poem anthology) was edited during this period, but utaawase which was performed in order to do editorial work confined those of different social status to read out poems in the same location to increase the productivity of the meeting.

2005年、林野庁では、今後5年間に60万本の無花粉スギを植えるということを2005年に発表したが、1haあたり3,000本を植林すると考えればわずか200ヘクタールにすぎなかった（日本のスギ林は約453万ヘクタール）。
In 2005, the Forestry Agency announced plans to plant 600,000 pollen-free cedar trees during the next five years but when it is considered that 1 hectare contains 3,000 trees, this is equivalent to a total of only 200 hectares (Japanese cedar tree forests occupy approximately 4,530,000 hectares in Japan).

先に足利義教が暗殺された嘉吉の変では、管領らが協議して直ちに後継将軍が定められたが、永禄の変以前の永禄6年（1563年）に管領細川氏綱が死去して以後、管領は置かれておらず、将軍の死により幕府機能は事実上停止するに至った。
In the Kakitsu Incident in which Yoshinori ASHIKAGA was assassinated, his deputy and other officials held consultations and immediately selected the succeeding Shogun, but, since Deputy Ujitsuna HOSOKAWA had died in 1563 before the Eiroku Incident, the position of deputy was unfilled, allowing the functions of the Bakufu to be virtually halted by the Shogun's death.

「文人」に対する「武人」、「文官」に対する「武官」と同じような使い訳で、「文士」に対する「武士」といういわれ方は奈良・平安時代初期にも僅かに見られたが、職能としてはともかくとして、それは後の「武士」につながるものではない。
The 'literati' in contrast to 'warrior,' 'civil officer' in contrast to 'military officer' were referred a little during Nara and early Heian periods but not as a work duty nor connected to later 'bushi.'

そこで、関白藤原師通らが、天文密奏宣旨授与者である中原師遠と天文博士安倍親宗を喚問したところ、師遠は流星に気付かずに観測が出来なかったために密奏が出来ず、親宗は天文異変ではないので天文密奏の必要性は無かったと回答している。
Then, kanpaku (chief adviser to the Emperor) FUJIWARA no Moromichi and others summoned NAKAHARA no Moroto, who had received the imperial decree constituting the mission as the medium of tenmon misso, and tenmon hakase ABE no Chikamune -- Moroto confessed that he could not have done misso because he was not aware of the meteor and failed to observe it; but Chikamune explained that since the meteor was not an extraordinary astronomical phenomenon, it needed not to be reported as tenmon misso.

そのため、今日では平安時代中期以後の人が「『貞観儀式』・『延喜儀式』があったのだから、格式と同様に儀式も三代揃っていたであろう」という考えから、両儀式を参考にして『弘仁儀式』と呼ばれる架空の書物を想定したと考えられている。
Therefore, these days, it has been accepted that people after the mid Heian period might have thought up an imaginary book called the 'Konin Gishiki' after the two Gishiki 'Jogan Gishiki' and 'Engi Gishiki' based on the idea that the ' Gishiki should have been compiled for the three generations as the Kyakushiki had been, because 'Jogan Gishiki' and 'Engi Gishiki' had already been compiled.'

元側では1335年から1336年にかけての倭寇事件を契機に、寧波市（明州、のちの寧波）に入港する日本船を海賊船と見なして、港の出入を厳しく制限していたため、明の官憲に阻まれ、入明を果たしたのは愚中ら11人のみだったという。
However it is said that Chinese officials prevented the entry of the ship into Ming, and only 11 priests were permitted to enter Ming, because, after the Wako Incidents between 1335 and 1336, the Yuan regarded Japanese vessels arriving in Neiha City (Meishu (Ningbo), later Neiha) as pirate ships and strictly restricted them from going in and out of the port.

近親者を殺されてその復讐をする例は、南イタリアを始めとして、世界各地で見られるが、江戸時代の敵討は、喧嘩両成敗を補完する方法として法制化されていたことと、主眼は復讐ではなく武士の意地・面目であるとされていた点に特徴がある。
Cases of revenge after the killing of a close relative are found in various parts of the world, including southern Italy; however, the characteristic of Katakiuchi in the Edo period is that it was legitimized as a method to supplement Kenka Ryoseibai (in a quarrel both parties are to blame) and that the aim was not the revenge but the pride or honor of a samurai.

その際、宿の屏風絵に感心した源内がその絵の作者だという直武を呼び、「供物餅を上から描いてみなさい」と直武に描かせてみせたところ、二重丸を描いた直武に「それではお盆なのか餅なのか分からない」と言い、即座に陰影法を教えたという。
Impressed by a screen painting in the home, Gennai summoned the artist named Naotake and said to him, 'Try to paint the rice cake offering as if looking at it from above,' and when Naotake painted only a double circle, Gennai exclaimed, 'I cannot tell if that is the tray or the rice cake,' and immediately taught him a method of painting with shadows.

鎌倉時代前期までは、公家の子弟が分家することによって新たな「家」が生み出されることが行われてきたが、後期に入ると経済的理由などから分割が困難となり、既存の家領の継承を巡って嫡子と庶子の争いなど各種の訴訟が生じるようになった。
Although until the first stage of the Kamakura period new 'families' were produced as their young people established branch families, in the latter stage making new branch families became difficult due to economic factors and so forth; various suits arose, including ones between a legitimate child and a child born out of wedlock in regard to the succession of existing estates.

日本の防人は、大化の改新の後、663年に朝鮮半島の百済救済のために出兵した倭軍が白村江の戦いにて唐・新羅の連合軍に大敗したことを契機に、唐が攻めてくるのではないかとの憂慮から九州沿岸の防衛のため設置された辺境防備の兵である。
In Japan, sakimori was deployed for the defense of outlying territories such as the coast of Kyushu due to the fear of a possible invasion by Tang Dynasty China after the major defeat suffered by Japanese troops, who had been dispatched to aid Baekje on the Korean peninsula, by the allied forces of Tang Dynasty China and the Silla Kingdom at the Battle of Baekgang in 663.

奴隷は前時代の私奴婢・部曲の流れを汲み、唐代までは荘園内の労働において重要な役目を担っていたが、宋代になると佃戸による耕作の方が所有者・管理者の負担が軽く、次第に佃戸に切り替えられたり、奴隷の雇傭者化が進むことになっていった。
Slaves were in the tradition of shinuhi (privately-owned slave) and buqu (a serf) and until the Tang dynasty they had played an important role in the labor service in shoens, but in the Sung dynasty the cultivation by denko cost less for the owners and the managers and gradually the labor was charged to denko and slaves progressively became employees.

李氏朝鮮では前年に世宗 (朝鮮王)が即位していたが、実権は太宗 (朝鮮王)が握っており、太宗は倭寇撃退を名目にした対馬遠征を決め、永楽17年（西暦1419年）6月、李従茂率いる227隻、17,285名の軍勢を対馬に侵攻させた。
With King Sejong the Great having ascended to the throne in Joseon Korea only the previous year (1418), former King Taejong still held de facto power, and it was Taejong who decided to launch an expedition against Tsushima in June 1419 under the pretext of pacifying the Wako, dispatching a fleet of 227 ships and 17,285 soldiers to invade Tsushima, with general YI Jong Mu in command.

