Honyaku Star - Search: その

その: 1000 Terms and Phrases

そのう
avian crop

いっその事
rather
sooner
preferably

長沼のその後
Aftermath on Naganuma

その他の例外
Other exceptions

その後の経緯
Subsequent details

その他の伝来
Other legacies

消滅とその後
Disappearance and After

影響・その後
Subsequent influence and development
Influence and sequel of the incident

その他の人事
The other personnel affairs

その間の状況
More details of the situation

その後の貞時
Sadatoki after the incident

犯人のその後
The Criminals after the Event

また、その人。
It also means a person who acts as a person's proxy.

エピソード・その他
Episode and others

その後他州に拡大。
This regulation later spread to other states.

「不忠臣」のその後
After the 'Unfaithful Retainer'

以下はその概要である
The following is a summary of his observations.

その勢力をはっていた。
These local ruling classes wielded substantial political power.

以下はその一例である。
The following is one example.
The following is an example.

その後は自由移民となる。
After this, an open immigration was in place.

その他の統帥権を巡る事例
Other cases over supreme command

その下に24士が属した。
Twenty four members belonged to this party.

その下に23士が属した。
Twenty three members belonged to this party.

その前は流水文であった。
Before it, the running water-like pattern was popular.

その後、兵庫県に編入された。
It was then incorporated into Hyogo Prefecture.

そのため、溺死者が続出した。
The end result was that the soldiers continued to die by drowning.

その後九州大宰府まで逃れた。
They then escaped to Kyushu Dazaifu.

賠償金4億5000万両のその後
Aftermath of Reparations of 450 Million Taels

その結果は以下のようであった。
The followings are the results.

その中身は以下のとおりである。
And the contents were as follows :

その後、小松原で、法難に遭う。
After that, he was assaulted in Komatsubara.

「その匂ひ雪のあさぢの野梅かな」
Your smell reminds me of a wild plum in snow.'

その内容は、おおむね次のとおり。
The particulars were as follows:

百八十部（ももあまりやそのとも）
Momo Amari Yaso no Tomo

その量は時代や地域により異なる。
The volume of 1 sho varies from time to time, from place to place.

その後出家して法然に仕えている。
Afterward, Naozane would become a priest, serving Honen (Buddhist priest).

その官職及び官職にある者をいう。
It meant the post or the one who took the post of it.

そのため効果としては疑問がある。
Therefore, there is a doubt about the effectiveness of the Gonin-gumi.

その後、織田長頼・織田信武と続く。
Subsequently, Takanaga was succeeded by Nagayori ODA, who was then succeeded by Nobutake ODA.

そのうえで毛利家は咎めなしとした。
Yoshimune did not give any punishment to the Mori family.

しかし、その直後鋳造が止んでいる。
Soon after this; however, the production of dotaku was stopped.

その補充はほとんど行われなかった。
The recruitment of oniwaban was rarely conducted.

その他の技術的ポイントを列記する。
Other technical points are listed.

その間に伊藤らは収拾策の方針を決定。
During OKUMA's absence, ITO and other members decided on a plan to solve the problem.

しかしその養子も早世が相次いでいる。
However, Sadatoshi also died soon.

久米と松平はその場で斬られて死んだ。
Kume and Matsudaira were killed on the spot.

市町村名に用いられた旧国名（その他）
Old provincial names used in the naming of cities, towns, and villages (for other purposes)

「しかし、その軍勢は二万騎である。」
'However, the Taira military forces had twenty thousand cavalrymen.'

その後は源義仲に属して入京している。
Later, Yoshisada belonged to MINAMOTO no Yoshinaka and entered the capital.

古代華南にそのような風習が見られた。
Such custom was seen in the ancient South China.

その後、器財埴輪・家形埴輪が現れた。
Later, kizai haniwa (a collective name for tool shaped clay figures, such as; a silk umbrella, a shield, a quiver, and armor) figures and iegata haniwa (a house-shaped clay figure) figures appeared in this historical period.

そのため律令制崩壊後も長く存続した。
Therefore, Shuzeiryo existed for a long time even after the collapse of Ritsuryo system.

そのうちの半数は頭部に集中していた。
Half of the wounds were concentrated upon his head.

しかし、その影響は小さくはなかった。
However, the influence was not small.

その結果惣代75名を除いて帰郷した。
Most peasants except 75 representatives went back home.

そのため事実関係の詳細は不明である。
Thus, the details are still unspecified.

この整然した街路は今もそのままである。
Today, the well-organized streets remain exactly as they were originally designed.

そのほかの地名としては以下の例がある。
There are other places named Kokuga, for example:

そのため、再度兵士らが暴動を起こした。
For that reason, the soldiers rioted again.

平安時代には画所がその業務を継承した。
During the Heian period, edokoro (Imperial office treating about pictures) succeeded to the work.

その後、酒を散布して、再び乾燥させる。
Sake is sprinkled over the Gyukakuso and it is dried again.

日清戦争勃発まではその効力が続いていた。
It was effective until the Sino-Japanese War broke out.

どちらも、その10分の1を勺としている。
One tenth of both of them is 1 shaku.

転じて、そのような商売をする商人を指す。
It has changed its meaning to merchants running such a business.

その下に府・郡韓国の郡、郡の下に邑・面。
Prefectures and Counties were established in each Province, and Eups and Myeons were established in each County.

しかし、その具体的な遺構は未発見である。
However, their concrete ancient structural remnants remain undiscovered.

その様子から、日本人は「黒船」と呼んだ。
Seeing that, the Japanese called them 'kurofune' (black ships).

その治世がいかに安定していたかが伺える。
It indicates how stably the country was governed during the reign.

その後もたびたび業務の改廃を繰り返した。
After that, an improvement or elimination of operations was also repeated frequently.

なおその際、外務部を六部の上位とすること。
In that case the Ministry of Foreign Affairs shall be ranked over the six other Ministries.

その他のことにおいても倹約を心掛けること。
In all other regards, try to practice economy.

そのため比較的高価なプレミアが付いている。
Therefore, the notes are sold at comparatively high prices with premium.

吉良上野介に一番槍をつけ、その首級をあげた。
He instigated a war against Kira Kozuke no Suke and managed to kill him by decapitation.

その成立時期は、5～6世紀をさかのぼらない。
The formation period was between the fifth century and the sixth century.

所期の任務を終えるとそのほとんどは帰国した。
The vast majority of foreigners returned to their own countries upon completing the tasks for which they had been hired.

その後鐸自身が大型化し、表面に飾りが加わる。
And from later on dotaku itself grew in size with a decoration added on the surface.

例えば物部氏、蘇我氏、巨勢氏、平群氏その他。
Examples are the Mononobe clan, the Soga clan, the Kose clan, the Heguri clan and others.

その後、隣の小高坂村でも同様の条項が実現した。
Thereafter, the same clause was implemented in neighboring Kotakasa Village.

しかし、今度は会見そのものを拒絶されてしまう。
However, they rejected to attend the conference.

そのほかにも、建築関係で功績が高い人物である。
Besides, he also left a great achievement in architecture.

その後、広嗣軍は板櫃河の会戦に敗れて敗走した。
The Hirotsugu army lost the battle of Itabitsuchin and escaped.

その後しばらくしてわっと泣き出す声が聞こえた。
After a while, they heard someone burst into tears.

そのため后妃のこと自体を後宮ということがある。
Therefore, in some case, the Empress herself to be called Kokyu.

その大学の一つが現在北京にある清華大学である。
One of these universities is the present Tsinghua University in Beijing.

その死にあたっては廃朝の上、従一位を贈られた。
When he died, the Emperor mourned over the death and he posthumously received Juichii (Junior First Rank).

そのため、物部氏と共に軍事の管理を司っていた。
The Otomo clan was also in charge of military affairs, together with the Mononobe clan.

その後大規模な銃撃戦、攻城戦が繰り広げられた。
After that, the exchange of fire and the laying of siege became widespread.

諸家中においては、その国内で基準を定めること。
The rules for each clan must be decided by the Domain.

その5騎が平忠度の守る塩屋口の西城戸に現れた。
These five cavalrymen then appeared at Nishikido at the Shioya fortress entrance, guarded by TAIRA no Tadanori.

そのため､繁雑な官司に出向することも多かった。
For this reason, often they were temporarily transferred to busy government officials.

「内（仏教）と外（儒教）はその根本は同じである。
The 'inner' belief (Buddhism) and the 'outer' belief (Confucianism) share the same roots.

また、再雇用も恩典もその後受けることはできない。
Moreover, these officials shall not be able to receive reemployment and special dispensation after it.

そのため, 一ノ谷だけが戦場だったわけではない。
Therefore, Ichinotani was not the only place where the battle took place.

そのため、,義経はそれに乗じて方々に火をかけた。
Thus, Yoshitsune took the advantage of the position of his army, setting fires in many places.

散位寮は散位を名簿によって管理しその考課を行う。
Sanniryo controlled and evaluated Sanni (courtiers without a post) with the name lists.

その音を聞いて、さらに遠方の寺も鐘を打ち始めた。
In response to these sounds distant temples also began tolling their gongs.

手代はその字の通り、主人や番頭の手足となって働く。
Tedai, as the name suggests, worked devotedly for their master and banto.

そのため、「わどうかいほう」と読む説が主流だった。
Therefore, Wado-kaiho was the main way to read.

しかしその中になんと蕎麦屋の十助がいるではないか。
Much to his surprise, he found Jusuke from the soba restaurant in the party.

ただし、その効果は一時的にしか続かなかったようだ。
But its effect seems to have lasted only temporarily.

その後根来寺の僧津田算長らが畿内に持ち帰っている。
Later, a monk in Negori-ji Temple, Kazunaga TSUDA, and others brought guns back to the Kinai region (provinces surrounding Kyoto and Nara).

その後、外縁付鈕式、扁平鈕式、突線鈕式と変遷する。
After the lozenge type, the crown shape underwent a transition: the outer-edged type, the flat type and then the raised-line type.

そのことを示して飛鳥「京」という名称が用いられる。
Therefore, the word 'kyo' (capital) is included in the name Asuka-kyo.

その日、大久保および御者の中村の移霊式が行われた。
Then, the Irei-shiki (one of the sequential funeral ceremonies of the Shinto religion) ceremonies for Okubo and his driver, Nakamura were performed.

その中でも特に中心的存在であるのが島田一郎である。
Among this group, Ichiro SHIMADA was the central figure.

そのため現存するのは1両軍票数枚という珍品である。
Therefore, that military currency is a rare article, which remains only a few pieces of one-ryo military currency.

その結果、伊賀忍者が甲賀忍者追討の任にあてがわれた。
In the consequence, Iga Ninja were assigned the mission to hunt down and kill Koka Ninja.

綱憲はその迫力に威圧されて出兵を諦めるしかなかった。
Tsunayori was overpowered and had to give up the idea of sending troops.

その他中・下級の官人まで含め、存命のものは多かった。
There were also many who survived the war, including low- and middle-ranking government officials.

その内容が自然科学的な実用書であった事を突き止めた。
He found that the document dealt with natural science for practical purpose.

その後、黒田も開拓長官を辞めて内閣顧問の閑職に退いた。
Later, KURODA also retired from director of the Hokkaido Development Agency and moved to a less important position of a Cabinet advisor.

その後、入り乱れるが、燈火を消し、暗闇での戦闘となる。
Following this, they fell in confusion but someone turned the lamp off and they fought in the dark.

叙爵した者は死没・隠居するまでその官位を保持していた。
When awarded the rank, the Karo officer retained it until he died or retired from the post.

そのとき良沢は『ターヘル・アナトミア』を持参してきた。
There Ryotaku had brought a copy of 'Ontleedkundige Tafelen.'

その為、合戦関係本の多くがこの後者の数字を採っている。
Therefore, many authors of related books of this battle adopt the later figures.

平安遷都など歴代の遷都をそのまま首都の移動とするもの。
The view asserting that the successive transfer of capitals such as the transfer of capital in Heian era is the movement of capital.

そのため非常に多忙であり多くの工員・力役者が付属した。
Therefore, it had many things to do, and many workpeople and physical workers belonged to it.

そのため、民は自らを守るためゲリラ戦の技を磨いていった。
For the reason, people began to brush up technique for guerrilla warfare for self-defense.

しかし、その後も長沼村は長沼の民有化を目指し運動を展開。
But, Naganuma village had carried on a movement aimed at privatization of Naganuma.

「終にその待つにぞ露の玉の緒のけふ絶えて行く死出の山道」
Today the moment will finally come when my life vanishes like dew and my soul leaves for the next world.'

そのため、守護は積極的に国衙の統治権限を蚕食していった。
Thus, Shugo had aggressively encroached on the authority in the administration of the Kokuga.

- 関所を通らずに山を越えたものは、その場で磔に処する。
Persons who passed through a mountain without passing checkpoint must be crucified on the scene.

市町村の中には、属した国の名をそのまま名乗るものがある。
Some cities, towns, and villages took the names of old provinces, to which they belonged, without making any changes.

しばしば大名が就任した（開幕初期はその傾向が特に強い）。
Often a daimyo was installed as a ban-gashira (especially, such tendency was often seen during the early years of the Edo bakufu).

旧洞村は雑木のうちに遺構としてその痕跡を残すのみである。
The previous Hora Village only remains as structural remnants in the miscellaneous small trees.

その後戊辰戦争の各地の戦いで薩長両軍を中心に使用された。
The army of the Satsuma clan and the Choshu clan put it up at many battle fields of the Boshin War.

論争に登場する主要な立法およびその解釈について列記する。
In the following paragraphs, we list the main legislaion and their interpretation.

酒株そのものは、将棋の駒のかたちをした木製の鑑札である。
Sakekabu in itself is a term for a wooden license tag in the shape of a shogi (Japanese chess) piece.

直訴は死罪とされていたため、その行為は義挙と賞賛された。
Direct appeal deserved capital crime, so it was praised as a heroic deed.

納銭方を「料所」と呼称したのもその反映であったとされる。
That was apparently an underlying reason why the word 'ryosho' was used to describe Nosenkata (a tax collector).

それ以後、その国是を変え、他国に対する武力行使を禁じた。
After that, it altered its national policy and banned the use of force against other nations.

そのため、軍票だけでも多くのシリーズがあり、種類も多い。
That is why they issued various series and kins of military currency.

その数は不明であるが、鉱毒事務所の発表では1万2000。
The exact number of the demonstrators is unknown, but the Mining Damage Office announced that 12,000 peasants participated in this demonstration.

その後、ロシアやオランダと締結された和親条約も同様である。
The treaties of Peace and Amity later concluded between Russia and the Netherlands also had the same restriction.

しかし、敗戦によりその国債は1円の価値もないものになった。
Yet due to Japan's defeat, such government bonds ended up being worth less than one yen each.

そのうえ、大和の四品以上に昇進する大名家一覧も与えられた。
He was also given the rank of kokushu (kokushu daimyo, a rank of territorial lord in Edo period) in Yamato Province.

その後、主人（船場言葉で「だんさん」）の裁量で手代となる。
They later became tedai at the discretion of the master ('dan-san' in Senba dialect).

その他、本条に挙げられている項目では、駅伝制が整備された。
Other items specified in this article includes establishment of ekiden-sei (the transportation system).

が、20世紀末期頃からその存在が疑問視されるようになった。
Since the end of the 20th century, however, the existence of the system has been doubted.

そのため、対馬藩の国書改竄の事実を、幕府に対して訴え出た。
Therefore, Yanagawa complained to the bakufu for the modification of diplomatic messages done by Tsushima Domain.

46人の赤穂浪士はその日のうちにお預かりの大名屋敷で切腹。
46 Ako Roshi committed seppuku on that day at the feudal residences where each was confined.

武藤資頼が大宰少弐に任じられ、その子の代に少弐氏となった。
Sukeyori MUTO was assigned to Dazai no shoni (Junior Assistant Governor-General), and during the generation of his heir, the family became the Shoni clan.

その後、718年（養老2）には、国別の徴発数が定められた。
Later, the number to be levied by the province was fixed in 718.

その下には台掌（だいしょう）、巡察弾正などの役も置かれた。
Under the Shoso, the positions of daisho (administrative officials of danjodai) and junsatsu-danjo (patrolling censors) were set up.

その後、おもだった指導者・参加者は各地で次々と捕縛された。
Afterwards, the main leaders and participants were arrested one after another in various places.

その他、領事が領事裁判権を持つ租界などは、内地に含まれた。
Further, settlements where the consul held the consular jurisdiction were included in the inland.

歴史家の笠谷和比古によってその成立と構造が明らかにされた。
A historian, Kazuhiko KASAYA revealed the establishment and system of it.

その結果、選挙資金を得るためという政治腐敗の増加を招いた。
This brought more political corruption cases related to election campaign fund-raising.

その後にエンデが来日して縮小案に基づき、計画案を修正した。
Then, Ende came to Japan and amended the project according to the downscaled one.

そのため、日本語とともにロシア語による表記がなされている。
Therefore, both Japanese and Russian were printed on them.

その後中国王朝への朝貢は邪馬台国の台与以降は途絶えていた。
Paying tributes to Chinese dynasty stopped after the emergence of the Toyo of Yamatai-Koku kingdom.

その為、伊賀の者は傭兵として各地に出稼ぎをするようになった。
For the reason, people in Iga Province began to work as mercenary in each region away from home.

その事から批判的意味も含めて寄生地主と言われるようになった。
For this reason, they came to be ironically called parasitic landlords.

その後60年代を通じてトニー賞やエミー賞などノミネート多数。
After that in the 60s, she was nominated for various awards such as the Tony Award and Emmy Award.

四、五人の敵と戦い、その刀がささらのようになっていたという。
He fought against four or five people and his sword was all chipped.

その後、禅僧が活発に往来し、中国の寺院建築様式が伝えられた。
Thereafter, Zen monks actively travelled between Japan and China, which led to the introduction of Chinese temple architecture to Japan.
Following this, the Chinese temple architectural style made its way to Japan due to the great movement of Zen monks between China and Japan.

その結果、水野家からも毛利家からも不満の声は上がらなかった。
As a result, there were no complaints from either the Mizuno family or the Mori family.

そのため水野は侮辱されたと思い、毛利を討とうと斬りかかった。
Since Mizuno thought he was being insulted, he attacked Mori with his sword to kill him.

国府が整備されるまでは、郡衙がその地域の行政の中心であった。
Before the Kokufu was elevated as a governmental facility, the Gunga was the central administration of a territorial area.

なお、その家族一族郎党も斬首刑となった(1882年10月)。
Furthermore, their families and their whole clans were beheaded in October 1882.

地方長官及びその配下の官吏は、自らの地域の秩序に責任があり。
Local governors and their subordinates shall be responsible for order in their own region.

また、その想定範囲は、現在の太宰府市および筑紫野市に当たる。
In addition, the assumed area corresponds to what is now Dazai-fu City and Chikushino City.

そのほか官人雑任・医師_(律令制)・算師などが置かれていた。
In addition, there were titles such as Kanjin Zonin (lower-ranking government official), doctors, and Sanshi (a court official in charge of calculation).

結果として、条里制という概念そのものも見直しが行われている。
As a result, the concept of jori sei itself is under re-examination.

その他の側室は二丸御殿や桜田御用屋敷で静かに余生を過ごした。
Other concubines spent the rest of their life in Ninomaru palace or Sakurada goyo yashiki (palace) quietly.

そのためか京都や大阪の町奉行で解決できなかった例が多く残る。
For that reason there are many cases remaining that could not be solved by Machi-bugyo (town magistrate) of Kyoto or Osaka.

翻訳作業に直接関わった様子はないが、その子甫周を参加させた。
He had never directly participated in the translation work, but let his son Hoshu KATSURAGAWA join the translation team.

もし争いが起きた場合は奉行所に届け出て、その指示を仰ぐこと。
If a dispute happens, report to the magistrate's office and seek direction.

その時に土肥実平率いる7000余騎が駆けつけて激戦となった。
Finally, Sanehira DOI rushed in, arrived with nearly seven thousand cavalrymen, and engaged in a fierce battle with the Taira clan.

政府関係者はその検討の際に非即位論が不敬だとは考えなかった。
Government officials did not consider the non-enthronement theory irreverent during discussion.

その後、島根県と鳥取県のどちらに編入するか、定まらなかった。
After that, it had not been decided for a while whether Oki Islands should be incorporated into Shimane Prefecture or Tottori Prefecture.

その後鉄道は先進各国で産業発展の担い手として発達して行った。
From that time on, railways made progress in advanced countries as a bearer of industrial development.

当時はドルの持ち出し制限があったため、その関連事項でもある。
The order was related with the dollar restriction, which was valid when the order was issued.

そのため、且元と貞隆は大坂城から退去して摂津国茨木城へ移った。
Therefore, the Katagiri brothers left Osaka-jo Castle and moved to Ibaraki-jo Castle in the Settsu Province.

そのことなどから、現在は殆どの森林が形骸化しているとも言える。
For above reasons, it can be said that currently most mountains and forests have lost the fundamental nature.

その後、貨幣経済の進展に伴って、次第に困窮する農民が出てきた。
After that, as the monetary economy developed, the number of farmers who lived in poverty gradually increased.

その後、立原派＝保守派、藤田派＝改革派として政治的対立が続く。
Subsequently, Tachihara's faction (conservatives) and Fujita's faction (reformers) kept having political conflict with each other.

後に升と関連づけられてその10分の1の量とされるようになった。
Later it was related with sho and was determined as 1 10th amount of sho.

その後、江戸時代には庶民の習字手本として民間にも普及している。
After that, in the Edo period, it became widespread as a text book of calligraphy also among the general public.

そのため、同年7月に安徳天皇と三種の神器を奉じて京都を落ちた。
Thus, the Taira clan left Kyoto City to follow Emperor Antoku and the Three Sacred Treasures of the Imperial Family in August of 1183.

そのため残存数が少なく比較的高価なプレミアで取引をされている。
The remaining currency is small in number, and these notes are treated at relatively high prices with premium,

そのため1940年に一時金制に変更になり、国債の形で支給された。
Consequently, in 1940 this pension was changed to a single lump sum, to be paid in government bonds.

祐泰の妻の満江御前とその子、一萬丸と箱王丸（筥王丸）が残された。
Sukeyasu's wife, Manko Gozen, and his sons, Ichimanmaru and Hakoomaru were left.

現代で一般的な月将と対応するサイン、その吉凶は以下の通りである。
Modern signs and one's fortune corresponding to general gessho are as follows:

その中でも特に冬緒は長命だったこともあり累進して大納言に至った。
Particularly, Fuyuo was promoted to be Dainagon (chief councilor of state), partly due to his longevity.

これらはみな広域地名をその一部を占める市町村が取ったものである。
All of these are examples in which cities, towns, and villages took the names from the place names covering the wide area and in which they occupy a part for their names.

そのため、やはり戦になった場合の事も考えていたとする反論もある。
Therefore, some historians and experts supported an opposition theory that the Taira clan was still prepared militarily in the case of possibly engaging in battle.

そのため、屋島の戦い、壇ノ浦の戦いへと戦いはまだ続くことになる。
Thus, the battle between the Minamoto clan and the Taira clan was destined to continue along with the battles of Yashima and Dan no ura.

その一方で多田行綱は『玉葉』で山の手を落としたと明記されてある。
On the other hand, 'Gyokuyo' clearly states that Yukitsuna TADA took the fortress on the hilly section of the city.

その翌年（668年）1月、中大兄皇子は即位して天智天皇となった。
In January 668, he ascended the throne to become the Emperor Tenchi.

藩主は数ヶ月に渡り監禁され、その間、家老ら重臣と面談を繰り返す。
The lord is confined for several months, during which he repeatedly holds talks with senior vassals including karo.

「てんか」は漢音、「てんが」はその連濁、「てんげ」は呉音である。
'Tenka' is the Han pronunciation of Chinese characters, 'Tenga' is the pronunciation with rendaku (the euphonic change of unvoiced to voiced sound) and 'Tenge' is the Wu pronunciation.

そのため、天武天皇を咎めるような事実を記さなかった可能性が高い。
There is a high possibility that any fact that could be a reproach to Emperor Tenmu was not recorded.

現存する防塁は、その影響を受けずに奇跡的に残った防塁だと言える。
The existing borui is the parts that miraculously survived, without being affected by it.

その後、伊豆国下田（現静岡県下田市）の了仙寺へ交渉の場を移した。
Afterwards, the negotiations were moved to Ryosen-ji Temple in Izu Province, Shimoda (present Shimoda City, Shizuoka Prefecture).

しかしながら倭寇を懲罰するために中国皇帝にその貿易は禁止された。
However the Chinese emperor prohibited trade between Japan and Portugal in order to discipline wako.

その後、氏憲と満隆は合流した諸氏の兵とともに鎌倉を制圧下に置いた。
After that, Ujinori and Mitsutaka took control of Kamakura together with the soldiers recruited from various clans.

これによって他家への再仕官が出来なくなり、その土地から追放される。
This did not allow those who got the letter to become an officer to other clan again and expelled them from there.

そののち、臣のように、元々は王とならぶ地位にあった豪族にも及んだ。
Later this giving the hereditary title was extended to the powerful clans that were originally in the same rank with the king.

樺太庁鉄道（1943年鉄道省に併合、その後運輸通信省の所管となる）
Karafuto-Cho Railway (merged into Ministry of Railway in 1943, later came under control of the Ministry of Communications)

造寺・造仏の技術者は主として朝鮮からの渡来人やその子孫達であった。
Craftsmen engaged in the construction of Buddhist temples and statures in Japan were mainly settlers from Korea and their descendants.

「陸海空軍その他の戦力は、これを保持しない。」（日本国憲法第9条）
Army-Navy-Air Force, as well as other war potential, will never be maintained.' (Japanese Constitution, article 9)

内閣制の発足と同時にその運営について規定した内閣職権が制定された。
The Cabinet authority which prescribed its administration was established at the same time the Cabinet system was launched.

そのため、とうてい逃れることはできまいと泣く泣く敦盛を討ち取った。
Therefore, Naozane then tearfully killed Atsumori because Naozane thought that Atsumori would not be able to escape.

一進会に対する評価はその活動の解釈や政治的立場によって大きく異る。
The public estimation to Isshinkai has varied depending on the understanding of its activities or the political position.

また、その制度は全国で統一したものではなく、地域毎に違いがあった。
In addition, the tax system was not unified across the country and each region had a different tax system.

御庭番はその特殊な任務のために功績をあげて出世する機会に恵まれた。
Thanks to their unique duties, they had a chance to make a great achievement and to get promoted.

そのため青銅器は銅鐸など祭祀・宗教用途に用いられるに留まっている。
Therefore, the Japanese people would have limited use for bronze ware: such as Bronze bells for Saishi (religious service) and other religious practices.

その際には、現天皇の系譜を正統化しようという動機もあったであろう。
Also, the compilers were probably motivated to legitimate the Emperor's family line.

そのため走行中は車掌の目が届かないこととなり「走る密室」となった。
Therefore, the train master could not monitor these cars, which were essentially 'running closed rooms.'

そのため被害者1人に対し2人組ともが死刑になる厳罰判決が確定した。
Therefore, for the one victim, both criminals were sentenced to death.

その典型的なものが文化3年（1806年）の文化の勝手造り令である。
The typical example is the Katte-Zukuri Decree introduced in 1806.

そのため、大久保は東京都の港区 (東京都)の青山霊園で眠っている。
Thus, Okubo had to be buried in the Aoyama Cemetery in Minato Ward, Tokyo.

室町幕府・江戸幕府では征夷大将軍がその上に立つ馬寮御監を兼務した。
In the Muromachi and Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun), Seii taishogun (literally, 'great general who subdues the barbarians') concurrently took the post of Meryo gogen ranked higher than it.

またはその制度によって入門したばかりの者をさす上方（関西）のことば。
This is also a dialect of Kamigata (Kansai region) meaning those who have just started training under the system.

そのうち、大村が暗殺された事もあって構想は一旦は挫折する事となった。
Eventually, the conscription plan was miscarried once, partially due to the assassination of Omura.

時代によってその性格が変遷したらしいが、詳しいことは分かっていない。
From one era to another, the characteristics of Miyake seem to have changed, but the details are not known.

廃刀令が禁じたのも日本刀の携帯であり、所有そのものは認められていた。
What Haitorei banned was to carry a Japanese sword, and to owe one was allowed.

三方から攻めたことになり、その一手は安田義定ではなく多田行綱だった。
This means that the Minamoto clan side attacked the Taira clan from three directions, one of them being Yukitsuna TADA's troops and not Yoshisada YASUDA's troops.

それらの影響は考えられるが、その後日本の銅鐸は日本で独自に発達した。
Japanese dotaku can probably have been affected by these bells, but they developed individually after being brought to Japan.

そのため実用に用いる機会に乏しく、性能に優れた鉄に取って代わられた。
Thus, the bronze ware of Japan would not be implemented widely; Japanese people abruptly replaced bronze with superior efficient iron ware.

その後も大正時代に入ると、政党は大正デモクラシーを背景に勢力を伸張。
After that, in the Taisho period, political parties extended their power in a climate of Taisho Democracy (a series of liberal movements in the Taisho period).

その中で岩倉は、プロシアをモデルとする立憲君主制の採用を求めていた。
There, Iwakura asked for the adoption of a constitutional monarchy system on the Prussian model.

その実態は不明であるが､園池司はこのような園地の管理も行ったらしい。
The situation is not clear, but Enchishi controlled such a enchi, too.

その後、日本側は何かにつけてアメリカ側に料理を食べに行ったとされる。
It is said that, afterwards, the Japanese officials frequently returned to dine with the Americans.

その他、転じて幕末に際して宮中を護衛した御陵衛士など義勇集団の名称。
It also became a name of a group of men of loyalty and courage such as a group of goryo-eji that guarded the Imperial Court at the Bakumatsu (end of the samurai period).

江戸時代の鎖国によってその技術は西洋に比べて見劣りするようになった。
Japan's naval technologies, however, came to lag behind those of European countries because of the isolation policy taken during the Edo period.

元はさらにその支配領域を拡大しようとベトナムや日本にまで手を伸ばす。
In addition, Mongolia wanted to enlarge its control territory and tried to extend its influence to Japan and Vietnam.

その後、さらに1000石を収公されて、総石高は1万1000石となった。
The total yield was once again reduced to 11,000 after 1000 koku was taken by the government.

その後も難波宮へ移り、また平城京へ還って、と遷都を繰り返すようになる。
He moved to Naniwanomiya Palace and returned to the Heijo-kyo repeatedly.

最悪の場合は、切腹や斬首を受ける形で、その責めを全うすることもあった。
In the worst cases, some Karo officers completed their duties as far as Seppuku (suicide by disembowelment) or decapitation.

江戸幕府は政権の安定のため、大名とその重臣の身内から人質をとっていた。
The Edo bakufu held hostages from feudal lords and their senior vassals to stabilize their administration.

そしてその宗偏からも吉良家の茶会が12月14日にあることを聞き出した。
And they found out from Sohen that the tea ceremony at Kira's residence would be held at January 30.

その在任期間は1681日で、1つの内閣としては日本憲政史上最長である。
Katsura was in office for 1,681 days, the longest for one cabinet in Japanese political history.

その内容はほぼ内閣職権を引き継いだが、内閣総理大臣の権限は弱められた。
Although in terms of content the Naikaku-kansei largely continued along the same lines as those of its predecessor, the Naikaku-shokken, it did weaken the power and authority of the Prime Minister.

さらにその下位にあり、部（べ）を直接に指揮する多くの伴（とも）をさす。
The clans that received the position of Momo Amari Yaso no Tomo were beneath the Tomo no Miyatsuko in its rank; many clans who received this title directly took control of common people.

近衛文麿が有名な「近衛上奏文」を奏上したのはそのような折のことである。
It was one of such opportunities when Fumimaro KONOE reported to the Emperor his famous 'KONOE Joso-bun' (KONOE 's address to the throne).

その例としては、裁判官分限法2条、公証人法80条2号などが挙げられる。
The Article 2 of Judges Status Act and the Article 80, No. 2 of Notary Act are examples.

そのようにして心理的に強制を加え、間接的に義務の履行を促すものである。
Thus, the execution of one's duties is urged indirectly by a psychological coercion on the obligated party.

その総本山と位置づけられる総国分寺・総国分尼寺が東大寺、法華寺である。
The head temple of all the kokubun-ji was Todai-ji Temple and that of the kokubun-niji was Hokke-ji Temple.

そのため萩口から長州を攻めることができず、4方から攻めることになった。
For this reason, the bakufu was not able to attack Choshu from Hagi-kuchi, but attacked it from four other directions.

そのため、この敗戦が徳川幕府滅亡をほぼ決定付けたとする資料も見られる。
Some materials argue that the defeat in this war was the final blow that led to the fall of the Tokugawa Shogunate.

先述の通り生類憐れみの令は複数のお触れに及ぶが、その流れは以下の通り。
As mentioned above, the law covered a series of ordinances for animal protection in the following order:

そのため、幕府幹部達もさほど重要な法令とは受け止めていなかったようだ。
Therefore, executives in the Shogunate seemed not to view this law as important.

その背景には元老のなかでただ一人存命していた西園寺公望の意向があった。
In the background of this lay Kinmochi SAIONJI's intention, who was the only survivor of the Genro (elder statesman).

梁川城は江戸時代になって廃城となり、その後梁川藩の陣屋として使われた。
The Yanagawa-jo Castle was abolished in the Edo period and was later used for jinya (regional government office) of the Yamagawa Domain.

その理由は、前後の二つの王朝を結ぶ位置に河内王朝が存在するからである。
The reason lies in that Kawachi Dynasty existed in the position to connect two dynasties of the former and latter.

その他にも度々柵戸の租税の一部を免除する布告を出し、慰留に努めている。
Other official notices were issued on several occasions to exempt sakuto from a portion of their land tax, thereby comforting them.