また、軍国主義的だという点から見ても、古い軍歌であるラ・マルセイエーズを国歌としているフランスを始めとして、過激な軍歌調或いは軍歌そのものの国歌を持っている国は多く、君が代が特別軍国主義を象徴するものではないとする意見もある。
With respect to the point that Kimigayo is militaristic, there is an opinion that, starting with France of which national anthem is old martial music, La Marseillaise, there are many countries that have national anthems that are extremely militaristic or a martial song itself and Kimigayo does not particularly symbolize militarism.

しかし、あくまで国家の中心は朝廷であり、公家、寺家、そして武家の権門が相互補完しながら国家を形成していたとする黒田俊雄らの権門体制論、そうではなく西国の朝廷に対して東国に事実上の国家を樹立したとする佐藤進一らの東国国家論がある。
However, there are the other theories, such as the argument on the governing structure of the powerful family by Toshio KURODA and his allies, which states that the center of the nation state was the Imperial Court and influential families such as kuge, families that own and reside in temples and samurai families complemented each other and formed the nation state, and the theory of the east state founded by Shinichi SATO and his allies, which says that, instead of the above, the nation state was established in fact in Togoku (the eastern part of Japan, particularly Kanto region) against Imperial Court in Saigoku (western part of Japan (especially Kyushu, but ranging as far east as Kinki)).

太政官符・太政官牒の発給には直接の担当者ではない少納言や外記が関与したり、天皇の御璽の請印などが必要とされたために、手続が煩雑でしかも間に儀礼的な文書授受や請印を求めるための儀礼が加わるなど、緊急時には対応が出来ないものであった。
The daijokanpu or dajokancho was not fit for emergencies because shonagon and geki, who were not directly in charge of their issuance, were implicated, because the imperial stamp was needed for their issuance and because the procedures were complicated and often necessitated ceremonious events: exchange of documents, stamping etc.

その結果、中央財政にも影響を与えるようになり、宋王朝では乾興 (宋)元年（1022年）に官僚荘園を30頃、将吏衙前荘園を15頃に制限する提案が出されたものの失敗し、その後限田免役法を行って免役の範囲や寄進に制約を課そうとしている。
As a result, the finance of the central government was influenced by this and during the Sung dynasty in 1022, the proposition that the manors owned by a bureaucrat be limited to 30 and shorigozenmaeshoen to 15 was issued but it failed and later the regulations of tax exemptions were promulgated to impose the restrictions on the range of tax exemptions and the donations.

大宝律令では『九章算術』・『六章』・『綴術』の基本の3書のうち1つから3問、それ以外の6書から各1問ずつの計9問を出題して6つ正解すれば及第としたが、3問出題される基本書からの出題を間違えた場合には他の8問が正解でも不合格とされた。
In the Taiho Code, a total of nine questions were delivered, three from one of the three basic documents ('Kyushosanjutsu,' 'Rokusho' and 'Tenjutsu'), and one from each of the other six documents; students passed if they answered six correctly, but failed if they gave wrong answers to any of the three questions drawn from the basic documents, even if they had answered the other eight correctly.

養老律令では方法が2通りあり、前者は『九章算術』3問と『六章』・『綴術』以外の残り6書から各1問の計9問から出題されるもの、後者は『六章』3問と『綴術』6問の計9問から出題されるもので、前者は基礎算術、後者は高等数学の知識を試した。
There were two methods in the Yoro Code, each of which delivered a total of nine questions: in the first, three questions were drawn from the 'Kyushosanjutsu' with each of the remaining documents other than 'Rokusho' and 'Tenjutsu' providing one of the other six; in the second, three questions were drawn from 'Rokusho' and the remaining six from 'Tenjutsu,' so that the former method tested knowledge of basic arithmetic while the latter tested knowledge of advanced mathematics.

また、砂漠より少し降水量が多い黄土高原などでは、もともと雨水だけに頼り、休耕地をつくって雨を蓄えさせる（黄土や黄砂は粒子が細かく、表面張力によって粒子同士の隙間に水が蓄えられるため、実は保水性がある）伝統的な天水農法が行われていた。
In the Loess Plateau where slightly more rain than in desert falls, the traditional rain-fed farming method, in which, relying solely on rainfall, fallow land was used for accumulating rain, was originally utilized (particles of loess and of kosa are so fine that surface tension enables water to be accumulated among the particles, providing them with a water-retaining characteristic).

『日本後紀』に記された弘文院の役割は他の大学別曹の例と同様ではあるが、設立そのものが文章院や他の大学別曹に対して幾分か早くかつ記録がほとんど残されていないために、設立当初から後世の大学別曹と同じ目的を担っていたかについては不明である。
Although the role of the Kobunin described in 'Nihon Koki' was the same as that of the other daigaku besso; since the Kobunin was founded a little earlier than the other daigaku besso including Monjoin and since few record on the Kobunin was left, it was unknown whether it had the same purpose as that of the other later daigaku besso from the beginning or not.

実際に国会質疑等でも取り上げられてはいるが、答弁はその場しのぎのごまかしを繰り返すばかりであり、大きな進展はない（こうしたことは林野庁の予算が少ないためであり、国が第一次産業を軽視しているのが根本的な原因との見方もないわけではない）。
Diet discussions take place but lead only to repeated ad hoc piecemeal measures with no major progress made (there are those who consider the fundamental reasons of this to be the small budget allocated to the Forestry Agency and neglect of the nation's primary industry).

14世紀前後の北九州から朝鮮半島、中国沿岸などでは日本人、中国人や朝鮮民族らの多民族構成とする倭寇（前期倭寇）が活発化し、日朝貿易においては朝貢貿易に加えて民間貿易も許可されていたため、東アジアの海上世界は民族雑居状態が存在していた。
Around the fourteenth century, Wako (specifically, the early Wako), a multiethnic group of pirates that included Japanese, Chinese, and Koreans, began increasing their activities in the seas from northern Kyushu in Japan to those around the Korean peninsula and along the coast of China; in addition to the formal tributary trade missions, it was now also permissible for trade to be conducted between Japan and Korea by private merchants, adding a more international flavor to the maritime world of East Asia during this period.

前述したように、「サブラヒ」はその後「サブライ」→「サムライ」と語形変化を遂げていったが、地位に関係なく武士全般をこの種の語で呼ぶようになったのは、江戸時代近くからであり、それまでは貴族や将軍などの家臣である上級武士に限定されていた。
As mentioned before, 'saburahi' changed to 'saburai' and then 'samurai,' but this word was used to indicate bushi in general regardless of position from around the Edo period, but until then, it was only used to indicate the aristocrats or higher-ranking bushi who were the vassals of the shogun.

なお、全ての異常な天文現象が天文密奏の対象になったわけではなく、天文博士・天文密奏宣旨授与者が占った結果、重大な変事の前兆と判断された出来事に限定され、天文博士・天文密奏宣旨授与者が異常の発生に気付かなかった場合も密奏は行われなかった。
Tenmon misso was not performed for all the unusual astronomical phenomena but only for phenomena which had been divined by tenmon hakase or those who had received the imperial decree constituting the mission as the medium of tenmon misso as an omen of a great calamity -- the phenomena which tenmon hakase and those who had received the imperial decree constituting the mission as the medium of tenmon misso had failed to observe were not reported as tenmon misso either.

上記のごとく寺社造営料唐船は、幕府や寺社側の必要性から派遣されたというのが通説であったが、近年の研究では、むしろ貿易船の主体は博多などの商人であり、利潤の一部を寺社の造営費用にあてるというのは看板に過ぎなかったとの見方が提唱されている。
A prevailing view on the Jishazoeiryotosen was that, as described above, they were dispatched out of necessity of the bakufu or shines and temples, but recent studies suggest that merchants in Hakata rather had the purpose of trade and that the willingness to use a part of profits for the building expenses were only a pretext.