三巌の死後、宗冬がその家督と遺領を引き継いだ（4000石は幕府に返上）。
After Mitsuyoshi's death, Munefuyu became the successor to the Yagyu clan and inherited the property (but returned 4,000 koku to bakufu).

高田の脱盟は江戸急進派の顔を失わせる結果となり、その発言力を弱めさせた。
Their loss of Takata brought shame to the Edo radicals and weakened their influence.

また詔の四か条に無いが、その他の制度に対しても大きな改革が行われている。
In addition, though not included in the four articles of the Edict, significant reforms were made on other systems.

その他、後宮には多くの女官や宦官たちが暮らし、後宮内での職務に従事した。
Additionally, most court ladies and the attending eunuchs lived in Kokyu palaces and engaged in the routine work duties of a Kokyu palace.

江戸の町の本来の構成員は家持＝町人であり、名主はその町の代表者であった。
Edo town was originally composed of only homeowners, that is townspeople, and Nanushi was a representative of a town.

その他に日光東照宮参拝、善光寺参拝など、有名寺社の参詣旅も概ね許された。
Visits to famous shrines and temples, such as Nikko Tosho-gu Shrine and Zenko-ji Temple, were allowed in most cases.

その後の増強と幕府制度の整備にともない、本丸老中支配として12組となる。
Following the enhancement of oban and the improvement of the bakufu system, oban consisted of twelve units, serving as Honmaru-roju-shihai.

また、検地帳に土地の直接耕作者を登録し、その者を租税負担の責任者とした。
And on a cadastral register, direct cultivators on lands were registered and they were made to be persons in charge of tax burden.

そのため1870年（明治3年）に政府は大友皇子に「弘文天皇」と追諡した。
Therefore the government gave Prince Otomo a posthumous title of Emperor Kobun in 1870.

ただし、実際にはその数ヶ月前から品川駅・横浜駅間で仮営業が行われていた。
However, it was actually operated between Shinagawa Station and Yokohama Station for test runs a few months prior to the formal opening day.

神戸に進出した華僑は富裕な貿易商が多く、彼らは北野町とその西に居を構えた。
Many of the overseas Chinese who entered Kobe were wealthy traders; they settled in the town of Kitanocho and to the west of it.

なお、原たちは総辞職の上奏が行われるまでその事実を知らされていなかった）。
Hara and others were not informed of the resign en mess until it was reported to the throne).

根来寺に入信後、後に雑賀衆として活躍したり、その逆も多々あったようである。
It seems that some became believers in Negoro-ji Temple and later acted as Saikashu, and the reverse often happened too.

多くの合戦関係本でそのような経過になっており、本項目でもそれに従っている。
In many books relating to the battle, the progress is described as above, which this section follows.

その周囲には「四方」「夷」などといった中国王朝とは区別される地域があった。
Surrounding the above area, there were areas which were distinguished from the Chinese dynasty called 'Shiho' and 'i.'

ヴェトナムの「天下」は主に中越関係に影響されながら、その領域を変容させた。
The territory of Vietnam's 'Tenka' changed under the influence of Sino-Vietnam relations.

政府内外から反対意見が提出されたが、政府はその説を少数とみて採らなかった。
People inside and outside government presented dissenting opinions, but the government did not accept them because they were a minority.

平安時代にはときどき大舎人のうち何人かが内豎になったりまたその逆もあった。
During the Heian period some of otoneri sometimes became naiju (government official especially one of low to medium rank as royal pages) or vice versa.

その後、長崎奉行の報告を受けた幕府は密偵に命じて浦上の信徒組織を調査した。
Then, in response to the report from the Nagasaki magistrate, the bakufu ordered spies to investigate the Christian group of Urakami.

また福島から会津へ内通の書を持参した上杉方の使い、その外二三人を討殺した。
In addition, the Date forces killed a messenger from Uesugi who brought a secret letter from Fukushima to Aizu, and another couple of people.

銅と鉄の品質は世界最高で、その武器は最も鋭く、紙の技術は並ぶ国がなかった。
The quality of copper and iron were the best in the world, and weapons made out of those materials were very sharp while Japan also stood unrivaled in the art of paper products.

全文は17条からなり、その内容は武家諸法度と異なり、幕末まで変わらなかった。
Kinchu narabini kuge shohatto' consists of 17 Articles, which were not revised until the end of the Edo period, unlike 'Buke shohatto' (Laws for the Military Houses).

その後、東西の川は道路となったが、現在も道路を越えると街の雰囲気が一変する。
The atmosphere of the town changes once you cross the road still now, though the rivers on the east and west turned into the roads later.

その後帰宅した兄は下女から源蔵の様子を聞いて、もしや源蔵はと思いを巡らせる。
After the brother came home and heard the story through his female servant, he was very concerned about Genzo.

大高はここで騒ぎになるわけにはいかないと思って、おとなしくその証文を書いた。
Since Otaka did not want to make it turn into a big fight, he agreed and wrote an apology.

そのあり方は、地域差があるばかりではなく、同じ地域内でも村ごとに多様である。
The desired forms in the selection procedures were entirely dependent upon the various regions and diversification by each villages even in the same regions.
These desired forms of compensational practice were dependent on the various regions and diversification by each village even in the same regions.

穂積氏、采女氏をはじめ、同族枝族のすこぶる多いことがその特徴として知られる。
It is well known that there are many clans that have same lineage, such as the Hozumi clan and the Uneme clan.

そのため、将軍・大御所・世子の親衛隊ではない大番が西の丸に置かれる事はない。
Since Oban was not the guardians of a shogun, an ogosho (a retired shogun), and a seishi (the heir), oban was not placed to Nishinomaru (the western enceinte).

その借地代をも運営資金に充当する、という型破りの手段を用いざるを得なかった。
They even had to take drastic measures as applying the rent to the management funding.

そのため、士族や豪農・豪商ら平民に参政権を与え、議会を開設せよとも主張した。
For this, they insisted on giving voting rights to the warrior class and commoners such as wealthy farmers and merchants to establish a Diet.

寝込みを襲われた為か、その武器を使った反撃をできず殺害されていたとみられた。
It seems that he was attacked while he was asleep and that he was killed without being able to defend himself using his own weapons.

そして、韓国政府は、その日本の行動を容易ならしめるため、十分便宜を与える事。
The Korean government is responsible for meeting all the needs and requirements of the Japanese government in order to function efficiently in Korea.

そのことで、地元からは冷たく評価され、近年まで地元への納骨を避けられていた。
Because of that, people in his home town valued Okubo with a cold attitude and they had never permit a place for Okubo's ashes in a tomb at Kagoshima since very recent years.

後にレイは解雇されるが、インドから運ばれた資材は予定通りそのまま使用された。
Although the Ray was discharged after that, the materials transported from India were used as planned.

そのため新羅系須恵器（若しくは陶質土器）が伝播していた可能性が否定しきれない。
For that reason, the possibility that Silla-group Sueki (or earthenware) was spread cannot be denied.

その後も小倉藩と長州藩の戦闘は続くが、これで事実上、幕府軍の全面敗北に終わる。
Although the battle between the Kokura clan and the Choshu clan continued even after that, the Choshu conquest practically ended with the total defeat of the bakufu army.

その任務は長崎奉行と協力して九州諸藩の動静監視であり「九州探題」とも呼ばれた。
Since their job was to watch developments in the Kyushu domains, cooperating with Nagasaki bugyo (Nagasaki magistrate), they were also known as 'Kyushu Tandai' (local feudal commissioner).

ところが、土岐成頼は美濃で挙兵し、しかもそのまま山中に籠って幕府軍を威圧した。
However, Shigeyori TOKI raised an army in Mino Province, and in addition he stayed in the mountains to intimidate the army of bakufu.

その後安定した経営状態が続いたので、1907年の鉄道国有化には賛成しなかった。
It continued its financial stability and thus did not agree to nationalization in 1907.

それゆえ日本人はその限りある資源を職人の技術で有効利用することで有名となった。
Therefore the Japanese became well known as craftmen who were able to make effective use of their limited resources.

国家を動かすシステムは幕藩体制でありこれはそのまま武士階級の倫理を意味している。
The system steering the state was the feudal system of the shogunate, which were just the ethics of the samurai society.

その後、4月以降の追加調査では、さらに不良品やカス、鋳型、溶銅などが発見された。
Subsequently in the additional survey after April, also defects, refuse, mold and molten copper were found.

そのため同地には現在も浪士の出身家系の旧家が残り、浪士の遺品も多く伝わっている。
As a result, families with roshi lineage remain in the region even today, and many artifacts left by deceased roshi have been handed down through the generations.

過料を科す定めは多いが、その性質は一様でなく、適用される法理・手続も数多くある。
There are many laws and regulations for imposing punishment of Karyo, but those legal characteristics are not uniformly formed and there are many legal principles and procedures applicable.

本議定書はその条件履行の最終確認として、双方全権出席の下、調印されたものである。
The protocol as the final confirmation of execution of terms was signed under the presence of plenipotentiaries from the both sides.

他に例のない5段積みの方墳である大谷1号墳（岡山県）がその墓との説が有力である。
Otani no. 1 tumulus (Okayama Prefecture), which is an unexampled five-stack square tumulus, is widely accepted to be his grave.

そのために老中水野忠邦に叱責されたこともあって、鳥居は政敵としても警戒していた。
As a result, Torii was given a reprimand by the roju (senior councilor) Tadakuni MIZUNO, and Torii regarded Egawa as a political rival.

また極秘裏に諸藩でも写本が流布し、その内容を把握して自藩の法令制定の参照とした。
In addition, 'Toin shikan' was distributed to various domain secretaries, and personnel in the domains captured the contents and referred to it when they established laws in their own domain.

その後も治安改善の見通しが立たなかったため、8月16日に大会の中止が決定された。
Cancellation of the tournament was determined on August 16 since it was uncertain when the public security could be improved.

令制国が行政単位として使われなくなってからもその名称と区画は長く用いられてきた。
The name of ryoseikoku (provinces) and the divisions have been used for a long time even after the provinces were ceased to be used as administrative unit.

そのため、天皇の叔父でもある関白鷹司輔平も厳罰を覚悟して同様の申し入れを行った。
Therefore, Sukehira TAKATSUKASA, who was the Emperor's uncle serving as Kanpaku (chief advisor to the Emperor), made a similar request, expecting to be severely punished.

その結果、海軍・陸軍、官僚、国家主義団体などを中心に政党政治への不満が高まった。
Consequently, there was increasing disaffection with party government among the Navy, the Army, the bureaucracy, nationalist organizations, etc.

その利益を運営資金に充当、また大名屋敷跡地を有力商人に資材置き場として賃貸した。
Then they applied the profits to the management funding, and rented the sites of the mansions of feudal lords to influential merchants.

日本政府は、その目的を達するため、軍略上必要の地点を臨検収用することができる事。
The Japanese government shall be allowed to expropriate some points of land in Korea, if they are necessary for the Japanese government's strategy in order to achieve their aims.

そのため、地理的な範囲など「飛鳥京」が指し示すものの実態は必ずしも明確ではない。
Therefore, what 'Asuka-kyo' actually refers to, including the geographical area, is not strictly defined.

ただしその後継としては、松平定信派の松平信明 (三河吉田藩主)が老中首座となる。
However, Nobuaki MATSUDAIRA (the feudal lord of the Mikawa Yoshida Domain), who took the side of Sadanobu in the Edo bakufu, succeeded Sadanobu as chief 'roju.'

水野の学説を批判的に発展させた学説がその後、古代史学の学界で発表されたのである。
Later a theory, which developed Mizuno's theory critically, was brought forth in the academic community of the studies of ancient history.

そして、その時々の物価を調査した「估価帳」を作成して属する京職に対して提出した。
Then, Ichi no tsukasa prepared 'Kokacho' (price book) that stated investigated prices at different times and submitted to Kyoshiki it belonged to.

その後、寛政10年（1798年）から寛政11年（1799年）にかけて刊行された。
Later, it was published from 1798 to 1799.

忍術の流派の中でも薬の扱いに長けており、その名残として甲賀には今も製薬会社が多い。
Koga-ryu was highly skilled at dealing with medicine among the ninjutsu schools, a vestige of which can be seen in the fact that many pharmaceutical companies are located in Koka even today.

新渡戸の著作の影響もあり、Bushidoは、世界でそのまま通じる言葉となっている。
Because of the Nitobe's book, Bushido is a common word in the world.

その他、駿河徳川家・甲府徳川家・館林徳川家・越前松平家・福井藩の陪臣叙爵があった。
In addition, ranks were also given to baishin (retainers) of the Suruga-Tokugawa family, of the Kofu-Tokugawa family, of Tatebayashi-Tokugawa family, of the Echizen-Matsudaira family and of the Fukui domain.

そのため、大隈の「隈」と板垣の「板」をとって隈板内閣（わいはんないかく）ともいう。
Therefore, the cabinet is also called the Waihan Cabinet derived from Okuma and Itagaki's names.

いったんこの暴動は収まったが、その後、暴行の首魁が捕縛され処刑されることとなった。
This riot ended quickly, but the leaders of the assault were arrested later and sentenced to be executed.

その貨幣価値は金貨である二朱金と等価とされ、1/8両に相当し、1/2分に相当する。
It is treated as equal to Nishu kin gold, a gold coin, in currency value and worth 1/8 ryo, that is, 1/2 bu.

この論文はそのタイトルのため最も注目を集め、民法典論争の象徴ともいえる論文である。
This thesis is the one that attracted the most attention because of the title, and may be said to symbolize the disputes over the Civil Code.

「内閣総理大臣その他の国務大臣は、文民でなければならない。」（日本国憲法第66条）
The Prime Minister and other Ministers of State must be civilians.' (Japanese Constitution, article 66)

その後古墳時代にはヤマト王権に仕える技術者集団として朝鮮半島からも人々が渡来した。
Later in the Kofun period, people from the Korean Peninsula also entered Japan serving the Yamato Court as a group of art.

その下に、衛門府では門部（かどべ）200人，物部（ものべ）30人、衛士が置かれた。
200 kadobes (soldiers who guard palace gates), 30 monobes (military officers who are concerned with punishments) and eji (a guard) were placed under them in Emonfu.

もし急遽執行しなければならない場合に執行する際には、その詳細も幕府に報告すること。
If the execution must be performed at once, you must report the details to the bakufu.

そのような事実が少しでもあれば容赦なく蜂須賀茂韶を知事から罷免するつもりであった。
If they found any hint of truth to this, they intended to discharge Mochiaki HACHISUKA from the post of prefectural governor forthwith.

また、欧米の農村社会の仕組みをそのまま日本に想定したために、不都合な例も発生した。
In addition, because the government assumed that there existed in Japan the same structure of farming society with those existed in Europe and America, undesirable outcomes came to exist, too.

そのため、ヤマト王権は各地域の政治勢力が連合したことによって成立したとされている。
Therefore, historians and other experts believe that the Yamato sovereignty must have been established because various local political powers were joined together.

そのため、新規に廃止法を制定するのではなく、後継法の附則により廃止する形を採った。
For this reason, they did not establish a new abolition law, but instead chose to add rules in the following law.

その水野忠成が死し、大御所家斉も没した後、12代徳川家慶が幕政改革に意欲を見せる。
After Tadaakira MIZUNO and Ogosho Ienari died, the 12th Shogun Ieyoshi TOKUGAWA became keen on the reforms of bakufu politics.

そのため幕府の対応は三浦半島の防備を強化する為に彦根藩の兵を増やした程度であった。
Under that opinion, the Shogunate did not take the necessary measures to prepare for Perry's arrival, but only increased the number of soldiers in the Hikone Domain to strengthen the defenses of the Miura Peninsula.

そのため、陸上交通においても効率化を図る必要があるとされたことも、追い風になった。
Accordingly a demand to improve the efficiency in overland traffic was recognized, which served as a spur for the railway construction.

その為金鵄勲章叙勲者達は名誉と年金の復活を求めて「金鵄連盟」をつくり、運動を始めた。
Consequently, recipients of the Order of the Golden Kite banded together, forming the 'League of the Golden Kite' to seek reinstatement of the Orders' honors and annual pensions.

そのため幕府から猜疑の目で見られる原因となり、幕政の中心から遠ざかる原因ともなった。
Therefore, this thought caused the bakufu to be suspicious about the Mito Domain, which resulted in the domain falling away from the center of the shogunate government.

その当たり障りのなさと、桂・西園寺間の馴れ合いをかけて、これを桂園時代と呼んだもの。
Relating its innocuousness to the cozy relationship between Katsura and Saionji, the period was named Kei-En era.

その後、治承・寿永の乱で伊勢平氏方についた伊東氏は没落し、祐親は捕らえられ自害した。
Later, the Ito clan - who supported the Ise-Heishi (Taira clan) during the Jisho-Juei War - collapsed, and Sukechika was captured and killed himself.

19世紀末の移民によってアメリカ合衆国に渡った人々とその子孫のことを指すことが多い。
It often refers to the Japanese people who immigrated to the U.S. in the 19th century and their descendants.