被告人は、京都市公安条例は憲法違反（憲法21条違反）であること、巡査による写真撮影は、被告人の意思に反するものであり、肖像権を侵害し（憲法13条違反）、かつ、令状を得て行われたものではないから、令状主義にも反する（憲法35条）と主張した。
The defendant claimed that Kyoto City Ordinance was in violation of Article 21 of the Constitution and the police officer's act of photographing the defendant against his will and the violation of the right of portrait (violation of Article 13 of the Constitution) without a warrant issued by a judge are also in violation of Article 35 of the Constitution which provides for the principle of warrant.

その後、その子・今川義元は、天文_(日本)22年（1552年）の分国法「今川仮名目録追加」において現在の今川領国の秩序維持を行っているのは足利将軍家ではなく今川氏そのものであることを理由に、幕府権力による守護使不入地を全面否定したのである。
Thereafter, his son Yoshimoto IMAGAWA completely denied the shugoshi funyuchi specified by the bakufu authority in his bunkokuho (the law individual sengoku-daimyo enforced in their own domain) 'Imagawa Kana Mokuroku Tsuika' (expanding on house rules left by Ujichika), published in 1552, on the ground that those who maintain order in the present Imagawa territory are not the Ashikaga shogun family, but the Imagawa clan itself.

太平洋戦争勃発後、無尽会社は戦時統合の対象とされ、都道府県別に1社に「強制的に合併させられた」と第二地方銀行協会は記念誌で主張しているが、これは、陸上交通事業調整法のような直接的法律に基づき行なわれた明確な処分ではないので、実態は未詳である。
After the Pacific War broke out, Mujin companies became the target of wartime integration and a Second Association of Regional Banks asserted in an anniversary magazine that they were 'forced to merge' into one company per prefecture, but this was not a clear disposition performed based on direct law like the Land Transportation Business Coordination Act, therefore, actual conditions are not known.

間もなく山陰道鎮撫総督西園寺公望から丹波に王政復古(日本)の募兵があり、前年末頃から御所警備などの勤王奉仕策を練っていた山国では、平安時代以来の皇室との関係と郷中復古（禁裏御料回復）の願いから、直ちにこれに応じて自弁による農兵隊が結成された。
Soon after, imperial loyalist (anti-bakufu) troops recruited by Kinmochi SAIONJI, the general placed in charge of pacifying the Sanindo highway and the surrounding area, appeared in Tanba Province, and in Yamaguni, whose inhabitants had been training to serve the imperial cause, for example by standing guard at the imperial palace in Kyoto, since the end of the previous year (1867), they were also hoping for a restoration of their own hamlet along with a resumption of the ties with the imperial house they had held since the Heian period, desires which quickly prompted them to form, at their own expense, a fighting force of farmers.

特に戦国時代 (日本)は室町幕府を開いた足利氏の嫡流　足利将軍家に対し、庶流の細川氏が管領として実権を奪ったり、出雲守護で嫡流であった京極氏は庶流の尼子氏に守護の地位を簒奪されるなど、血筋では地位や権力を担保し得ない実力本位の時代でもあった。
The Sengoku period (period of warring states), in particular, was a time based on merit when bloodline did not guarantee rank or power; the Hosokawa clan, the shoryu, took power as the kanrei (shogunal deputy) from the Ashikaga Shogun family, the chakuryu of the Ashikaga clan who established the Muromachi bakufu; and the Amago clan, the shoryu, usurped the position of Shugo (Provincial Constable) from the Kyogoku clan, Izumo Shugo, and the chakuryu.

戦後では、栄典や顕彰・表彰・人事考課などという概念が一般的となり、公的に恩賞の概念は用いられないが、政権獲得や内閣成立に功績のあった与党政治家の重要役職への就任や入閣があった場合に、論功行賞人事や恩賞人事と揶揄される場合に用いられることもある。
After the War the notions of honor, public recognition, commendation, and performance review have become common and the concept of onsho (rewards) has not been publicly used, however, when ruling-party politicians who rendered service in the formation of the government or cabinet are appointed to important posts or enter the cabinet, this is sometime ridiculed as onsho or reward-oriented appointments.

だが、教官（博士）を務める家では貴重な書籍などが私邸に蓄積され、子弟も早くからそれらに触れる機会が多いこと、父兄である教官（博士）も家庭教育の一環としてこうした書籍を活用する事から、優秀であれば博士の子弟もまた同じ官職に就くようになっていった。
But, because of stockpiling valuable books in the instructors' (hakase's) house which their younger brothers or children could have more time to read at their younger ages and the instructors, the older brothers or father, used in their family education, their younger brother or children also came to assume the same government position as their older brothers' or fathers' if they were excellent at the skill.

日本では、平安時代の貞観 (日本)2年10月16日（860年11月2日）に、大学博士大春日雄継の働きかけによって、今後『孝経』の注釈には学令において『孝経』の注釈書として定められた孔安国・鄭玄の注を用いずに『御注孝経』を用いる詔が出されている。
In Japan, on November 6, 860, with an appeal by Daigaku hakase (university professor) OKASUGA no Otsugu, a Mikotonori (imperial edict) was issued to use the 'Gyochukokyo' for commentaries of the 'Kokyo' henceforth, and not to use the commentaries by Ko Ankoku and Teigen that had been set under the school's order.

珍しい例では徳川家康の家臣団であった水野勝成は、大将格であったにもかかわらず一番槍をあげ軍令違反として処罰されている（表面的な理由は、大将格が序盤で戦死すると総崩れになる可能性を危惧したものだが、統率者としての自己顕示欲の強さを戒める面もある）。
In a rare example, one of Ieyasu TOKUGAWA's vassals named Katsunari MIZUNO was punished for taking the position of Ichiban-yari in spite of his status as general (this was ostensibly due to the concern that if the general had died at an early stage of the battle, his army would have suffered a debacle, but he was also punished as a warning against being too self-assertive as a leader).

この時革命を起こそうと考えた者の武装やヤクザの抗争の影響でより一層武器の取締りが厳しくなり、特に銃器関連を所持するには銃器にもよるが、数ヶ月期間の審査が必要であり、少なくとも暴力行為を前提に銃器を合法的に所持するのは日本では事実上不可能になった。
Since those who planned revolutions bore arms and gangs (yakuza) started conflicts, the law was reinforced and a several month examination (the period depends on the kind of firearms) was required to possess a firearm-related weapon, making the legal possession of firearms for the purpose of violence virtually impossible in any event in Japan.

中世史研究史上においては「武士」と同義語として扱われることもあるが、「武士」は中世から近世（江戸時代）までを対象とし、また「武士」論は「武士団」を率いる「侍」のみを対象とすることもあるに対し、「武士団」ではその郎党も含めた社会的実態が問題とされる。
It was treated as a synonym of 'bushi' in medieval history studies, but 'bushi' referred to those between the medieval to the modern era (Edo period), and 'bushi' theory referred to only 'samurai' that lead 'bushidan' while 'bushidan' was also concerned with social conditions that also included the roto (retainer).