（御附家老竹腰氏・成瀬氏を優遇し、常時の諸大夫を許される。その他渡辺氏などが叙任）。
(The Takegoshi family and the Naruse family, both Otsuke-garo officers, were treated preferentially, with the usual Shodaibu rank permitted. In addition, the Watanabe family was also awarded a rank.)

だが、選挙後の政権運営の方策が全く見出せなかった松方はその日のうちに辞表を提出した。
However, MATSUKATA could not find any strategy at all for government management after election and submitted a letter of resignation on the same day.

そのほかには、野菜、鮮魚やアサリ・シジミなどの魚介類、豆腐などの食品などが扱われた。
Other than soba, vegetables, fresh fish and shellfish such as asari and shijimi, and such foodstuffs as tofu were sold.

軍事面としては、その管轄下に防人を統括する防人司を置き、西辺国境の防備を担っていた。
For military affairs, sakimori no tsukasa that supervised border soldiers was placed under its jurisdiction to protect the western border.

その範囲内にある山の位置を条里で呼ぶことで、田地の位置関係もわかりやすくなっている。
Specifying the position of mountains within the area using jori made the positional relationship of rice fields easier to understand.

その翌日より、前野良沢、杉田玄白、中川淳庵によって、『解体新書』の翻訳作業が始まる。
The following day, Ryotaku MAENO, Genpaku SUGITA and Junan NAKAGAWA commenced working on their translation of 'Kaitai Shinsho.'

なおこの時代の日本は、一方的に渡来人を受け入れその文化に染まっていったわけではない。
However, Japan in this period neither accepted Toraijin unilaterally nor grew into their culture easily.

日本では戦功を首実検で確認していたため、その首を弔うものとして多数の首塚が作られた。
In Japan war performances were verified by identifying the heads of those killed in the battle; in order to console those heads, many Kubizuka were built.

いずれにせよ、こうした民衆の姿勢がその後の軍部躍進の一助となった可能性はあるだろう。
Anyway, it was likely true that such people's thought later helped the Japanese army's surge.

紀州藩の薬込役は全体で数十人おり、その中から幕臣に編入されたのは十数人だけであった。
Although there were dozens of kusurigomeyaku in the Kishu domain, only a little more than a dozen of them were transferred to the bakufu.

このほか、外地に関する法律用語としては次のようなものがあるが、その範囲は一定しない。
Additionally, several legal terms relating to Gaichi are used as stated below, but their scopes are not uniformly defined.

一般にも東京都のうち23区を東京都内、その他の市町村を東京都下と区別することもある。
In general, 23 boroughs are treated as 'inside Tokyo,' and the other local authorities are distinguished as 'suburban Tokyo.'

平十字は快諾し、皐月は研究用に持っていた大学ノートにその文字を全て写し取ったという。
Hiratoji kindly agreed to the request and Kogetsu transferred all characters to the notebook he carried for research.

その後、1853年（嘉永6年）にはロシアのエフィム・プチャーチンが長崎市に来航した。
Then in 1853, a Russian named Evfimiy Vasil'evich Putyatin arrived Nagasaki by sea.

横浜に進出した華僑は、その大半が飲食業を営んだために、横浜中華街の面積が大きくなった。
Most of the overseas Chinese who came to Yokohama ran restaurants, and as a result the area of the Chinatown in Yokohama expanded.

その性格上、資本力を持つ地主が直接、企業的な経営を行っているものがほとんどであること。
Owing to the nature of the business, in most of the cases landlords with the financial power directly run forestry business, bringing in business-like management.

（御附家老中山氏を優遇し、常時の諸大夫を許される。その他雑賀氏・山野辺氏などが叙任）。
(The Nakayama family, the Otsuke-garo officer, were treated preferentially, with the usual Shodaibu rank permitted. In addition, each of the Saiga family and the Yamanobe family were also awarded a rank).

赤穂藩が天領となったのち、その統治のため赤穂へ赴き、大石内蔵助から三回の嘆願を受ける。
After Ako Domain came under shogunal control, he went to govern there and received three petitions from Kuranosuke OISHI.

連（むらじ）とも重なり合うが、おもにそのもとでヤマト王権の各部司を分掌した豪族である。
The clans who were given the position of Tomo no miyatsuko overlaps with those of clans who were given the position of Muraji; mainly these clans were powerful families who shared the duties of the divisions of the Yamato sovereignty.

漸新さと急進さの違いはあるにしても、上手く導いていければ（その道は）異なることはない。
There may be differences in degree of innovation or radical change, but (the path) does not differ, so long as guidance is provided with wisdom.

そのような「品質管理」の状況を物語る遺跡として堺市の深田遺跡や小角田遺跡が挙げられる。
Such 'quality control' can be seen at Fukada Remains and Kokanda Remains in Sakai City.

それでも、箕作は新政府の仕官後の1874年に5年間の歳月をかけてその邦訳を完成させた。
Still, MITSUKURI completed its Japanese translation in 1874, spending five years after serving the new government.

実際には新井白石が改訂し、7代将軍徳川家継が短命だった事もありそのまま用いられ続けた）
In fact, it had been revised by Hakuseki ARAI and as Ietsugu TOKUGAWA died young it continued to be used as it was.

その後の葬儀は諸陵寮が取り仕切るようになり､併合されてからは用具の管理が専門となった。
After absorption, Shoryoryo came to manage funerals and Sogishi was responsible only for management of the equipments.

この場合においては、東京都及びその区域内の関係地方公共団体の同意を得なければならない。
In these cases, it is necessary to obtain consent from Tokyo and the related local public body in that area.

この時、福島城兵岡左内は城から打出て、政宗方木幡四郎左衛門を組み伏せ、その首を取った。
At this time, Sanai OKA, a member of the Fukushima-jo Castle garrison went out of the castle and cut off the head of Shirozaemon KOWATA on the Date side by pinning him to the ground.

そうすることで守護領国制の形成を阻止するとともに、その経済的得分の一部を確保していた。
In doing so the shogunate was able to restrain them from forming a Shugo-ryogoku system (the system whereby a Shugo dominates a manor), and also secured some economic profit from them.

その後外国人人口がさらに増加したので、1867年には南側に山手 (横浜市)も増設された。
The population of foreigners in the settlement continued to expand in later years, leading to the additional establishment of Yamate (today part of Yokohama city) to the south in 1867.

この比企氏の台頭に危機感を持ったのが、頼家の母北条政子（尼御台）とその父北条時政である。
Masako HOJO (Ama Midai [wife of shogun who became a priestess]) and her father Tokimasa HOJO felt a sense of crisis about the rise of the Hiki clan.

ここは（仏教の修行のための）寺なので、その修行を妨げることは何事も禁じ戒めるものである。
Because this is a temple (for Buddhist training), nothing is to obstruct training in the religion.

天武天皇・持統天皇の時代が中心だが、一部その前の天智天皇・弘文天皇時代を含む部分もある。
The culture flourished most at the time of the Emperor Tenmu and the Emperor Jito, but included some of the time of their predecessors, the Emperor Tenchi and the Emperor Kobun.

一町方格に沿った道や溝と、その内部に見られる長地型・半折型などの規則的な地割（条里地割）
Streets and grooves along the one-cho square and regular sections such as nagachi type and hanori type that are seen in the square (jori chiwari)

院近臣（いんのきんしん、院の近臣）とは、院政を行う治天の君の側近及びその集団の事を指す。
In no Kinshin refers to the close associates or the group of close associates of Chiten no kimi (the retired emperor in power) who carried out Insei (rule by the retired emperor.)

その後討幕は成就し、明治維新（英語では Meiji Restoration）が実現した。
Afterward, the movement to defeat the shogunate was eventually accomplished, and the Meiji Restoration was realized.

分家する際には分家者の妻および直系卑属およびその妻が分家と共に新たなに入ることができる。
At the time of creation of a branch family, the wife of the head of the branch family and lineal descendants can be members of the new household.

そのため、明治六年政変で西郷隆盛が下野したことに憤激して以後、国事に奔走することになる。
Thus, inflamed with anger by Takamori SAIGO's resignation due to the Meiji roku-nen no Seihen (the coup of 1873), Shimada actively engaged in the affairs of state afterwards.

その中で4両あったシャープ・スチュアート社製の機関車が最も使いやすかったと言われている。
Four of them were made by Sharp Stewart Co., Ltd. and were said to be easiest for operation.

その後1638年以降は西洋人としてオランダのみ出島で2世紀に渡り、交易することとなった。
After 1638 only Hollanders as Europeans were permitted to trade with Japan at Dejima, Nagasaki for 200 years.

以上のことが事実であるとすれば、事件そのものが用意周到な謀略であったと見ることもできよう。
If the above description is true it could be considered that the incident itself was a conspiracy meticulously prepared in advance.

その結果、10月31日に進歩党は事実上の野党となり、直後に大隈と進歩党系参事官は辞任した。
Consequently, on October 31, the Progressive Party virtually became an opposition party, and immediately after that, OKUMA and counsellors from the Progressive Party side resigned.

その結果、室町前期のうちに国衙機構は守護所に取り込まれ、ほとんどの国衙は実質的に消滅した。
As a result, during the early Muromachi Period, the political structure of the Kokuga was absorbed by Shugosho and practically most of Kokuga disappered.

その遺体は朝鮮半島に移送された後に凌遅刑に処せられ、五体を引き裂かれたのち各地で晒された。
His body was transferred to the Korean peninsula, executed by slow slicing, ripped apart, and then laid open in various locations.

安宿王は佐渡島、大伴古慈悲（藤原不比等の娘婿）は土佐国に配流された（両者ともその後赦免)。
Prince Asukabe was sent to Sadoga-shima Island and OTOMO no Kojihi (a husband of FUJIWARA no Fuhito's daughter) was sent to Tosa Province (they were remitted later).

また、中国ではその年をとって辛丑条約、辛丑和約（しんちゅうじょうやく、－わやく）ともいう。
In China it is called the Xinchou Treaty or the Xinchou Peace Agreement after the name of the year (Xinchu).

その後、平城宮址（へいじょうきゅうし）は1922年に国の史跡に指定された（後に特別史跡）。
After that, in 1922, 'Heijo-kyu shi' (平城宮址, meaning the Heijo-kyu Palace Site) was designated as a national historic site (later a special historic site).

そのため、一般民のなかから専門に秀でたとくに優れた人材を募り、この需要に充てたものである。
Therefore, the government began to employ especially talented non-samurai commoners in order to meet the new needs facing them.

塔の東西にも金堂が置かれ、中門から出ている回廊はその外側を通って、金堂の背後で閉じている。
It had two additional kondo situated to the east and west of the pagoda, with a corridor from the Chumon Gate that went around them and converged behind the kondo.

その意味で、地租改正は日本における資本主義体制の確立を基礎づける重要な一歩であるといえる。
In this sense, it can be said that land-tax reform is the first important step in establishing the foundation of capitalism system in Japan.

その後移転先の決定について難航を重ねた末に大正6年（1917年）に付近の平野部に移転した。
After experiencing many difficulties in deciding the new place to settle, the village was relocated to a nearby plain region in 1917.

そのため画工司には律令制期の官吏制度の画師（えし）と伴部の画部（えかきべ）が所属している。
Thus, eshi (limner) of government official system during the Ritsuryo system period and ekakibe (person dealing with paintings) of tomo no miyatsuko (Servant of the Court administering a group) belonged to Gakoshi.

これはその一方で院近臣を信頼できる側近・能吏に絞り込む効果もあり、院政運営の都合もあった。
This also had an effect of limiting In no Kinshin (retired Emperor's courtiers) to reliable close advisers and able officials, which was necessary to the Insei management.

しかし明治初年においてその動きは、ともすればすくなからぬ日本人の反感を買うおそれがあった。
However, in the first year of Meiji, such movement might have antagonized some Japanese.

その後、日本と中国各地の開港場に定期船航路が開けると中国人商人（華僑）が独自に進出してきた。
Thereafter, once sea routes for ocean liners between Japan and every treaty port in China were established, Chinese merchants (overseas Chinese, or 'kakyo' in Japanese) entered the market by themselves.

2月に桂内閣は倒れ、その年の10月に桂も死去するが、これが立憲同志会、のちの憲政会となった。
In February, the Katsura Cabinet fell, and in October, Katsura died, but his party was reorganized as the Rikken Doshikai, which was further developed into the Kenseikai.

戸田氏定は上屋敷を出た後、その足で伝奏屋敷に入り、浅野家の家財を運び出すなど撤収を指揮した。
After Ujisada TODA left the Kamiyashiki, he went to the residence for imperial envoys and ordered the removal of Asano's belongings.

その後玄蕃はせめて赤穂浪士たちが本懐を遂げるまでこの両国橋で守りにつこうと仁王立ちになった。
After that, Genba decided to stand strongly to guard Ryogokubashi at least until the Ako Roshi attained their long-cherished plan.

その際、各省大臣の単独副署の制度が廃止され、全ての勅令に内閣総理大臣が副署することになった。
On this occasion, the rule that each minister could countersign laws and so forth by him or herself was abolished, and it was decided that all Imperial edicts had to be countersigned by the Prime Minister.

その最上位のものは「別当」と称し、後に女御に昇る予定の女性がまず御匣殿別当に就く事もあった。
The highest rank of mikushigedono was called 'betto' and in some cases, a lady who planed to become a nyogo worked as a mikushigedono betto first.

『魏志倭人伝』に見られる「一大率」は別としても、以下のような記述がその証拠と考えられている。
Apart from 'Ichitaishotsu' (local official dispatched by the central government to manage foreign affairs) described in 'Gishiwajinden' (literally, an 'Account of the Wa' in 'The History of the Wei Dynasty'), the following descriptions are considered to be evidence of this.

これ令外の官の特徴はその分担する政務において、完結的に処理することが可能だということである。
The feature of this ryoge no kan was that the officials could process government affairs for which they were responsible all on their own.

西暦686年（朱鳥元年）までに物部氏から改めた石上氏（いそのかみうじ）が本宗家の地位を得た。
Known as the Mononobe clan up until 686, from then on the name changed as the Isonokami clan gained the position as head family.

その直後に福山駅から殺人事件の一報が入ったことから、事件が露見した福山の警察署に送致された。
Since the initial report of the murder case came from Fukuyama station immediately after the arrest, both of them were sent to the police station in Fukuyama where the murder took place.

幕政改革（ばくせいかいかく）は、江戸幕府で行われた、財政および政治制度その他の諸改革を指す。
Reformation of the shogunate government refers to the reforms of the financial, political, and other systems implemented under the Edo 'bakufu' (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun).

その活動は16世紀から17世紀にかけての南蛮貿易によるヨーロッパ諸国との貿易で頂点に達する。
Its activities reached the peak in the trade with European countries in 16th and 17th centuries

その中には武田耕雲斎、山国兵部、藤田小四郎など、後に乱を主導することになる面々が連なっていた。
The followers included Kounsai TAKEDA, Hyobu YAMAGUNI, and Koshiro FUJITA, all of whom later led a disturbance.

ただし、一部の条里遺構には条里呼称法確立以前にまでその起源をさかのぼると考えられるものもある。
However, origin of some jori remains are thought to date back before establishment of jori naming system.

物部氏の特徴のひとつに広範な地方分布が挙げられ、無姓の物部氏も含めるとその例は枚挙に遑がない。
A characteristic of the Mononobe clan was its distribution throughout the country, and including Mononobes which are not given Kabane, they are too numerous to count.

その後スペイン内戦によってフランシスコ・フランコ・バハモンデの独裁体制が1936年に発足した。
Later in 1936, the Spanish Civil War brought about the dictatorship of Francisco Franco y Bahamonde.

米騒動での検事処分者は8185人におよび、被差別部落からはそのうちの1割を超える処分者が出た。
The number of people who faced punishment by a prosecutor were 8,185 in rice riots and more than 10 percent of them were from the discriminated communities called buraku.

またその前日には徳島でも稲田屋敷を焼き討ちし、脇町（現：美馬市）周辺にある稲田家の配地に進軍。
On the previous day, they also set fire to the Inada's residence in Tokushima, and advanced to the Inada family's territory located around Wakimachi (now: Mima City).

そのことから、山の手を攻めたのは『玉葉』で明記されている通り、多田行綱であろうとする説もある。
In consideration of his position, some scholars expressed the theory that Yukitsuna TADA was the commander who attacked the fortress on the hilly section of the city, as clearly stated in 'Gyokuyo.'

そのためこの期間はひとつの内閣が存在したものとして、これを「三條暫定内閣」と呼ぶことになった。
This is why the term was considered having a cabinet, and it came to be called 'Sanjo Provisional Cabinet'.

移転先に形成された地区はその後同和対策事業の対象地区とされ、現在も同和地区として存在している。
The area formed after the relocation was subsequently assigned as a target area for antidiscrimination measures, and currently still exists as Dowa chiku (a designated area where Buraku people live).

また一般に天下は、一定の秩序原理を伴い、その対象とされる地域・民衆・国家という形で捉えられる。
Generally speaking, Tenka is accompanied by a fixed principle of order and it means an area, people or a nation which is subject to such a principle of order.

ただし、大坂ばかりでなく江戸、京都、堺その他にも賦課されたが、買米高では大阪が群を抜いていた。
The tax was not only for Osaka, but was also imposed on Edo, Kyoto, Sakai and other cities, although Osaka purchased the largest amount of rice.

そのような事情のなかで、昭和29年（1954年）、水野祐が『増訂日本古代王朝史論序説』を発表。
In such circumstances, Yu MIZUNO published 'Zotei Nihon Kodai Ochoshi Ron Josetsu' (Revised Introduction to the Theory on the History of Ancient Dynasties in Japan) in 1954.

将軍の弓 (武器)や火縄銃を持つ部隊と言う意味であるが、その実態は将軍直衛の弓･鉄砲隊である。
Mochigumi literally means troops for carrying the arrows (weapons) and matchlock guns of a shogun, but in practice they were arrow and musket troops under shogun's direct orders.

結局、薩摩藩邸等があった芝～品川付近などでは、盛土を海上に築き、その上に線路を敷くことにした。
In the end, between and around Shiba and Shinagawa where the residence of Satsuma Domain was located, embankment was built on the sea to construct the railway on it.

そのため他の郷の忍者よりも一層、例え仲間であろうと即座に処断できるような厳酷な精神も求められた。
For the reason, they were required a much tougher spirit than other schools' Ninja, ready for the case that they need to make a prompt judgment even for their fellow.

（御附家老安藤氏・水野氏を優遇し、常時の諸大夫を許される。その他安房正木氏・岡野氏などが叙任）。
(The Ando family and the Mizuno family, both Otsuke-garo officers, were treated preferentially, with the usual Shodaibu rank permitted. In addition, each of the Awamasaki family and the Okano family were also awarded a rank.)

茶室を住宅に取り入れた数寄屋造りや、都市の娯楽施設である劇場建築・遊廓の建築などがその例である。
An example of this movement is the Sukiya-zukuri style, where chashitsu features were incorporated into residential structures as well as urban entertainment facilities such as theaters and brothels.

757年（天平宝字1）、戸籍に無姓の者と族姓の者とをそのまま記（しる）すことをやめることとした。
In 757, the Imperial government decided not to write down people with no hereditary title and people with group title as it is into the family register

さらにその賠償金の支払い源も海関税など確実な収入を得られるものを差し押さえる形で規定されていた。
In addition, it was provided that the sources of reparation payment were specified in the form of confiscating income-assuring items such as maritime customs.

その許可の証として旅行中所持していることを義務付けられ、現代のパスポートや身分証明書に相当する。
Travelers were obliged to carry it as a proof of the permission during their travels, and it is equivalent to the present passport and identity card.

その後、清和天皇朝に国道の子、伴善男（とものよしお）が頭角を現し、864年に久々に大納言を出す。
TOMO no Yoshio, son of Kunimichi, began to distinguish himself in politics in the days of Emperor Seiwa, and a Dainagon (Chief Councilor of State) was chosen from the Otomo clan in 864 for the first time in years.

その為、本来幕府領内でのみ効力を有する法であるが、ある種、日本国内統一法のようなものでもあった。
The book itself was applied only in Bakufu, but it was a kind of Japanese uniform law applied across the nation in a certain way.

つまり、同じ家に属するか否かの証明は、その家の戸籍に記載されている者であるか否かにより行われた。
In other words, if a person is listed in a certain Ie, the person was proved to belong to the Ie.

そのような事情から南樺太を外地として扱わないことがあり、前述の共通法でも内地として扱われていた。
For the reasons, Southern Sakhalin was not treated as Gaichi and the Common law, previously stated, defined it as the inland.

磨かれた鏡面の裏側には中心に鈕（つまみ）があり、その周囲にさまざまな画像や文様が鋳出されている。
There was a handle on the center of the reverse side of the polished mirror, around which various images and designs were given.

だが、そのほかに「奥集落の祭祀複合遺跡」や「大陸渡来氏族が追われて奥地に建造した城」などもある。
Additionally, other Kogo-ishi castles are found as 'the multiunit remain for religious rituals in inmost village community' or 'the castles which were constructed in a backwoods area by exiled clans coming from the Asian continent.'

しかし、国民各層にはその考え方が次第に浸透して行き、自由民権運動の気運が高まるきっかけとなった。
However, the idea slowly seeped into every class of people and triggered the rise in the momentum toward Jiyu Minken Undo (Movement for Liberty and People's Right).

「抜忍成敗」はその極みとも言うべき物で、裏切りや脱走はいかなる事があっても認めないという物である。
'Nuninseibai' was the extreme of their spirit, which meant that any betrayal and escape was strictly prohibited.

その反面、天皇が学問に励む事自体は古来より律令法に定められるまでもなく必要不可欠な事とされていた。
On the other hand, it had been considered essential for the emperor to pursue learning from the ancient times, which was needless to be defined in the Ritsuryo law.

数日後には150人、その後、最も勢いのあった時期で約1,000人という大規模な集団に膨れ上がった。
The army gathered around 150 people in a few days, and even 1,000 people gathered when at peak.

その意味では新潟県側の一揆のみを「悌輔騒動」と呼ぶべきであろうが、事件の性質から合わせて記述する。
In that respect, only an uprising in Niigata should be called 'Teisuke turmoil', but considering the characteristics of these two incidents, they will be described in this article together.

その際、対外交渉を統括する大宰府が、これを越権行為として批判したが、忠盛は院宣によりこれを抑えた。
Then, Dazai-fu (local government office in Kyushu region), which controlled foreign relations, criticized these as unauthorized activities, but Tadamori suppressed the criticism through inzen (a decree from the retired Emperor).

変を聞きつけた新選組、紀州藩が援助に向かうが、着いた頃には、陸奥らは素早くその場を引き揚げていた。
Shinsengumi and the Kishu clan, who heard about the attack, went to help them but when they arrived there Mutsu and the others had already left the scene.

北条氏によって、2代征夷大将軍源頼家の外戚として権勢をふるった比企能員とその一族が滅ぼされた事件。
It was an incident that Yoshikazu HIKI and his family, who exerted power as a maternal relative of the second Seii Taishogun (literally, 'great general who subdues the barbarians') MINAMOTO no Yoriie, were destroyed by the Hojo clan.

この事件以後おもに北条氏と有力御家人との間の政争が続くため、この事件をその発端と考える見方である。
After this incident, a series of political strife between the Hojo and the senior vassals occurred, so this incident is deemed as the beginning of them.

その順位は、1. 無姓、2. →造、公、史、勝、村主、拘登（ひと）、3. →連　というようになる。
The order of Kabane (the hereditary title) is 1. no Kabane, 2. Miyatsuko, Kimi, Fuhito, Sukuri, Suguri, Hito, 3. Muraji.

その後、河上弥市と滝弥太郎の両人が総督職を継いだのを経て、総督は赤根武人、軍監は山縣有朋が務めた。
After the two Yaichi KAWAKAMI and Yataro TAKI served as the post of the governor-general, Taketo AKANE took the post of governor-general and Aritomo YAMAGATA served as an Assistant Deputy General.

「（中略）また別の人の話では、平氏が引き上げたのは謬説であり、その軍勢は数千、数万を知らずある。」
'(Omission) Another person's story indicated the reports of the Taira clan's withdrawal as a fallacious argument, and in fact the Taira military forces were several thousand, possibly up to several tens of thousands.'

そのため、鎌倉側の勝利は必ずしも源義経の将としての能力などだけに起因しているのではないとしている。
In consideration, it was not necessary to think that the talents of MINAMOTO no Yoshitsune as the commander was the sole cause in the victory of the Kamakura (Minamoto) side.

そのため、「逆落し」は『平家物語』が創作した虚構であるとの見方が歴史学の専門家の間では有力である。
Therefore, mainstream experts of historical studies express the influential point of view that the author of 'Heike Monogatari' created this fictional story of 'sakaotoshi.'

ただし、終戦の混乱によって本人の望む望まないに関係なく、日本に帰らずその土地に残った者が存在する。
However, there were people who didn't return and remained where they were, regardless of their own wishes, due to the chaos of the end of the war.

その後、8世紀初頭における律令制の移入と時を同じくして、中国風の天下概念が導入されることとなった。
At the time when the Ritsuryo system was introduced in the beginning of the eighth century, the Chinese-style notion of Tenka was also introduced.

テングリは天の主宰神として運命神であるとともに、天そのものでもあり、創造神として現れることもある。
Tenguri is believed to be the god of destiny or Ten itself since it is the presiding god of Ten, and it sometimes appears as the god of creation.

収容者はその講話に感動してよく涙を流したといわれ社会復帰にあたっての精神的な支えになった（より）。
It is said that the criminals were often so moved by the lecture that they shed tears, and the lecture provided spiritual support for their rehabilitation (according to a website 'Onihei to Ninshokuyakuba').

しかし頭以下の者は「病気である」とか「その器ではない」などと申し出て、全員出仕を拒否してしまった。
However, all officials lower than Kashira did not go to work by saying that 'I am sick' or 'I am not good enough.'

また軍事的にも諸藩に対抗する兵力を確保できなかったため、旧大名による諸藩の統治はそのまま維持された。
Moreover, they could not secure enough force strength to bear down on feudal lords, so they had to allow feudal lords to continuously rule their domains.

国有財産の払い下げにおいて、その監督官庁に所属する公務員（簡単に言えば監督庁職員）の入札を禁じた達。
Public employees belonging to a government office (i.e. personnel of the office) which plans to scrap its property are prohibited to take part in bidding for those national properties to be disposed.

これは、前代と一線を画すような文化交流の増大を意味し、その裏に政治的統一の進展を見る説が有力である。
This strongly supports the theory that there was dramatic growth of cultural exchange unheard of in the previous age, behind which advances were made in political unification.

衆議院を解散してそのまま内閣総辞職を行った例は大日本帝国憲法・日本国憲法を通じてこの時だけであった。
This is the only case in which dissolution of the House of Representatives directly led to cabinet resignation en masse under the Constitution of the Empire of Japan and the Constitution of Japan; The Constitution of Japan.

貞享元年（1684年）：若年寄稲葉正休が、本丸で大老堀田正俊を殺害し、正休もその場で殺害された事件。
1684: Wakadoshiyori, Masayasu INABA killed chief minister Masatoshi HOTTA in Honmaru (the keep of a castle), and he was also killed on the spot.

国名と一致する郡名をその郡の一部が名乗ったものには、伊予市、土佐町、さつま町（旧薩摩町）などがある。
Some municipalities took their names from the county names which correspond to the provincial names; these municipalities were the part of the county; the examples include Iyo City, Tosa-cho, and Satsuma-cno (former Satsuma-cho in which Chinese characters were used).

家族は戸主の同意を得て廃絶した本家、分家、同家その他親族の家を再興することができる（旧民法743条）
A member of a family can revive an abolished head family, branch family, family which has the same origin as its branch family, or other family of relatives (the Old Civil Codes, Article 743).

その中で大隈はイギリスをモデルとする議会政治の早期実現を主張し、政党内閣による政権運営を求めていた。
In the document, Okuma expressed his views that Japan should soon establish a parliamentary government on the British model, and he called for a party-cabinet-run government.

喜田はその後も自論を発展させて1922年（大正11年）の論文「後淡海宮御宇天皇論」で区切りをつけた。
Kida developed his theory further and published a thesis 'Go Tankai no miya Gyo Tenno theory' in 1922.

第二条この法律で「首都圏」とは、東京都の区域及び政令で定めるその周辺の地域を一体とした広域をいう。
Article 2: In this law, 'national capital region' means the wide area incorporating Tokyo and its nearby area.

また酒株を持っていなくても、その土地の奉行所や代官所に届出さえ出せば、新規に酒蔵が開けるようにした。
Those who did not hold sakekabu was also allowed to open new brewery by just notifying a office of daikan (local governor) or bugyo (magistrate) having control over the area.

これが秦代に実際の官職となり、丞相・御史大夫・太尉の三公及び、その下の実務機関である九卿が固まった。
This came to show the actual government posts in the Qin Dynasty, and Sanko of Josho (Chancellor), Gyoshi taifu (a chief of controlling the officials) and Taii (Minister of military affairs), and Kyukei which was the institution for practical works under Sanko were fixed.

この時の神出鬼没のゲリラ戦やその高い戦闘力の印象が、甲賀武士達を全国に知らしめることになったのである。
The name of Koga warriors became well-known throughout the country because their elusive and effective guerrilla warfare and high combat ability in this battle were so impressive.

高崎藩などに大勝した事が更に天狗党の武名を高め、その後の通過地でも戦闘を避ける藩が増える事に繋がった。
The fact that Tenguto won the battle against Takasaki Domain and other domains raised the military fame of Tenguto and increased the number of domains avoiding to enter into a battle against Tenguto.

翌長寛元年（1163年）3月に工事を再開したが、難工事であったため、その際さまざまな伝説が生じている。
In 1163 the construction work restarted, but it was difficult work, which gave rise to various legends.

そのため、地方豪族の支配下にあった一般の民にまで6世紀の段階で氏姓が及んでいたかどうかは定かではない。
Therefore, it is not certain that the giving of clan names (family names) and hereditary titles was extended to the common people under the control of powerful local clans in the sixth century.

その後、仮名垣魯文が脚色したものが一般に広まり、電報の利用方法や有用性が広まるきっかけの一つになった。
Later, the telegram text adapted by Robun KANAGAKI became widely known to the public, leading to the widespread recognition of how to use telegraph and its usefulness.

その後、全員で政府軍の熊本鎮台（熊本城内）を襲撃し、城内にいた兵士らを次々と殺害し、砲兵営を制圧した。
After that, all the members attacked the Kumamoto Chindai Army (in Kumamoto Castle) of the government forces, killed soldiers in the castle one after another, and gained control of the artillery barracks.

条里遺構には、現在も耕地としてほぼそのままの形状が維持されているものと、地下に埋没しているものがある。
Some jori remains are maintained as agricultural lands virtually unchanged even now, while others are buried underground.

だが、議会の開催前に活動を開始したこともあり、その誕生は時代の流れよりも早すぎた、という感は否めない。
Yet given the fact that this party started its political activities before the National Diet was even formed, it cannot be denied that the party was too much ahead of its time.

その後、世良修蔵指揮下の長州軍が大島の奪還を果たすも、島内に逃げ散った幕府軍残党の掃討が終戦まで続く。
After that, although the Choshu army lead by Shuzo SERA managed to recapture Oshima, the mop-up operation to capture the remnants of the bakufu army spread out around the island continued until the end of the war.

天皇が三條に下した命は「臨時兼任」ではなく「兼任」であり、しかもその後は何の沙汰も下さない日が続いた。
The office Emperor gave to SANJO was 'double duties' not 'provisional double duties', and after that, Emperor did not get in contact with him.

地租は収穫量を今日でいう課税標準とし、直接に耕作者である百姓からその生産物をもって徴収された（物納）。
The base of taxation of land-tax was crop yields and the yields were collected from the farmers, direct cultivators (payment in kind).

ただし幕府が正式に譲渡・売却を認めた土地や領有後20年を経過した土地は返却せずにそのまま領有を続けよ。
Provided, however, that a land of which the transfer and/or sale was officially admitted by the bakufu, or which had been possessed for 20 years or more should be possessed continuously as-is without being returned.

そのため、政権を安定させるには、政府は議会第一党および多数の議席を保有する政党との連携が必要であった。
Such being the case, in order to have a stable administration, the government needed to cooperate with the majority party and other parties with many seats in the parliament.

全204条からなり、そのうち150条を基本的人権について触れ、国民の権利保障に重きをおいたものである。
The constitution draft consists of 204 Articles in total and 150 Articles which mention basic human rights put emphasis on the assurance of civil rights.

別当は貴族がつとめその機関を総裁する職で寮に置かれることが多く､司では他に内膳司にしか置かれていない。
Aristocrats served as 'betto' to administer the institution and in many cases the post was under the control of 'ryo' (bureau), and only Naizen no tsukasa (Imperial Table Office) other than Okimi no tsukasa had the position of 'betto' among others.

次に政府は、1878年(明治11年) に地方三新法を制定し、その内の郡区町村編制法により町村を置いた。
Next the government established three new bills related to the local government system in 1878, and set towns and villages under one of those bills, Gunkuchoson henseiho (the Law for Reorganization of Counties, Wards, Towns and Villages).

それが廃藩置県であり、その下に置くものが、1871年（明治4年）制定翌年施行された大区小区制であった。
This policy was called Haihan-chiken (abolition of feudal domains and establishment of prefectures), under which the daiku-shoku system (a centralized district system that abolished all pre-existing towns, villages and their offices and institutions) was established in 1871 and enforced the next year.

そのため日本は造船・航海技術の発達が見られるまで、文字通り孤島となって近隣地域と隔絶されることになる。
Therefore, Japan came to be a group of solitary islands literally separated from neighboring areas until it developed the art of ship-building and navigation.