モンゴルから国号を改めた元 (王朝)は、1274年（文永11）10月に九州北部を襲撃したが、数日で撤退した（今日では、文永の役における元軍の撤退理由が暴風雨、いわゆる神風が吹いたためとする説は信憑性が低いとされ、威力偵察が主目的であったとされる）。
The Yuan Dynasty which developed from the Mongol empire, attacked northern Kyushu in October 1274, but retreated after a few days (today, there is little credibility to the account that the reason for the retreat of the Yuan army during the Bunei War was a severe storm, the kamikaze (divine wind), and it is considered that the main reason for the attack was a reconnaissance of military strength).

こうした中、儒教では利益の追求は欲望を生み出して人間を堕落の方向に向かわせると考えられ、商工業に携わること自体が本来の人間があるべき姿に反する行為として否定的に捉えられていたが、実際には貨幣経済や産業の発達により商人が経済の主導権を握るようになった。
In Confucianism, it was thought that profit pursuing would lead to desires that would ultimately cause a human being to deteriorate and that activities of involved in commerce and industry themselves would be contrary to what a human being should be; nevertheless, under the above-mentioned circumstances, merchants took the initiative in an economy based on the development of a monetary economy and industry.

しかし国司請負制により権限が強化された国司は、自領のように扱いはじめた国衙領を増やすため、天皇の代替わりに際して「新政」として発布された荘園整理令を根拠とし依然として収公を進めることが多く、領家の権威だけでは荘園の所有が維持できないケースが多く見られた。
Meanwhile, being granted a more powerful authority due to the contract system of kokushi (provincial governors), kokushi often executed confiscation on grounds of the Manor Regulation Act issued as a 'new policy' when the Emperor changed in order to increase kokugaryo (territories governed by the provincial government office) as their own territories; therefore, there were many cases that the authority of ryoke was insufficient to maintain Shoen ownership.

「武士団」を単なる一般用語としてではなく、「武士」とは別の歴史用語としてあつかうならば、その範囲は11世紀後半から15-16世紀までの、イエ軍団をその類型として、それが戦国時代の、農村から生まれた「寄子」衆に置き換えられていったとも整理することが出来よう。
If 'bushidan' is treated not simply as a simple term but an historical term different from 'bushi,' it could be organized as it ranged from the late eleventh century to the fifteenth to the sixteenth century as a similar form of family army and replaced by 'Yoriko' originating from farming villages of the Sengoku Period.

『今昔物語集』巻24第22及び『宇治拾遺物語』185話に登場する高階俊平入道の弟が算道で人の生死を操って、人々から「おそろしき算の道」と恐れられたとされる話は最早、算術・数学が科学どころか学問ではなく、呪術として人々に怖れ嫌悪されていった実情を示していた。
In 'Konjaku Monogatari (Shu)' (The Tale of Times Now Past) Volume 24, Chapter 22 and 'Uji Shui Monogatari' (a collection of the Tales from Uji) Episode 185, a younger brother of Nyudo Toshihira TAKASHINA controlled human life and death with Sando, and people feared it, calling it 'terrible Sando,' which mirrored the actual condition that arithmetic and mathematics were no longer considered learning, much less science, and were feared and detested as magic (spells).

「職能」起源論では、武士とみなされる社会階層は源氏、平氏などの発生期には武芸を家業とする諸大夫、侍身分のエリート騎馬戦士に限定されていたとし、その後、中世を通じて「狭義の武士」との主従関係を通じて「広義の武士」とみなされる階層が室町時代以降拡大していった。
According to the theory on the origin of bushi by 'samurai function,' the social class considered as bushi was limited to shodaibu or elite cavalry warriors coming from samurai status, whose family business was military art, during the period when the Minamoto clan and the Taira clan emerged; and later, through the medieval times, the class of 'bushi in a broad sense' came to have the master-subordinate relationship with 'bushi in a narrow sense' and expanded after the Muromachi period.

ただし、それは技能としての算術・数学であって、数学的思考や教養、感性が求められたものではなく、ましてや中国に見られたような高等数学が当時の日本社会で必要とされる場面は存在しなかったと考えられ、日本数学史が独自の進歩を見せるきっかけにはなりえなかったのである。
However, this was arithmetic and mathematics as skill: mathematical thinking, cultivation, and sensibility were not sought after, and it seems that the advanced mathematics seen in China was not required by the Japanese society of that time, so this was not an opportunity for unique progress in the Japanese history of mathematics.

これに対して久木幸男は、「内外の経書」という記述に注目して「内外」を仏教書とそれ以外の書と解釈し、表向き仏教を排除している日本の大学寮の学生のための機関である大学別曹に仏教書を置くことの矛盾を指摘しており、弘文館を大学別曹ではなく図書館であったと推測している。
On the other hand, Yukio KUKI (Japanese educator) paid attention to the description 'Chinese classics from inside and outside,' interpreting 'inside and outside' as Buddhist books and the other books, and pointed out that if the Kobunin held Buddhist books, it was inconsistent with the fact that the daigaku besso was an institute for students of Japanese daigaku-ryo which had ostensibly excluded Buddhism -- Then, he inferred that the Kobunin was not the daigaku besso but a library.

被告人は、公務執行妨害罪及び傷害罪で起訴されたが、巡査による写真撮影は違法捜査であるから、適法な公務執行ではなく、これに抵抗しても公務執行妨害罪は成立しない、として争った（違法な公務執行がなされた場合に公務執行妨害罪が成立しないことは、一般に認められている）。
The defendant was charged with obstruction of performance of official duties and bodily injury, but he claimed that the police officer's photographing was an illegal investigation and therefore the official duties were not legal and the charge was not valid (it is generally accepted that the charge for obstruction of performance of official duties is not valid when the official duties are illegal).

こうした考え方は戦国時代 (日本)の分国法にも取り入れられ、今川氏の今川仮名目録では「喧嘩におよぶ輩は理非を論ぜず双方とも死罪」「喧嘩を仕掛けられても堪忍してこらえ･･とりあえず穏便に振る舞ったことは道理にしたがったと･･して罪を免ぜられるべき」（第8条）とある。
Its idea was also introduced into bunkokuho (the law individual sengoku-daimyo [Japanese territorial lord in the Sengoku period] enforced in their own domain) in the Sengoku period (period of warring states) (Japan): Imagawa Kana Mokuroku (Kana List of Articles of the Imagawa) of the Imagawa clan laid down that 'those who engaged in an armed conflict were both to be executed, irrespective of the question of right or wrong,' and 'who having borne and controlled himself under the provocation... and peacefully settled the matter for the moment was judged as reasonable..., and was to be exempt from punishment' (Article 8).

その後、光圀は父徳川頼房の死去により家督を相続し、公務が多忙となったため事業からは遠ざかっていたが、幕府では寛文2年（1662年）に林鵞峰に命じて編年体の史書『本朝通鑑』の編纂を開始しており、光圀は林鵞峰を藩邸に招いて面談し、編纂方針や正統問題について質問している。
Then, Mitsukuni succeeded to the family after his father, TOKUGAWA Yorifusa, died and became busy with official duties, so that he stayed away from the enterprise, but the government ordered HAYASHI Gaho to compile a chronicle of Japan, 'Honchotsukan' and Mitsukuni asked HAYASHI Gaho about compiling policy and legitimacy, in person.