公文式施行以前に公布された太政官布告・太政官達は、以後に成立した法令に反しない限り、その効力を保有する。
Any Dajokan Fukoku or Tasshi issued prior to the establishment of Kobun-shiki system remains valid unless it contradicts a law promulgated afterwards.

『平家物語巻九』『源平盛衰記巻三十七』での平忠度が討ち取られるまでの記述においてもそのことが伺い知れる。
We can observe it in the depiction of how TAIRA no Tadanori was killed in 'Heike Monogatari,' volume 9 and 'Genpei Seisuiki,' volume 37.

ある程度の脱盟は予想していた内蔵助もさすがにこの三人の脱盟は予想できず、その脱盟を非常に惜しんだという。
Although Oishi expected a certain number of people to leave the group, he was very sad to see those three people go, as it was quite unexpected.

鈴木章によると、その結果『平家物語』は、平氏の本陣は福原であるはずが一ノ谷であるかのように記述している。
According to Akira SUZUKI, as a result, 'Heike Monogatari' stated as if the headquarters of the Taira clan were in Ichinotani even though it must have been in Fukuwara.

内容に信憑性が薄かったにもかかわらず事件化したことから、この告発そのものが鳥居による謀略と言われている。
In spite of the low credibility of the leak, it became an incident; hence, it is said that this accusation itself was a plot developed by Torii.

主君と家臣団は相互に依存・協力しあう運命共同体であり、その間に離合集散も多く固定化した関係ではなかった。
A lord and his vassals were mutually dependant and cooperated with each other to form a community, and they often changed their partners and those relations were not fixed.

その応饗として、横浜の応接所で最初の日米の会談が行われた後、日本側がアメリカ側に本膳料理の昼食を出した。
After the first Japan-US conference was held, the Japanese served a honzen ryori lunch to the Americans.

しかし、殺すなという声が上がり、南廷三はそのまま鉱山病院に担ぎ込まれ、2週間後には業務に復帰したという。
But a voice saying, don't kill, was raised, and Teizo MINAMI was sent to the Mine Hospital directly, and he returned to his work two weeks later.

その中で4両あったシャープ・スチュアート社製の国鉄160形蒸気機関車が最も使いやすかったといわれている。
Among them, four type-160 steam locomotives of Japanese National Railways made by Sharp, Stewart & Co. Ltd. were said to be the easiest to use.

実は、検察側が前橋地方裁判所に提出した最初の起訴状そのものも代筆で、そもそも裁判は最初から無効であった。
The case had been found null and void right from the beginning because the first indictment submitted to the Maebashi District Court had been written by someone else and not by the prosecutors themselves.

南北朝時代 (日本)以降は宣旨枡の検定がほとんど行われなくなり、各地でその地域だけで通用する升が作られた。
From the period of the Northern and Southern Courts, the authorization of senji-masu became rarely done, and instead, local provinces began to use masu of their own.

氏姓は元来はヤマト王権を構成する臣・連・伴造・国造などの支配階級が称したものである（王とその一族を除く）。
Clan name and hereditary title were originally held by people of the governing classes and these titles were such as Omi, Muraji, Tomo no Miyatsuko, Kuni no Miyatsuko composing Yamato Sovereignty (the king and his family were excluded).

この場合、その国の通貨は一定量の銀の量を持って表すことができ、商品の価格も銀の価値を標準として表示される。
In this case, the currency of the country is represented as a certain amount of silver, and silver value is set as default for commodity price.

もっとも，現代と違って整備された行楽地があるわけでなく，寺社への参拝が行楽旅行そのものであったということ。
However, unlike in modern times, there were no tourist resorts developed then, therefore the visits to shrines and temples themselves were pleasure trips.

訳：江戸やその他の所で何か事件などが起こったとしても、国元にいる者はそこを守り、幕府からの命令を待つこと。
Translation: Even in the case of an incident in Edo or elsewhere, those who are in their Domains must stay there and wait for the bakufu's command.

その理由は分からないが、白村江での敗戦などの外戦の失敗で外交に国土防衛にいとまがなかったことが思慮される。
Although the reason of such a ruling style is unknown, it can be understood that he had been caught up in handling foreign affairs and homeland security because of the defeats in foreign wars including that of the Battle of Hakusukinoe.

行政区分・・・地方を日本統治時代の台湾行政区分で区分、その下に市・街・庄（台湾原住民の集落には社を設置）。
Administrative district ⋯ Regions were divided into Taiwan administrative districts adopted during Japan colonial period and Cities, Towns, Villages were established under each district (Shrines were founded in the settlement of indigenous inhabitants of Taiwan).

しかし江戸市街には10万匹近い犬がいた為、その犬が野犬化したら、江戸の治安を維持できないとする意見もある。
Nonetheless there is a view that there were nearly 100,000 dogs in Edo at the time and if they become feral, order in Edo could not be maintained.

その中に「早相止連日酒宴、可被催暇景遊事」と貞時が政治への関心を失い酒に明け暮れていた様を知る事が出来る。
From the description of '早相止連日酒宴,可被催暇景遊事' in it, we can know that Sadatoki lost interest in politics and almost always drank sake while he was awake.

御所千度参りに集まった人々は、京都やその周辺のみならず、河内国や近江国、大阪市などから来た者もいたという。
It is said that the people practicing Gosho Sendo-mairi came from not only Kyoto and its nearby regions but also Kawachi Province, Omi Province, Osaka City and other regions.

これは、その時期までに、倭国内で「中国世界とは異なる独自の天下」概念が発生していた徴証だと考えられている。
The above is thought as the evidence that the notion of 'own Tenka which is different from that of China' had already been born by that time.

しかし買米が米価引上げに必ずしも大きな効果のなかったことは草間直方「三貨図彙」物価之部その他に散見される。
However, according to the chapter in Naokata KUSAMA's ' Sankazue' (Picture Collection of Three Coins: History of Coinage in Japan) regarding prices, the Kawase-mai-rei Law was not always effective.

幕府にとっては、酒造株高と酒造米高の格差が拡大していくことは、そのまま酒をめぐる税収の減少を意味していた。
Greater disparity between shuzokabu amount and the amount of rice for brewing sake directly meant less revenue from tax on sake to the bakufu.

外務大臣井上馨は条約改正のため鹿鳴館外交と呼ばれる欧化政策を採り、その一環として壮大な首都建設を構想した。
Minister of Foreign Affairs, Kaoru INOUE employed the policy of Europeanization which was called the Rokumeikan (Rokumeikan guest house) diplomacy to aim at revising the European treaties and the grand capital construction was an integral part of the policy.

「竹鋸等を相携え、在番所近傍の山上に群れ集っていた」兇徒を散消させ、その日から旧吏員らに事情を聞き始めた。
They dissolved the criminals who 'were armed with bamboo saws and pullulated at the top of the mountain near Zaiban office,' and then started asking former officials about the situation.

普段は農業をしたり行商をしたりして各地の情報を探る一方、指令が下ると戦場やその後方へ出向き工作活動に励んだ。
They went to a battlefield or the related area to engage in maneuver activities upon order, while they search for information on each region as working as peasant or peddler in their quotidian life.

しかしその間隙を突いて今川軍が相模に侵攻、1月10日に氏憲や満隆、持仲らが鎌倉雪ノ下で自害した事で収束した。
However the Imagawa army invaded the Sagami region at an unguarded moment, and the clash was brought to an end on February 5, by the suicide of Ujinori, Mitsutaka, Mochinaka and others in Yukinoshita, Kamakura.

そのうえで自らが所属する共同体への倫理と天からあたえられた倫理が衝突した場合に武士は天倫を選択すると考えた。
He thought then that if there was a conflict between the ethics of a community to which oneself belonged and the ethics from Heaven, samurai would chose the latter.

また、太政官名義ではなくその下部組織の名義で公布された法令もあったが、効力関係に上下はなかったとされている。
There were also laws issued not under the name of Dajokan itself but under the name of its sub-organizations, without their legal order of precedence defined.

翌大化5年（649年）左大臣阿倍内麻呂が死去し、その直後に右大臣蘇我倉山田石川麻呂が謀反の嫌疑がかけられた。
In the next year, 649, the Minister of the Left, ABE no Uchimaro, died and immediately thereafter, the Minister of the Right, SOGANOKURA-YAMADA no Ishikawamaro was charged with a rebellion.

しかし翌朝になると、政府軍側では兒玉源太郎ら将校が駆けつけ、その指揮下で態勢を立て直し、本格的な反撃を開始。
However, the next morning, officers from the government forces including Gentaro KODAMA rushed to the site, restored combat readiness under their command, and started full-scale counterattacks.

明治16年にその期限が切れ、同時に版権が神宮司庁（伊勢神宮）に移されるとともに頒暦商社は「林組」に改組した。
The Hanreki-shosha was reorganized into 'Hayashi-gumi' in 1883 when the monopoly was ended and the copy right of the calendar was transferred to the Jingu Shicho (Ise-jingu Shrine) at the same time.

その際、集落によっては銅鐸を壊す等の行為もあったと思われ、一部の破壊銅鐸の出土はこのような理由によるとする。
In that case, it is thought that dotaku were broken in some villages, which can be the reason for excavations of broken dotaku.

「生類憐みの令」は、そのような名前の成文法として存在するものではなく、複数のお触れを総称してこのように呼ぶ。
The 'Law prohibiting cruelty to animals' does not refer to a single statutory law with that name, but is a general term for a number of proclamations.

その後、頼義の子の源義家も安倍氏の後に奥六郡の支配者となった清原氏の内紛に介入、これを鎮定し、武勲を挙げた。
After that, Yoriyoshi's son, MINAMOTO no Yoshiie stepped in an internal strife of the Kiyohara clan, who ruled Okuroku-gun after the Abe clan, suppressed this and performed his deeds of arms.

以後、壬申の乱研究が盛行し、乱のあらゆる側面が活発に論じられようになると、即位問題もその中で取り上げられた。
Many studies were made on the Jinshin War, its various aspects were discussed actively, and the enthronement issue was also considered.

近代的自治法の整備とともに五人組は法制的には消滅したが、第二次世界大戦中の隣組にその性格は受け継がれていた。
Along with development of the modern self-governing laws, the Gonin-gumi disappeared as a legal system; however, the tonarigumi (neighborhood association [established in Japan in 1940]) system during World War II took over its characteristics.

また、諸藩の藩士（将軍の陪臣）は、その江戸藩邸に常勤している者（あるいは江戸常勤の家柄の者）を定府と呼んだ。
And, as for feudal retainers of domains (baishin [indirect vassal] of shogun), someone who worked at edohantei (residence maintained by a daimyo in Edo) on a full-time basis (or someone whose family member worked in Edo on a full-time basis) was called jofu.

立原の下には多くの門人が集まり、その中には弱冠10歳で入門を許された古着商藤田屋の息子、藤田幽谷の姿もあった。
A lot of disciples gathered to Tachihara, including Yukoku FUJITA, the son of Fujita-ya (second hand clothing store), who was allowed to become a disciple at the age of 10.

この時、天狗党の中に、その剛力から「今弁慶」の名で呼ばれていた常陸久慈の僧侶・不動院全海という人物が戦死した。
At that time, a member of Tenguto 不動院全海, a Buddhist monk in Hitachikuji, who was called 'Imabenkei' for his strength, was killed in the battle.

最初の工事は応保2年2月、清盛権中納言のときに開始されたが、同年8月に大風があり、工事はそのため水泡に帰した。
The first construction work was started in February 1162 during the time of Kiyomori Gon Chunagon (Provisional vice-councilor of state), but in August the strong wind devastated the construction work.

大名証人制度（だいみょうしょうにんせいど）は江戸幕府が大名およびその重臣から人質をとって江戸に住まわせた制度。
Daimyo shonin seido was the system that the Edo bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun) held hostages from feudal loads and their senior vassals and put them up in Edo.

平安時代には女房と呼ばれる高級女官が優れた宮廷文学（『源氏物語』もその一つ）を生み出した事はよく知られている。
It is well known that during the Heian period high ranking court ladies, called nyobo (court ladies), created an excellent form of court literature (for example, 'Genji Monogatari' [The Tale of Genji]).

しかし、二・二六事件による岡田内閣総辞職の際には重臣会議は開催されず、阿部内閣成立時までその形式が続いている。
However, a conference was not held, when the entire OKADA Cabinet resigned because of the February 26th Incident, and had remained so until the inauguration of the ABE Cabinet.

その地点は、大興区・武清区・廊坊市・天津市・東麗区・塘沽区・寧河県・唐山・灤県・昌黎・秦皇島及び山海関とする。
These places shall be the following; Huang-tsun, Lang-fang, Yang-tsun, Tien-tsin, Chun-liang-Cheng, Tong-ku, Lu-tai, Tong- shan, Lan-chou, Chang-li, Chin-wang Tao, Shan-hai Kuan.

須恵器の起源は朝鮮半島（特に、その南部の伽耶）にあり、初期の須恵器は半島のものと区別をつけにくいほど似ている。
Sueki originated in Korean Peninsula (especially in Kaya which was in the south of the peninsula), and early Sueki looks so similar to the one created in the peninsula that it is hard to distinguish between the two.

そのため、畿内を地盤とするヤマト王権が外交や朝鮮半島への軍事行動の要衝として、出先機関を設置することになった。
Therefore, Yamato sovereignty (the ancient Japan sovereignty) which had its regional base in the Kinai region (the five capital provinces surrounding the ancient capitals of Nara and Kyoto) established a regional office as a strategic point for foreign affairs and military operation against the Korean peninsula.

しかし、公家社会そのものの変化に伴い、構造上あるいは実際的な運用上、律令国家とは大きく異なる特徴が見出される。
However, due to changes of the court noble society itself, significantly different features from the system of the Japanese nation under the ritsuryo codes can be seen in its structure and in practical operation.

「慎機論」などによる幕政批判の罪で渡辺崋山は伝馬町入牢ののち、国元蟄居（その後自殺）、高野長英は入牢となった。
Kazan WATANABE was put in prison in Denmacho town for criticizing the bakufu in 'Shinkiron' (personal document criticizing the bakufu) and then was confined to his house (later committed suicide), and Choei TAKANO was sent to prison.

その内容は、「閣僚と元老を全て処分し、講和条約を破棄してロシアとの戦争継続を求める」という過激なものであった。
The details of their demands were extreme such as 'the punishment of all the cabinet members, the abrogation of the peace treaty and the continuation of the war with Russia'.

なお、共通法は、その性質上当然に（領土ではない関東州や南洋群島も含む）外地にも施行されるべき法律とされていた。
The Common law was considered applicable to overseas territories (including the Kwantung Leased Territory and the South Sea Islands which were not Japan's territories) due to the nature.

徳川綱吉の治世については、前期は善政を行ったが、その後期は「生類憐みの令」などが主な理由となって、評価は低い。
As for Tsunayoshi's reign itself, he governed well at first but towards the end his public estimation was low because of this law.

また、中納言・藤原永手も、その後仲麻呂派で固められた朝廷内で政治的に孤立し逼塞を余儀なくされたと言う説がある。
Moreover, there is a theory that Chunagon FUJIWARA no Nagate was politically isolated in the Imperial Court, where the Nakamaro faction was empowered, and forced to fall into obscurity.

そのために、オランダ以外の欧米諸国から到来した学術をまとめて洋学（ようがく）と呼ぶようになるのが一般的となる。
Therefore, arts and sciences from Western countries other than the Netherlands were generally called Yogaku (Western learning).

『書紀』の太歳記事は年の干支を記すもので、通常「この年の太歳は○○である」とその天皇の元年の記事の末尾に記す。
The tai sui article of 'Chronicles of Japan' shows the Oriental zodiac of a year by generally stating 'the tai sui of this year was xx' at the end of the article of the first year of the emperor.

そのうえ夜行列車の一等や二等客車は乗客が少ないことから、犯罪被害を受けても他人の助けを得ることが出来なかった。
Also, since there were only a few passengers on the 1st or 2nd grade compartments of a night train, it would not have been possible to ask for help when a crime was committed.

伊達政宗は、福島表から国見山へ帰陣した際、摺上河原に諸将を召集し、屋代景頼に対してその武功を讃え酒杯を与えた。
When Masamune Date returned to the headquarters in Mt. Kunimi from Fukushima Omote, he called generals to the riverside of the Surikami River to praise Kageyori YASHIRO for his military service and give a Japanese sake cup.

ルートは不明だが、東京までたどり着いたものも数十名から数百名はいたとみられるが、その後の請願は行われなかった。
Several dozens or several hundreds of peasants managed to get to Tokyo, which route is still unknown, however, they made no petition to the government.

普段は農業をしたり、行商をしたりして各地の情報を探る一方、指令が下ると戦場やその後方へ出向き、工作活動に励んだ。
The people of Koga-ryu were usually engaged in farming or peddling to collect information in various places and, once called, they went to the war fronts or the rear of the battlefields to engage in espionage.

その後、甲賀の地が織田信長を経て豊臣秀吉の支配下に入ると、甲賀武士達は徳川家康の監視活動を主な任務に命じられる。
After the Koka region fell under the control of Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI from Nobunaga ODA, the Koga warriors were mainly missioned to spy on Ieyasu TOKUGAWA.