大江匡房が康和2年（1100年）に、安楽寺（大宰府にあった菅原道真を弔う寺）に「安楽寺に参ず」（『本朝続文粋』所収）という詩を作り、その中で「累葉廊下の末葉たり」とあることから、少なくても平安時代後期までは菅原氏代々の文章博士によって継続されていたと考えられている。
As a couplet in a poem titled 'Anraku-ji ni sanzu' (Visited Anraku-ji Temple) (contained in 'Honcho zoku monzui' (Further Anthology of waka poems and prose written in classical Chinese) composed by OE no Masafusa in 1100 to Anraku-ji Temple (SUGAWARA no Michizane's mortuary temple located in Dazaifu) had it 'Ruiyo roka no matsuyo tari' (I was the last leaf in a heap of leaves in the hallway), it could be estimated that the school had been kept by generations of the Monjo hakase of the Sugawara clan and at least until the late Heian period.

だが、本来東京都は花粉症増加の原因をディーゼル自動車の排気ガスに求め、排ガス汚染との関連はみられないという疫学調査の結果が出たにもかかわらず、その規制を強行した自治体であることは記しておかねばならない（ただし、規制そのものは花粉症のみのために行なったものではない）。
However, it must be said that Tokyo is an autonomous body that enforced diesel regulation based on the concept that exhaust fumes from diesel vehicles was the cause for increases in pollinosis despite epidemiological investigation findings that there is no relationship between exhaust gas pollution and pollinosis (although these regulations did not pertain only to pollinosis).

たとえば、17世紀初頭に刊行された『日葡辞書』では、BuxiやMononofuはそれぞれ「武人」「軍人」という訳語が与えられているのに対して、Saburaiは「貴人、または尊敬すべき人」と訳されていることからも、侍が武士階層の中でも特別な存在であったことは窺えよう。
For example, 'the Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam' (Nipojisho, Japanese-Portuguese Dictionary), published in early seventeen century, gave the meaning of the terms Buxi and Mononofu as 'bujin' (warrior) and 'gunjin' (military man), respectively, however, Saburai was translated as 'a nobleman or person to be respected', suggesting that samurai were special people within the bushi class.

検断とは、統治すること・裁判することを意味する用語であり、中世日本では治安行政と刑事司法、さらに軍事までもが未分化だったため、領地・村落内の内政、外交を行い、統治することが裁判を行うことと密接につながっていた（日葡辞書によると、検断は統治・裁判を行う役職、とある）。
The kendan is the term to mean to rule and to hold a trial, and addressing domestic policies, diplomacies, and governing territories and rural communities were closely connected to holding a trial because security, government, and criminal justice, even the military, were not separated in medieval Japan (according to 'Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam:' Japanese-Portuguese dictionary, published 1603 - 1604), kendan was described as a post to rule and hold a trial).

いっぽう、1980年代後半より花粉症対策検討委員会を、1998年からはアレルギー性疾患対策検討委員会を設けるなど独自に花粉症・アレルギーに関する研究や施策を行ってきた東京都では、花粉の発生源である森林への対策を取りまとめ、2006年度より事業として始めることになった。
In Tokyo, which has independently implemented research and measures into pollinosis and allergies including the Pollen Allergy Measurements and Review Committee implemented in the latter half of the 1980s and the Allergic Disease Countermeasures Investigation Committee founded in 1998, countermeasures against forests which are a source of pollen have been compiled and these were put into operation in 2006.

千葉介、上総介一族が、頼朝に加担したのは、『吾妻鏡』にいうような、両氏が累代の源氏の郎等であったからではなく、平家と結んだ下総の藤原氏、そして常陸の佐竹氏の侵攻に対して、頼朝を担ぐことによってそれを押し返し、奪い取られた自領を復活する為の起死回生の掛けであったといわれる。
It is said that the reason why the families of Chiba no suke and Kazusa no suke joined Yoritomo was not because they were followers of the generations of the Genji family as stated in 'Azuma Kagami' (The Mirror of the East); rather, they supported Yoritomo to fight back against the attacks by the Fujiwara clan of Shimosa, who was aligned with the Taira family, and the Satake clan of Hitachi in an attempt to recover their lost territories, which was a revival gamble.

これに対し、満仲の嫡流である頼光・頼国が所領を有さなかったとは考え難く、またこの時代は摂関政治の確立により武力を要する政変などが無くなっていたことなども踏まえ、多田庄の経営は一族や郎党の者に任せ自身は在京したものであるとの考察もなされているが、現時点では判然としていない。
On the other hand, it is difficult to imagine that Yorimitsu and Yorikuni, the main line of Mitsunaka, did not inherit Mitsunaka's property while there were no conflicts needing military forces as the regency was established, so it is considered that Yorikuni and Yorimitsu left the management of Tada Manors to their families or retainers and stayed at the capital, but it is still controversial.

経済発展をおこなう以上、多量の二酸化炭素を排出せねばならないと考えられたため開発途上国の自発的参加が見送られ、当初は推進していたアメリカ合衆国も後に受け入れを拒否、ロシア連邦も受け入れの判断を見送っていたため、2004年ごろまでは議定書の発効が行われていない状況であった。
Voluntary participations of developing countries were shelved because they thought they had to emit a large amount of carbon dioxide as long as they pursued economical development, and the United States of America, which was positive at first, rejected to accept the protocol, further Russian Federation suspended the ratification; accordingly, Kyoto Protocol was not effected until around 2004.

ここに至って近衛基熙や江戸幕府は、霊元天皇による四宮擁立の真意が皇子可愛さだけではなく、院政を開始して摂家や幕府の干渉を排して思いのままの政治を行うための長期計画の一環であり、すぐに成人を迎えてしまう年長の一宮に皇位を譲る事が不都合であったからであった事に気付くのである。
This development made Motohiro KONOE and the Bakufu in Edo realize that the true motive underlying Emperor Reigen's insistence on succession by Shinomiya had not only been love of his own son but part of his long-cherished scheme to assume the virtual reins of the court as retired emperor and exercising ruling authority without allowing interference by the Sekkanke or the Bakufu, to whom handing over the imperial throne to the older Ichinomiya, who would soon become of age, would have been a disadvantage.

千葉介、上総介一族が、頼朝に加担したのは、『吾妻鏡』が美化して伝えるような、両氏が代々源氏の家人であったからではなく、平家と結んだ下総国の藤原氏、そして常陸国の佐竹氏の侵攻に対して、頼朝を担ぐことによってそれを押し返し、奪い取られた自領を復活する為の起死回生の掛けであった。
The reason why Chiba and Kazusa no Suke clans supported Yoritomo was not only because they both were the servants of Minamoto clan as beautified by 'Azuma Kagami,' but to repel the invasion of the Fujiwara clan of Shimousa Province and the Satake clan of Hitachi Province by supporting Yoritomo and to recover their stolen estate as a gamble to turn things around from facing a complete defeat.

例示された伊勢貞孝の討伐が象徴的であるが、自前の軍事力を持たない義輝の時代の幕府権力の回復（特に書簡と使者があれば事足りる大名間の調停者としてではなく、軍事力に裏打ちされた畿内の統治者としての権力の回復）は事実上三好長慶の幕府への融和的姿勢により支えられていたものであった。
As is symbolized by the cited victory over Sadataka ISE, recovery of the Bakufu's power in the age of Yoshiteru, who had no real military force (recovery of power not as a mediator of inter-daimyo (feudal lord) strifes who would need only letters and messengers but as the ruler of the areas surrounding the capital whose position was supported by military force) was virtually supported by the conciliatory posture of Nagayoshi MIYOSHI toward the Bakufu.

その後新渡戸稲造がアメリカ人に紹介するために書いた『武士道 (新渡戸稲造)』が、日清戦争以降、逆輸入され広く受け入れられ、大日本帝国の軍人が持つべき倫理と接合して、軍人の倫理の骨格をかたちづくり、また一方では、美学として文学や芸能の世界でさまざまなかたちとなってあらわれた。
Later, Inazo NITOBE wrote 'Bushido (Inazo NITOBE)' to introduce bushido to American people, but after the Sino-Japanese War, it was reimported to Japan and formed the ethical framework for military officers, mixing with the ethics which the military officers of the Empire of Japan should have, and on the other hand it appeared as aesthetic in various forms in the world of literature or entertainment.

2001年にアジアの黄砂発生源を3つに区分（中国西部・中国北部・黄土高原）して行われた黄砂の成分分析では、質量が多い順にケイ素が24 - 30%、カルシウムが7 - 12%、アルミニウムが7%、鉄が4 - 6%、カリウムが2 - 3%、マグネシウムが1 - 3%ほどを占めた。
According to component analyses of kosa conducted in 2001 at the three typical kosa source places (the western area of China, the northern area of China and the Loess Plateau) in Asia, the kosa included, in the larger mass order, silicon (24 to 30 percent), calcium (7 to 12 percent), aluminum (7 percent), iron (4 to 6 percent), potassium (2 to 3 percent) and magnesium (1 to 3percent).

日本では、天文博士あるいは天文密奏宣旨を受けた天文学・占星術に通じた人物が、異常な天文現象を見つけた際には、占いの結果と過去に発生した同様の事例から勘案してその意味を解釈したものを観測記録とともに奏書に認めて密封して、速やかに陰陽頭を通じて天皇に対して上奏されることとなっていた。
In Japan, it was decided that upon observing an unusual astronomical phenomenon, tenmon hakase (a master of astronomy) or a person who was well versed in astrology and astronomy and had received an imperial decree constituting the mission as the medium of tenmon misso should draw up a document stating what it symbolized by taking into account the divination and similar cases in the past, and observations; seal it; and directly submit it to the emperor through Onmyo no kami (Director of Onmyoryo, or Bureau of Divination) at once.

ポスト京都議定書の協議が始まるようになると、温室効果ガス排出量削減の必要性は認めながらも「最も二酸化炭素排出量の多い産業である鉄鋼業では、日本のエネルギー効率は高いことから削減余地が少ない（のだから他国に削減させるべきである）」といった主張が、主に利益団体より出されるようになった。
When a conference of Post Kyoto Protocol was about to begin, the following claims came out mainly from the interest groups relating to the steel industry: necessity of reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases could be understandable, however, in the Japanese steel industry, which emits the largest amount of carbon dioxide, there was no room for the reduction because the industry's energy efficiency had almost reached the technological limit, therefore further burdens of emissions reduction should be borne by countries other than Japan.

書博士が書生を教えることとされていたが、学令には書生に関する規定はあるものの、学生定員を定めた職員令には書生の定員規定が書かれておらず、若干名であったと考えられている（『続日本紀』天平宝字2年11月甲午条に淳仁天皇から書生に生糸が授けられたとする記事があり、全くいなかった訳ではない）。
It was thought that shosei (students who were given room and board in exchange for performing domestic duties) were taught by sho hakase (professors of calligraphy) but despite the fact that there were regulations regarding shosei in education laws, there were no regulations regarding the fixed number of shosei written within the shikiinryo (law which stipulates duties of the ministries) which fixed number of students, and they are thought to have been few in number (an entry in 'Shoku Nihongi' (Chronicle of Japan Continued) for December 758 contains an article stating raw silk thread was awarded to shosei by Emperor Junnin, so it was not the case that there were not any shosei at all.)

これは泰時が『法曹至要抄』や明法道の目安（訴状・陳状などの法律文書）を研究していたことや、編纂に参加しているのが泰時とともに六波羅探題を務めた叔父の北条時房（幕府連署）や京都の下級官人出身者やその子弟が中心であったのも御成敗式目の法源を武家慣習法ではなく公家法に求めたからと考えられている。
It has been believed that the reason why Yasutoki studied 'Hososhiyo-sho' (a legal book compiled by the Sakanoue clan between the end of Heian period and the early Kamakura period) as well as the criterion of Myobodo (study of Codes) (legal documents of petition, petition for objection, and so forth) and why his uncle Tokifusa HOJO, a bakufu rensho (assistant to regents in bakufu) who had worked as Rokuhara Tandai (an administrative and judicial agency in Rokuhara, Kyoto) with him and person who had come from lower-ranking government official in Kyoto and their descendents participated in the compilation were that he sought the source of law not for the common law for samurai families, but for the court noble law.

そこで佐々木宗雄は、基経の本心は「阿衡」という言葉よりも光孝天皇の時に基経に与えられていた政務の全面委任（王権代行の権限）の授与を示す言葉が2度の詔には明記されなかったために、天皇が自己の政治権限の削除を図っているとの反感を抱いて、光孝天皇の時と同等の権限を求めたのではないかという説を立てている。
Muneo SASAKI pays attention to the fact that the Japanese word indicating the full delegation of state affairs (authority to act as the Emperor's deputy), to which Mototsune was entitled during the Era of Emperor Koko, was not explicitly used in these two shochokus, and asserts that Mototsune felt antipathy toward the Emperor because he suspected the Emperor might be trying to reduce his political authority, rather than because the term 'Ako' had been used, leading Mototsune to request that he be given the same level of authority as he had held during the era of Emperor Koko.

すなわち「八宗九宗」の中にキリシタンを加えているのも含め、イエズス会を本願寺や金剛峯寺と同様に、信仰の保護と所領の給付と引換に秀吉による政治的支配に服属させる意図があったと考えられており、歴史学者の安野眞幸は「キリスト教のイデオロギーと秀吉政権の統一思想との衝突」が原因ではなかったかと述べている。
That is, including Christians in the addition of 'eight schools and nine schools,' it was probably intended to place the Society of Jesus under Hideyoshi's political dominance in exchange for protection of faith and grant of a domain as in the case of Hongan-ji Temple and Kongobuji Temple, and Historian Masaki ANNO said that the cause could be 'a conflict between the Christian ideology and the unification concept of the Hideyoshi regime.'

また、算道は『孫子算経』・『五曹算経』・『九章算術』・『海島算経』・『六章』・『綴術』・『三開重差』・『周髀算経』・『九司』の9書を教科書としていた『延喜式』大学寮式では全て小経に区別されているが、『九章算術』・『六章』・『綴術』が必修とされており、後に『周髀算経』がこれに準じるものとされている。
In the 'Engishiki' system of the Daigaku-ryo, among the nine small scripture textbooks of Sando (Mathematics), which included 'Sonshi Sankyo,' 'Goso Sankyo,' 'Kyusho Sanjutsu,' 'Kaito Sankei,' 'Rokusho,' 'Teijutsu,' 'Sankai Jusa,' 'Shuhi Sankei,' 'Kyushi,' three were compulsory, 'Kyusho Sanjutsu,' 'Rokusho,' and 'Teijutsu' with 'Shuhi Sankei' added later to the compulsory list of textbooks.