その内容は、橘奈良麻呂、大伴古麻呂、安宿王、黄文王らが一味して兵を発して、仲麻呂の邸を襲って殺し巣ことであった。
The content of the plot revealed that TACHIBANA no Naramaro, OTOMO no Komaro, Prince Asukabe, Prince Kibumi, and others planned to gather troops and attack Nakamaro's residence and assassinate him.

後三条天皇は荘園整理を断行し、その一環として1072年、後に延久宣旨枡（せんじます）と呼ばれる公定の升を定めた。
Emperor Gosanjo enforced the reorganization of manors, and as a part of it, in 1072 he officially established a masu, which would be called Enkyu senji-masu (the standard masu set by the imperial order in the Enkyu era [1069 to 1074]) in later days.

その基礎となる貨幣、すなわち本位貨幣を銀貨とし、これに自由鋳造、自由融解を認め、無制限通用力を与えた制度である。
The base currency, or the standard currency, is silver coins, allowed free coinage and free fusing and given power to circulate unlimitedly.

奈良時代後期に有力貴族であった石上宅嗣（いそのかみのやかつぐ）によって平城京（現在の奈良県奈良市）に設置された。
It was founded in Heijo-kyo (present-day Nara City, Nara Prefecture) by ISONOKAMI no Yakatsugu, who was a dominant noble in the latter Nara period.

なお益田は挙兵前の10月26日に旧佐賀藩士族の同時決起を求めるため佐賀市へ向かったが、その帰りに逮捕されている。
Masuda left for Saga City on October 26 before raising the army in order to ask the former Saga Domain warrior class for a simultaneous rally, but he was arrested on his way back.

実際検非違使庁は実用面で非常に優れていたため、のちには従来の律令的官制を侵食していく形でその職務領域を拡大した。
In fact, Kebiishi cho (Office of Police and Judicial Chief) was excellent practically, so later, it expanded its territory of duty by eating away traditional organizations of government according to the ritsuryo codes.

将軍が目に適った者の名を御年寄に告げると、その日の夕刻には寝間の準備をして寝所である「御小座敷」に待機していた。
When a shogun told the name of a churo who suited his taste to the Otoshiyori (the lady who controlled the servants in O-oku), the bed was prepared at 'Okozashiki' by that evening, and the churo was waiting for the shogun.

しかし当時は、政治を行う場である「表」と、城主とその家族の私的な生活の場である「奥」の境界が存在していなかった。
At that time, a border between the 'public area' for conducting politics and the 'private area' where the lord of the castle and his family lived didn't exist.

その後、1967年にパパドプロス大佐のクーデターによって国王コンスタンティノス2世 (ギリシャ王)が追放された。
Subsequently, King Konstantinos II (King of Greek) was exiled by a coups by Colonel Papadopoulos in 1967.

その後、皇位継承争いやそれに伴う貴族間の権力抗争に関して、この軍事組織が自分に有利に働くように幾度も改変された。
Afterward, through struggles for succession to the Imperial Throne and accompanying power struggles among nobles, the military organization was reformed many times so as to work in their favor.

その論争（反論）には決まって、妥協案が他にない、というものがあり、妥協的な名称としての側面も持っていると言える。
Counterarguments always included that there is no other plan of compromise; therefore, it can be said that naming of cities, towns, and villages with old provincial names has the aspect of compromise.

ただし、牧野英一ら保守的な法学者の巻き返しもあり、「家族の扶養義務」などの形でその一部は存置されることとなった。
However, taking in opinions from conservative jurists including Eiichi MAKINO, a part of Ie seido was preserved such as 'obligation of support family member'.

これまで全て漢字や万葉仮名で記述されていた日本語をそのまま文章にすることが可能となり、日本文学が発生・発展した。
This made it possible to write Japanese, which had hitherto been written only in kanji (Chinese characters) or Manyo-gana (a form of syllabary used in the Manyo-shu or Collection of Myriad Leaves), as it actually was, leading to the emergence and evolution of Japanese literature.

その場合には領主が編成する五人組と村が居住区域をもって定めた五人組（「郷五人組」）が並存するという現象も生じた。
In that case, the Gonin-gumi organized by the feudal lord and another Gonin-gumi ('Go-gonin gumi' [the Gonin-gumi of the dwelling]) made by the village based on their settlements existed at the same time.

新橋駅～横浜駅間開業から30年余りで7000kmを突破した日本の鉄道網が、その近代化を支えていたのは間違いない。
There is no doubt that what had supported Japanese modernization was its network of railroads, which exceed 7000 kilometers in a little more than 30 years after opening line between Shinbashi Station and Yokohama Station.

その後平清盛は大輪田泊を改修するなど貿易を振興し、そこから得られる利益をもとに平氏政権を磐石なものにしていった。
After that, TAIRA no Kiyomori developed trade with Sung into prosperity by improving Owada no tomari and built a strong political system on the basis of profits from this trade.

しかしその後、大石が吉良上野介を討ったことを知ると村上は無礼な態度を取ったことを恥じて大石が眠る泉岳寺で切腹した。
However, after Murakami found out that Oishi had killed Kura Kozuke no Suke, he committed seppuku at Sengaku-ji Temple where Oishi rests, since he was ashamed of his rude behavior toward Oishi.

三都（さんと）とは、江戸時代に江戸幕府直轄都市であった都市のうち、その規模が極めて大きかった京・大坂・江戸を指す。
Santo is a corrective term referring to the three largest cities, namely, Kyo, Osaka and Edo, out of those controlled under the direct administration of the shogunate during the Edo period.

その日(9月7日)のうちに尼御台政子の命で頼家は将軍職を剥奪された上伊豆国修善寺へ幽閉され、実朝が将軍職を継いだ。
Within the same day (October 20), Yoriie was stripped of the shogunship and confined in Shuzen-ji Temple by Ama midai Masako's order and Sanetomo assumed the shogunship.

新たに家を立てた者に関しては自由に廃家して、本家、分家、同家その他親族の家を再興することができる（旧民法762条）
A person who has created a new Ie can abolish the Ie without any inhibition and revive a head family, branch family, family which has the same origin as its branch family, or other family of relatives (the Old Civil Codes, Article 762)

その後、前方後円墳のさきがけと位置付けられる円墳、出雲文化圏特有の四隅突出型墳から変化した大型方墳が代表的である。
Later in this early 'Kofun' period, a circular tumulus appeared and was positioned as a precursor to the keyhole-shaped mound; then another 'Kofun' development was of a large square tumulus, and this appeared only in the distinctively cultural sphere of Izumo Province; also, this large square tumulus seemed to be developed from yosumi tosshutsugata funkyubo (square mounds whose four corners protruded outward).

そのため下級武士を「同心」と呼ぶことが一般的となり、後の江戸幕府も幕臣の役職名として「同心」の称を採用したのである。
This made it common to call lower-ranked samurai 'doshin,' and subsequently, the Edo bakufu decided to use it as one of official titles of the shogun's retainers.

しかしその後、信長の子であるという所以から徳川家康の計らいにより、大和国と上野国両国内に合わせて5万石を与えられた。
But with the reason he was a son of Nobunaga, Nobukatsu was given 50,000 koku in total in Yamato Province and Kozuke Province.

その結果、「長期間の住み込みによる衣食住以外は無給に近い労働」という丁稚奉公のスタイルを維持することが困難となった。
As a result, it became difficult to maintain the form of decchi-boko comprising 'long-term live-in work with housing, food, and clothing virtually with no pay'.

しかし、評の設置はそのような独自支配体制を否定し、豪族の地方支配を天皇による一元的な支配体制に組み込むものであった。
Establishment of koori, however, denied such an independent ruling system of gozoku families, and was aimed at absorbing local ruling by gozoku families into one unified ruling by the emperor.

禅秀の死の翌年にはその旧領であった上総国において上総本一揆と呼ばれる旧臣である国人達を中心とした一揆が発生している。
In the year after Zenshu's death, the uprising called 'Kazusa no Hanikki' led by his former retainers, the local lords, broke out in Kazusa Province, one of Zenshu's feudal estates.

つまり、公家・武家・僧侶が天皇及びその大政委任を受けた征夷大将軍に仕えるための秩序作りのための法度であったのである。
In other words, that was the law to establish order for the court nobles, the samurai families, and Buddhist monks to serve the emperor and seii taishogun that was delegated the administration of the country by the emperor.

吉良家の剣客清水一学がその太鼓の音を聞いて「あれぞまさしく山鹿流」と赤穂浪士の討ち入りに気づくのが定番となっている。
The usual storyline has become an expert swordsman of Kira's family, Ichigaku SHIMIZU, noticing the raid by Ako Roshi when he hears the drum sound and says 'that is the true Yamaga style.'

彼らはそのまま泉岳寺へ向かい、同寺で内匠頭の葬儀を執り行ったが、大名の葬儀とは思えぬ淋しいものだったといわれている。
They went straight to Sengaku-ji Temple and held a funeral for Takumi no Kami; however, the ceremony was too dreary for a feudal lord.

その結果、元勲級の閣僚が1人もいなくなり、薩長出身者が全閣僚の半数を割るなど、いつ倒れてもおかしくない状況になった。
As a result, the situation was that the cabinet could be fallen at any time with no Cabinet member of genkun (the statesmen who contributed in Meiji Restoration) class left, and less than half of the Cabinet members from Satsuma and Choshu.

森有礼文部大臣の下、1886年（明治19年）にそれまでの教育令を廃して発布され、その後2回にわたって全面改正された。
It was issued in 1886 to abolish the previous education order from Arinori MORI, Minister of Education and afterwards it was totally revised twice.

平氏は福原に陣営を置いて、その外周（東の生田口、西の一ノ谷口、山の手の夢野口）に強固な防御陣を築いて待ち構えていた。
The Taira clan set their military camp in the Fukuwara region and built a strong defensive army in the surrounding areas (the Ikuta fortress entrance for protection of the East; the Ichinotani fortress entrance would protect the West, and the Yumeno fortress entrance would protect the hilly section of the city), and they waited for the arrival of the Kamakura (Minamoto) army.

隠居するには、年齢その他の要件を満たしている必要があるが、女戸主の場合は年齢要件を満たす必要がない（旧民法755条）
There are some conditions required for retirement, including age restriction, but in case of a female head of a family there is no restriction regarding age (the Old Civil Codes, Article 755).

法定推定家督相続人や戸主の妻、女戸主の入夫は廃絶家がその本家である場合に限って再興することができる（旧民法744条）
A legal successor of a head of a family position, a wife of a head of a family, or a husband of a female head of a family can only revive own head family (the Old Civil Codes, Article 744).

収容期間満了後、江戸での商売を希望する者には土地や店舗を、農民には田畑、大工になる者にはその道具を支給するなどした。
After serving their terms, land and shops were provided to those who wished to do business in Edo, and fields were provided for peasants, and tools for carpenters.

その結果、建設に際しての援助は日本鉄道に比べて大幅に少なく、建設費1マイル当たり2000円の補助金交付にとどまった。
As a result, the government subsidy was very small as compared to that which was given to Nippon Railway and it was limited to 2,000 yen per mile for the construction cost.

その文章量は一日で写し終わるようなものではなく、それから20日間、皐月のところへ巻物を手に平十字が毎日通ったという。
The amount of document was not what can be transferred in a day, so Hiratoji visited Kogetsu every day to deliver the makimono for 20 days.

新潟平野を流れる信濃川およびその支流である中ノ口川は、かつては毎年のように洪水を引き起こす暴れ川として恐れられて来た。
The Shinano River, which runs through the Niigata Plain, and its tributary, the Nakanokuchi River, used to frighten people because they were known as rivers of rampage that caused floods almost every year.

家老を設置した将軍家の旗本は、およそ250家（2％未満）であり、その家老は80石から、多くても100石強程度であった。
The number of Hatamoto families who appointed Karo was roughly 250 (less than 2%), and the earnings of these Karo officers was from 80 to 100 koku.

これを聞いた土屋は壁際に灯りを掲げてその下に射手をおき、「堀を越えてくる者は誰であろうとも射て落とせ」と命じたという。
After he heard it, he put lights along the wall and placed archers underneath with the order to 'kill whoever tries to cross a moat.'

その夜、仲麻呂は一族を率いて平城京を脱出、宇治市へ入り、仲麻呂が長年国司をつとめ勢力地盤だった近江国の国府を目指した。
On the night, Nakamaro led his family and escaped from Heijo-kyo (the ancient capital of Japan in current Nara) and entered Uji City, heading for provincial capital of the Province of Omi where he had been kokushi (provincial governor) for many years.

律令制度が完成したのは、大宝律令からであり、その大宝律令と重ね合わせて解りやすく『日本書紀』には記述した可能性が高い。
The Ritsuryo system was completed after the Taiho Ritsuryo and it is highly possible that Taika Reforms were described in an easy-to-understand manner in 'Nihonshoki' in a way to overlap with Taiho Ritsuryo.

初期の武士においては、その全てが文章の正しい様式（書札礼）について知悉しているとは限らず、文盲の者も珍しくは無かった。
In the early period, not all Bushi (warriors) knew well enough about the correct way of writing texts, Shosatsurei (remarks on the concept of epistolary etiquette), and illiterate Bushi were not uncommon.

水城は、福岡平野の奥、御笠川に沿って、東西から山地が迫っている山裾の間を塞いだ施設であり、今日もその遺跡が残っている。
Mizuki are facilities that block up skirts of mountains on the east and west, and their remains still exist to this day.

その観点からであれば、墾田永年私財法は、律令を否定するものというより、律令の法目的を補強するものだったとの見方もある。
It may be said from this standpoint that there is a view that rather than denying the Ritsuryo Codes, the Konden Einen Shizai Law was reinforcing the aim of the law of the Ritsuryo Codes.

当初は宣旨が下される際、その口宣を蔵人に伝える内侍をさしていたが、のちには宣旨の宣下に関係なく呼称されるようになった。
Initially, it referred to Naishi who transmitted Kuzen to Kurodo (Chamberlain) when Senji was proclaimed, but later came to be called regardless of imperial proclamation of Senji.

そのため、近年の合戦を扱った関係書籍や観光史跡案内（例：義経「神戸源平物語」）などでも主にこの一ノ谷説が採られている。
Therefore, in recent books relating to the battle and guiding materials for the sightseeing of historic sites (e.g. 'Kobe Genpei Monogatari' (Tale of the Minamoto clan and the Taira clan at Kobe') by Yoshitsune), this Ichinotani theory is mainly supported.

豊臣秀吉の行った太閤検地により、土地の生産力を石高（玄米の生産量）であらわし、その石高に応じて年貢を課すこととされた。
Through Taiko-kenchi (the land survey by Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI) production capacity of lands was indicated by (crop) yield (production volume of brown (unpolished) rice) and depending on the yield, nengu (land tax) was levied.

その後、江戸城、彦根城、篠山城、亀山城 (丹波国)、駿府城、名古屋城、高田城などの築城が続き、大名が普請に動員された。
After that, Edo-jo Castle, Hikone-jo Castle, Kameyama-jo Castle (Tanba Province), Sunpu-jo Castle, Nagoya-jo Castle, and Takada-jo Castle were constructed, and the territorial lords were mobilized for Fushin.

だが、寛政の改革は彼のこの政治理念にもとづいて酒造統制をおこない、そのまま天明の三分の一造り令など制限策が継続された。
Based on this political belief of him, however, the Kansei Reforms were implemented to control the sake production, and the Production Restriction Decree of Sake Brewing to One-third in the Tenmei Era and other restriction measures continued to be in effect.

そのために律令制期の官吏制度である泥部（ぬりべ）と律令制期の官吏制度である泥戸（ぬりこ）が付属しており生産にあたった。
For this reason, nuribe and nuriko (plasterer) of government official system during the Ritsuryo system period belonged to Dokoshi and produced them.

その後、夕張炭鉱から足尾銅山にやってきた南助松は、永岡と協力し、1906年12月5日、大日本労働至誠会足尾支部を結成。
Later on, Sukematsu MINAMI who came to Ashio Copper Mine from Yubari Cole Mine cooperated with Nagaoka, and they set up Dainihon Rodo Shiseikai, Ashio branch on December 5, 1906.

ただし、近衛大将との兼務が慣例とされたためにその官位相当は従三位と大幅に上昇しており、馬寮では名目上の最高職であった。
However, since it was conventional to double as Konoe no daisho (Major Captain of the Palace Guards), its equivalent official court rank was largely promoted to Jusanmi (Junior Third Rank), and was the highest in Meryo nominally.

庶民に紛れ人目を忍んで任務に当たる者がそのような目立つ特殊な造りの刀を携行することは無意味に人目について目立ってしまう。
If those who carry out their missions secretly under the cloak of common people carry such specially-designed swords, they attract public attention all for nothing.

そのためなかなか決着はつかず、1489年には義尚が陣中に没したため、足かけ3年にわたった戦いは終結、六角氏は生き残った。
So, the battle did not easily end, but the death of Yoshihisa in battle in 1489 marked the end of the three-year conflict, and the Rokkaku clan survived.