ただし、公家社会において政所及びこれを構成する家司の制度が解体された中世後期に入ると、公家の家臣層も諸大夫と青侍を中心とする家僕に再編成されることになるが、諸大夫を持てない中下層公家では青侍のみで家僕が構成されて公家家政を運営するようになり、青侍と家僕が同義語として扱われる場合もあった（『教言卿記』など）。
In the late Medieval period, with the mandokoro (Administrative Office) and Ie no tsukasa (house steward) system that constituted mandokoro being broken up by the court, those of the court nobles at the level of vassals were to be reassigned to retainers, mainly including shodaibu and Aozamurai; however, the court nobles at the lower and middle levels who could not have vassals at shodaibu rank had only Aozamurai constituting their vassals and managing their households, whereas Aozamurai and vassals were treated as synonyms in some cases (according to 'Noritoki Kyo ki' [The Diary of Noritoki YAMASHINA]).

これに対して南インドでは伝統的な村落共同体の影響が強いために、農民の従来通りの土地所有を前提としてより緩やかなライーヤトワーリー制が導入されたものの、5-6割の地租の前に未納を理由とした官の没収もしくは納税のための借金のかたに領主・地主層からなる金融業者の差押を経て北インドと同様の土地支配体制が広がっていった。
In contrast to this, the influence of the village community was strong in the south of India and though the more loose Raiyatowari system was introduced there on the premise of traditional farmers' landownership, the lands were confiscated by government officials because of non-payment of 50 to 60 percent of land tax, or the lands were seized by money brokers who consisted of the lords and landowners because of tax payments for debts and through these, the land government system spread as in the north of India.

簡単にいえば、武官は「官人として武装しており、律令官制の中で訓練を受けた常勤の公務員的存在」であるのに対して、武士は「10世紀に成立した新式の武芸を家芸とし、武装を朝廷や国府から公認された「下級貴族」、「下級官人」、「有力者の家人中世の家人」からなる人々」であって、律令官制の訓練機構で律令制式の武芸を身につけた者ではなかった。
Simply speaking, military officers were 'government officials (espcially one of low to medium rank) who were armed and a full-time government [public] employee-like officials trained under the Ritsuryo-system,' while the bushi were 'the people who consisted of a 'lower ranking nobles,' 'lower ranking government officials' and 'people from powerful or medieval families' who regarded the new military art established during the 10th century as their iegei and were officially authorized to be armed by the Imperial Court or kokufu (provincial office)' and they did not acquire the military art of the Ritsuryo-system style in the training institution of the organization of the government according to the Ritsuryo codes.

右大臣九条兼実の諮問を受けた季弘は、治承元年（1177年）にも同じようなことがあり、亡くなった父安倍泰親が彗星といい、自分がであるとしたので、父が天に判断を仰ぎ誤った方に天罰が下ることを祈請したところ、自分が重病になったので彗星だと判明した。従って実際の星の動きは問題ではないと唱えたという（『玉葉』正暦二年1月12日 (旧暦)条）。
When inquired by the Udaijin (Minister of the Right) Kanezane KUJO, Suehiro stated that when the similar phenomenon was observed in 1177, his deceased father ABE no Yasuchika said that it was a comet, but he objected to that; then his father asked Heaven to give them judgment by punishing the wrong one, and consequently, Suehiro fell seriously ill, thereby they confirmed that it was a comet -- therefore, it could be concluded that actual movement of stars did not matter (the entry of 'Gyokuyo' [the diary of Kanezane KUJO] for February 4, 991).

1981年に銀行法が全部改正された際に、「定期積金等」という定義によって、相互掛金は普通銀行での取扱も可能にはなったものの、銀行法以外の法律に基づいて設立された長期信用銀行、信用金庫、信用組合、農業協同組合、漁業協同組合、労働金庫の各根拠法は改正されなかったため、相互銀行法が廃止された現在では、普通銀行のみが取扱えるものとなっている。
When the Banking Act was entirely revised in 1981, it became possible to handle mutual premiums in ordinary banks called 'regular deposits and others,' but each base law of long-term credit banks, credit unions, credit associations, agricultural cooperative associations, fishery cooperative associations, and labor credit associations established based upon the law, rather than the Banking Act, was not revised, therefore, now only the ordinary banks can manage it because the Mutual Loan and Savings Bank Act was abolished.

発生期の武士の家組織の内部奉公人の中においても武士と同様に戦場では騎馬戦士として活動した郎党や、徒歩で戦った従卒がいたが、室町・戦国期になると武士身分の拡散が大きくなり、狭義の武士同士の主従関係のほかに、本来は百姓身分でありながら狭義の武士の支配する所領の名主層から軍役を通じて主従関係を持つようになった広義の武士としての地侍などが登場する。
Also among the servants who belonged to the family organization of bushi during the early period, there were the roto who fought as cavalry warriors in the battlefield like bushi or jusotsu (officer's servants) who fought on foot, but in the Muromachi and Sengoku period the samurai status spread increasingly and jizamurai (local samurai), originally coming from the class of farmers, as bushi in a broad sense appeared by having a relationship between lord and vassal through the military service for the class of myoshu (owner of rice fields) of shoryo governed by the bushi in a narrow sense, as well as the master-subordinate relationship of the bushi in a narrow sense.

3代将軍足利義満の時代には幕府組織の再編が進み一時御前沙汰は行われなくなるが、出家していた元管領細川頼之を幕府に呼び戻す際に、幕府役職になかった頼之を幕府の政策決定に関与させるために正式な評定ではなく、出席者の人選に決まりが無く主宰者である将軍の意向が反映しやすい非公式な評定である御前沙汰の形式で評定を行って幕府の政策に関する重要決定を行った。
In the tenure of the third shogun Yoshimitsu ASHIKAGA, the bakufu was substantially reorganized and gozen-sata ceased once, but the shogun began holding consultations in the informal style of gozen-sata for making bakufu's important policy decisions for the purpose of having the former shogunal deputy Yoriyuki HOSOKAWA, who had entered the priesthood and had been out of bakufu office, participate in the bakufu's policy-making when the shogun sought to bring him back to bakufu -- because gozen-sata was not a formal consultation, the members of which were selected mostly at the discretion of shogun, the head of the consultation.

ドラマ中では、猪熊教利が名前すら登場しないこと、唐橋局が掌侍であること、兼安備後が奥の門の見張り役であること、花山院忠長の配流先が津軽であること、公家の処分が徳川家康による豊臣家を支援する公家の宮中からの追放を意図したものであること、広橋局以下女官を謹慎とする後陽成帝の案に対して徳川家康が難色を示し配流となったこと（後陽成帝の処分案が手ぬるいことになる）が異なる。
The TV-adapted story differs from historical facts in that, in the TV play, even the name of Noritoshi INOKUMA is not mentioned, Karahashi no Tsubone is a naishi no jo (a woman officer who carries the Emperor's sword when accompanying him out of the Palace), Bingo KANEYASU is a watchdog at the Okunomon (Inside Gate), the destination of banishment of Tadanaga KAZANIN is Tsugaru, the punishment of court nobles was intended by Ieyasu TOKUGAWA to expel pro-Toyotomi nobles from the Imperial Court, and Ieyasu TOKUGAWA disagreed to Emperor Goyozei's proposal only to restrain the behaviors of Hirohashi no Tsubone and other court ladies and instead ordered them to be banished (this means that Emperor Goyozei's proposal for punishment had been more lenient).

しかしながら堀新 (歴史学者)から出された反論では、同日記の5月4日 (旧暦)付けの記事や、『誠仁親王消息』などの資料から、三職いずれかなどという曖昧な推任をしたのは誰も信長の真意を理解していなかったための行動であり、貞勝と信長との間にこの件に関する打ち合わせをした形跡がないことなどから、三職推任は信長の意向とは言えず、5月4日の晴豊の言葉も晴豊個人の見解であるとした。
Shin HORI (a historian) argued against these interpretations that Haretoyo expressed his own opinion on May 4 (old calendar) at that time and Sanshoku suinin had nothing do to with Nobunaga's intention, because: the article of the diary dated May 4 and 'Message from Imperial Prince Sanehito' (誠仁親王消息) suggest that such an unspecific Sanshoku suinin came from a situation where no one knew what Nobunaga wanted; and nothing suggests Nobunaga and Sadakatsu had talked about this matter.

将軍在任期間は、それぞれ藤原頼経が18年間（1226年 - 1244年）、藤原頼嗣が8年間（1244年 - 1252年）と比較的長期間ではあったものの、幼いころから成人するまでの期間で政治的な力も全くなく、幕府の実権は、北条氏が完全に掌握していたため将軍とは名ばかりの傀儡将軍だったが、特に藤原頼経は、傀儡であることを嫌ったがため北条氏によって煙たがられた不遇の将軍であった。
FUJIWARA no Yoritsune assumed the role of shogun for eighteen years (1226-1244) and FUJIWARA no Yoritsugu for eight years (1244-1252), comparatively long periods, but from childhood until attaining manhood without any political power because the Hojo clan fully controlled the bakufu and the shoguns were just puppets, especially FUJIWARA no Yoritsune was an unfortunate shogun since he hated being a puppet and was a threat to the Hojo clan.

しかし、そのおよそ2週間後の6月29日に「（「君」とは）『日本国憲法下では、日本国及び日本国民統合の象徴であり、その地位が主権の存する国民の総意に基づく天皇のことを指す』『『代』は本来、時間的概念だが、転じて『国』を表す意味もある。『君が代』は、日本国民の総意に基づき天皇を日本国及び日本国民統合の象徴する我が国のこととなる』（君が代の歌詞を）『我が国の末永い繁栄と平和を祈念したものと解するのが適当』」と変更した。
On June 29, approximately two weeks after that, however, it was changed as ''Kimi' means the emperor who is the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people, deriving this position from the will of the people with whom resides the sovereign power 'and 'Although 'yo' is originally a temporal concept, it has also a transferred the meaning of 'state'. It is appropriate 'to understand (words of Kimigayo) them as hope for the long-lasting prosperity of Japan, which has the emperor as the symbol of the State and the unity of the people and peace.'

だが、実際に『延喜儀式』が朝廷の儀礼など用いられた事が確認できる記録が無く、逸文の初出も延喜年間より100年以上も経た『北山抄』であり、その後は院政期の書物に限られる事から、延喜年間に編纂されたものの『貞観儀式』（『儀式』）の部分的手直しに過ぎないとする説や、完成したが施行されなかったとする説、未完成に終わったとする説、更には延喜期の編纂ではなく11世紀までに成立した延喜期の儀礼に関する記録が儀式と看做された説などが諸説に分かれている。
Yet, from the fact that there were no records to prove that 'Engi Gishiki' was practically used in formalities at the imperial court, that its surviving fragment first appeared in 'Hokuzansho' which was written more than one hundred years after the Engi era, and that it only appeared in documents during the period under the rule of Cloistered Emperors, some said that Engi Gishiki was compiled in the Engi era, but just as a partial improvement of 'Jogan Gishiki' ('Gishiki'), some said that it was completed, but did not come into use, some said that it was not completed, and some said that it was not compiled during the Engi era, but records on the formalities in the Engi era established until the eleventh century were considered to be Gishiki.

その一方で、平安時代中期の著作である『政事要略』が書名を『貞観儀式』とせずに『儀式貞観』としているのは、当初からこの書名は『儀式』と称されており、『政事要略』は単に脚注として編纂年代である元号の「貞観」を付記したに過ぎないこと、『本朝法家文書目録』は今日では存在が疑問視されている三代儀式の存在を前提に書いており、実際には存在しなかった弘仁儀式を掲げるなど正確性に疑問があるとして、正式な書名は『儀式』であるとする森田悌らの説も存在する。
On the other hand, Tei MORITA etc. asserted the official book title must be 'Gishiki' arguing that the author of 'Seiji yoryaku,' compiled during the mid-Heian period, used 'Gishiki Jogan' instead of 'Jogan gishiki' in order to add the era name of 'Jogan' in which the book was compiled while acknowledging the title of the book was 'Gishiki' from the very beginning, and that the credibility of 'Honcho hoka monjo mokuroku' is doubtful because it was written on the premise of the existence of Sandai gishiki whose existence is questioned at present and it listed Konin gishiki (ceremony in the manner of the Konin era) which, in reality, did not exist.

その後の裁判例においては、第二の見解に立つものが続いたが、最高裁平成20年4月15日第二小法廷決定（事件番号平成19(あ)839）は、本判決について、「警察官による人の容ぼう等の撮影が、現に犯罪が行われ又は行われた後間がないと認められる場合のほかは許されないという趣旨まで判示したものではない」と述べた上で、公道上及びパチンコ店内において被告人の容ぼう等をビデオ撮影した捜査活動を適法と判断しており、少なくとも裁判例においては、第二の見解が支配的になったといえる。
In subsequent cases, judgments proceeded from the second opinion, but Decision of the Second Petty Bench of the Supreme Court dated on April 15, 2008 (case number 2007 (A) No. 839) stated 'it does not go so far as to mean, as argued by the accused, that photographing of a person's appearance, etc. by police officials should not be permitted except in cases where it is found that the crime is currently being committed or has just been committed' and 'videotaping operations such as videotaping the defendant's appearance, etc. on the public road and in the pachinko parlor can be recognized as legal Investigation activities', which means that the second opinion has been dominant, at least in precedents.

ところが、石塚一石が『本朝書籍目録』の中にある弘仁儀式の篇目に「七月二十五日相撲儀」が含まれているのに対して、相撲節会の開催日が7月25日 (旧暦)に定められたのは、弘仁年間よりも70年も後の仁和年間であり、弘仁年間には7月7日 (旧暦)と定められていた事実（天長元年（弘仁15年/824年）の7月7日に平城上皇が崩御して同日が忌日となったために、従来この日を期日として定められていた宮中行事の期日が変更を余儀なくされた）を指摘し、更に篇目の中に弘仁式逸文に記載された日付と合致しない行事がある事実を指摘して、『弘仁儀式』は散逸したのではなく最初から存在しなかったとする見解を唱えた。
Nevertheless, Kazushi ISHIZUKA advanced the view that the 'Konin Gishiki' did not exist from the beginning, by pointing out that although the table of contents of the Konin Gishiki in the 'Honcho shoseki mokuroku' included 'Sumai no gi (the Rite of Sumo Wrestling) on July 25 (old calendar),' Sumai no Sechie (Festival of Wrestling) was fixed on July 25 (old calendar) in the Ninna era (885 - 889), about seventy years after the Konin era (810 - 824), and that the Sumai no gi was fixed on July 7 (old calendar) during the Konin era (since ex-emperor Heizei died on July 7 in the first year of the Tencho era (the fifteenth year of the Konin era, 824) and the date became the death day of emperor, the ceremonial functions at the imperial court which had been fixed, had to be fixed on another day), and by further pointing out that the table of contents includes the ceremonial functions, the dates of which did not match those described in a surviving fragment of the Konin shiki (Palace regulations of the Konin era).