藤田をはじめとする主な人物はただ倉の中に放り込まれただけであったが、その他のものはきつく手枷足枷をはめられ閉じこめれた。
The core members including Fujita were just imprisoned in the storehouse, but others were tightly shackled and confined.

その後、持氏は岩松氏や佐竹氏（山入氏系）などの氏憲の残党狩りや京都扶持衆の大名など関東における反対勢力の粛清などを行う。
After that Mochiuji hunted the remaining attendants of Ujinori, including the Iwamatsu clan and the Satake clan (originating from the Yamairi clan), and purged the opponents in Kanto region including territorial lords belonging to Kyoto fuchishu (samurai in Kanto and Tohoku regions who were direct vassals of Shogun).

（東国の藩の場合、江戸が用いられるのが通常であったが、その場合でも大坂に蔵屋敷など何らかの拠点を有した藩は少なくない。）
(Feudal lords in eastern Japan commonly had a storehouse attached to the residence in Edo, but quite a lot of them also set up a residence-cum-storehouse or a similar facility in Osaka as well.)

郡衙は国府所在地と異なり、郡衙所在地は立郡事情や政治的変遷により移転していることもあり、その特定がなかなか進んでいない。
Unlike the location of a Kokufu, process to pinpoint the location of Gunga ruins has not progressed because many of the Gunga establishments were relocated due to circumstances of establishment for a Gun (county) and political transitions.

なお、納付期限は原則として言い渡されてから3日以内とされ、その期間内に納付されない場合には代替として手鎖の刑が課された。
In addition, as a general rule, the deadline for payment was within three days after receiving the order, and the obligated person was imposed a tegusari penalty (confinement to one's residence and restraint in behavior with handcuffs on the wrists) if the person did not pay a fine by the deadline.

なお、1900年10月から始まった和議交渉から、その内容ごとに逐次列国と清国間で協定を締結し、一部は既に施行されていた。
Peace negotiations begun in October, 1900, and the Qing dynasty and each of the Great Powers concluded a treaty, respectively, according to the contents, part of which had already been implemented.

その後彼等は奇兵隊に組み入れられる事となったが、これを機に長州藩は差別撤廃政策を敷くという抜本的政策を断行したのである。
They were incorporated into the member of Kiheitai Army later on which was the cause of abolition of discrimination that was the drastic policy Choshu Domain put into force.

そのため、鎌倉幕府が強権をもって法律を制定したというよりも、むしろ御家人の支持を得るために制定した法律という性格を持つ。
Accordingly, its characteristic is more of a law that was established to be supported by shogunal retainers than that which was established by the Kamakura bakufu with an iron fist.

第二次世界大戦が終了した結果、大日本帝国陸軍、大日本帝国海軍が解体され、旧来その対象とされていた軍人が存在しなくなった。
As a result that the Second World War ended, Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) and Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) were demobilized and military men who were originally supposed to carry a sword went out of existence.

一つ目は、頼俊の遠征はその主張のように大成功し、津軽半島と下北半島までの本州全土を朝廷の支配下に置いたとするものである。
The first theory is that the expedition of Yoritoshi actually ended as a great success as he insisted, by conquering the regions from Tsugaru Peninsula to Shimokita Peninsula and expanding the ruling of the Imperial Court throughout the Honshu Island.

大津市の錦織遺跡の発掘調査により、その地が近江大津宮の跡地であることが確実視され、1979年に国の史跡に指定されている。
Thanks to the Otsu City's excavation and research of Nishikoori remains, the site has been believed certain as the remained site of the Imperial Palace Omi Otsu no Miya and has been designated as a country's historic spot since 1979.

大和民族（やまとみんぞく）は古代から日本本土（本州、四国、九州）と、その周辺離島を含む日本列島の全域に住む民族とされる。
The Yamato race is the race that has been living since ancient times in the Japanese Islands including Japan's mainland (Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu) and the other islands around them.

その翌日の夕刻、貞時の「仰せ」とする得宗被官、御家人が当時連署であった北条時村の屋敷を襲い殺害、屋敷一帯は炎に包まれた。
In the evening of the next day, samurai belonging to Tokuso (the main Hojo family) attacked the residence of Tokimura HOJO, an assistant to shikken at that time, saying that it was Tokisada's order, killing Morotoki and burning the area including the residence.

第二十一国立銀行（二十一銀行）→1929年に伊香銀行、江北銀行と合併して湖北銀行となり、その後1942年に滋賀銀行に買収
The 21st National Bank (Nijuichi Bank) -> merged with the Ika Bank and the Gohoku Bank in 1929 and became the Kohoku Bank, and then in 1942, purchased by the Shiga Bank.

キリスト教各派の宣教師が定住して教会堂を建てて布教を行い、その一環として多くの著名なミッションスクールを創設した地である。
This settlement was a place in which missionaries of each branch of Christianity settled, built a church, and proselytized; as a part of such activities, many famous missionary schools were established there.

経済都市･大坂は貿易港であった難波津や石山御坊寺内町、豊臣政権の拠点など幾度かその都市の性格を変えながら発展を続けてきた。
Osaka is an economic center that continued its development over the course of history by changing its function--as a trade port (Naniwa no Tsu), as a temple town under Ishiyama Gobo Temple, and more later as the seat of the Toyotomi government.

そのため、焼成温度は須恵器に劣る600～750度で焼成されることになり、橙色ないし赤褐色を呈し、須恵器にくらべ軟質である。
For this reason, firing occurs at 600 to 750 degrees, lower than for Sue pottery, creating pottery that is either orange or rust-colored and softer than Sue pottery.

しかし、その日の夜、中衛府の舎人上道斐太都から、前備前国国司小野東人に謀反への参加を呼びかけられたと仲麻呂へ密告があった。
However, on the same evening, Nakamaro was informed by KAMITSUMICHI no Hitatsu, a toneri (a palace servant) of Chuefu (guard), that ONO no Azumahito, an ex-Kokushi (a provincial governor) of Bizen Province, asked him to join the rebellion.

上述のように、1升という量があってそれを量る枡が作られたのではなく、先に物を量る枡が定められ、その量が「升」と定められた。
As previously mentioned, the masu was not made to measure the unit of sho, but the 'sho' was defined by the existing masu to measure.

平安時代頃までに、国司の役所そのもの（国庁という）を国衙と呼んだり、国司の行政・司法機構を国衙と呼ぶことが一般的となった。
Leading up to the Heian period, it was generalized that a government office of the Kokushi (called Kokucho [local government]) itself was called Kokuga and the Administration and Judiciary structures of the Kokushi were called Kokuga.

そして、新内閣は国王の稟議を経て、その日の内に、次の事等、14項目の革新政策を発表し、旧弊一新の改革を実現させようとした。
On the same day right after the king's approval by ringi decision-making system, the new cabinet announced the innovation policy of 14 articles including the followings for realizing the reform to refurbish the conservative.

そのため、議会はチャールズ1世の子チャールズ2世 (イングランド王)に王権を返還し、1660年にステュアート朝が復活した。
Consequently, the parliament decided to reassign the sovereignty of England to Charles II (King of England) who was a child of Charles I, and restarted the Stuart Dynasty in 1660.

また編纂に加わったのは六波羅探題を務めた泰時・時房や公家法に通じた中級貴族やその子孫である御家人であった点も指摘している。
Also he pointed out that those who took part in the compilation were Yasutoki and Tokifusa of Rokuhara Tandai and middle-ranked nobles with knowledge of the kugeho and the descendants who were shogunal retainers.

JRとその前身である日本国有鉄道は、同じ地名が重複しそうな時には、後から置かれた駅名に旧国名を頭に付けることを原則とする。
JR and its predecessor the Japanese National Railways had a rule in that when a new station was built and the place name of the new station was going to overlap with the existing place name, a name of an old provincial name to be prefixed to the name of the station that came later.

その後、もともと東学に参加していた宋秉畯は、東学の一部を引き継いだ進歩会を率いていた李容九と意見が合い、進歩会を吸収した。
After that, Song Byung-joon who was originally a member of Donghak reached the consensus with 李容九 (이용구), a leader of Shinpokai following a part of Donghak, and merged Shinpokai.

しかし、経時はその後、重病となり寛元4年（1246年）3月、弟・時頼に執権職を譲った直後、閏4月に23歳の若さで死亡する。
However, Tsunetoki later had a serious illness, and immediately after he gave the shikken no shiki to his brother, Tokiyori, in March, 1246, he died at the young age of 23 in May.

そのため山陽鉄道は防犯対策として、夜行列車にボーイを乗車させ巡視させるとともに、貫通扉のある大型客車の製造を進めたという。
For this reason, as anti-crime measures, the Sanyo Railway hired bellboys to patrol night trains and manufactured large passenger cars with connecting doors.

4世紀後期には倭の五王が南北朝時代 (中国)南朝への朝貢を再開するも、その後日本は長きにわたり大陸との接触を行っていない。
During the late 4th century, the five kings of Wa opened up again, paying tribute to the Southern Dynasty during the period of the Northern and Southern Dynasty in China, but after that Japan ceased to have contact with the Chinese continent for a long time.

そのため、日本軍は戦争の進展に応じて様々な軍票や傀儡政権下の中国聯合準備銀行や中央儲備銀行が発行した銀行券も使用していた。
So, Japanese military, according to the development of the war, used various kinds of military currency, as well as the bank notes issued by Federal Reserve Bank Of China and Central Reserve Bank Of China under the then puppet government.

1894年前年にハワイ王朝が事実上廃止となり、この年からハワイ共和国が樹立された影響で、官約移民そのものが無効となり廃止。
In 1894, the Republic of Hawaii was established following the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii in the previous year, so government sponsored immigration became invalid and was abolished.

ただ同時に見逃せないのは、この事件の背景に専制を強める将軍およびその近臣勢力と東国有力御家人との対立が考えられることである。
One thing that should not be ignored at the same time is that, behind this incident, there could be a conflict between the shogun trying to strengthen a tyrannical control and his trusted vassals and the senior vassals in the togoku (the eastern part of Japan, particularly Kanto region) existed.

能力や素質があるが家柄が低いために要職に就けないといった旧来の不都合を解消し、良質の人材を登用することをその目的としている。
The system aimed to eliminate conventional inconvenience that a talented and able person could not assume an important post because of his family lineage, and to use personnel of good quality.

明法家もまた、元は大学寮の明法道の教官であった明法博士の地位を明法道の家学化によってその世襲を確立させることで成立している。
Such Myobo-ke were also formed by establishing heredity of the position of Myobo hakase who were originally instructors of Myobodo (study of ritsuryo codes) in Daigaku-ryo (Bureau of Education under the ritsuryo system) by changing Myobodo to hereditary learning.

五代将軍徳川綱吉の生母・桂昌院はその最たる例で、公家の女子を除いて存命中の女性としては史上空前絶後の従一位に叙せられている。
The fifth Shogun Tsunayoshi TOKUGAWA's real mother, Keishoin was the best example and she was granted juichii (Junior First Rank) during her lifetime as the first female of all time other than the females in the noble court.

小判師達は小判座（こばんざ）と総称され、後藤宗家が居住していた本石町の金座役宅の周辺に施設を構えてその支配下に置かれていた。
Koban-shi were collectively called koban za and they had facilities around the official residence of kin-za in Hongoku-cho where the head family of the Goto family lived and they were under the control of the family.

その後政府の強硬姿勢は、頃まで続いたが、税収の見込みがつくようになると徐々に緩和されていき、に耕地宅地の改正作業が完了した。
The hardline stance of the government continued through 1878; but the strict stance was gradually eased as the government was able to have the prospect of receiving revenue from tax and the work of reformation of arable land and the residential land was completed in 1880.

以降、江戸庶民の間にイノシシや豚肉などの肉食が急速に広まり、滋養目的の「薬喰い」から、肉食そのものを楽しむ方向へと変化した。
From then on, among common people in Edo, the eating of meat including pork and wild boar rapidly spread and changed from 'medicine' for the purpose of nourishment to something to be enjoyed.

江戸幕府が全国的な貨幣統一を確立するのは豊臣氏が滅亡してその全国支配が確立した後に発行された寛永通宝の発行まで待つ事になる。
Nationwide currency by the Edo Shogunate was not established until the Kanei Tsuho coin, which was issued after the Edo Shogunate established the government of the entire nation when the Toyotomi clan was ruined.

古代山城とは、西日本各地に古代に造られた山城の中で、「日本書紀」「続日本紀」になんらかの記載がある諸城およびその系統の山城。
Kodai Sanjo refers to castles which was built in several locations of western Japan in ancient times and be written some statements in the 'Nihon-shoki' (the oldest chronicles of Japan) or 'Shoku Nihongi' (Chronicle of Japan Continued), or other lineage of these mountain castles.

翌年、加賀一向一揆の激化によって幕府軍が頼みとしていた富樫政親は国許に帰還、しかも、その一揆に討たれるという事件が発生する。
The following year, Masachika TOGASHI, on whom the army of bakufu was depending returned to his hometown due to the Kaga Ikko ikki (an uprising of Ikko sect followers in Kaga Province) intensified, and in addition, an incident occurred in which he was killed in the ikki.

当時15歳だった万次郎は、捕鯨船の船長の養子同然となり、その後アメリカにて修学し、アメリカで近代捕鯨の捕鯨船の船員となった。
Manjiro, who was 15 at the time, became something of an adopted son to the American captain, ultimately becoming a sailor of new techniques himself after attending school in the United States.

なお、殿上人にも例外があり、六位蔵人はその職務上の必要から昇殿宣旨を受けられた（この場合、蔵人所が申請を行って宣旨を得た）。
There was an exception among tenjobito that Rokui no Kurodo could receive a shoden no senji because it was necessary to perform their duties (in this case the Kurodo dokoro [Office of Imperial Household Logistics] applied for shoden to obtain a senji).

鉄板では海水によって腐食するため長期の運用は不可能であり、そのため銅板に換えたと考えられ、鉄甲船からの順当な発展型と言える。
Iron plates would become eroded so easily by sea water that they were unfit for a long-term use, therefore, they were substituted by copper plates, which can be said to have made a reasonable development from a tekkosen.

1926年の統計によれば青島出兵で発行された総金額は11,812,197円で、そのうち161,956円が未回収とされている。
Accordring to the statistics in 1926, the total amount of the military currency issued in sending troops to Tsingtao was 11,812, 197 yen, and 161,956 of which was not uncollected.

その目的は、上位の 4 姓（カバネ）、つまり真人（まひと）、朝臣（あそん）、宿禰（すくね）、忌寸（いみき）を定めることである。
The object was to establish four hereditary titles of higher rank and they were Mahito, Ason, Sukune, and Imiki.

ここで、日本と清どちらが反乱を鎮圧するかの争いになったが、朝鮮は清の冊封国だからという理由で、清朝軍はそのまま反乱を鎮圧した。
Here occurred a conflict between Japan and the Qing over which country was to subdue the revolt, but the Qing troops went ahead and did so on the basis that Korea was a Qing's vassal state.

そのため、例えば忠臣蔵で有名な大石家は赤穂浅野家の家臣であるが、大石家の家臣は浅野家とは直接の主従関係を持たなかったのである。
Therefore, for example, the Oishi family which was famous for Chushingura (The Treasury of Loyal Retainers) was a vassal of the Asano family of Ako Domain, but vassals of the Oishi family did not have a direct master-servant relationship with the Asano family.

この場合、樺太とは樺太の内、ポーツマス条約により日本へと編入された50度線以南の地域（いわゆる南樺太）及びその付属島嶼を指す。
In this case Karafuto means the region and attached islands south of the fifty northern latitude on Sakhalin (so-called Southern Sakhalin), which was incorporated into Japan through the Treaty of Portsmouth.

しかし、これには反論があり「祭るための宝物ならそれなりの扱いを受けるはずで、そのような施しは見受けられない」ということである。
But a counterargument says that if they were treasures for ritual purposes, they must have been treated in such a way but no marks indicating this are found.

彼らの中には、中国残留日本人となったり、またインドネシア独立戦争等に参加した者などがいるが、そのほとんどは現在高齢化している。
Some of them became Japanese left behind in China, while others joined the Indonesian war of independence, though most of them are aging now.

伝統的な浮世絵や、職人の技術の粋を集めた日本建築は、多くの欧米のその道の権威を唸らせ、ジャポニズムという一種のブームを生んだ。
Traditional Ukiyoe (Japanese woodblock prints) and Japanese architecture built with artisans' sophisticated skills made a deep impression on many authorities in the fields in Europe and America, creating a kind of boom called Japonism.

そのため単なる精神論を越えて監視社会化してしまい、この結果、「悪法」として一般民衆からは幕府への不満が高まったものと見られる。
In this way, the law went beyond the spiritualism, the society was put under surveillance, and as the result, it is thought that dissatisfaction with the bad law among people in general was heightened against government.

そのあと5月7日の夜の子の剋（午前0時頃）、関東（鎌倉幕府）から飛脚が到着し、鎌倉の執権北条師時からの「関東御教書」が届く。
Around the midnight on May 7 (or around 0 AM on May 8), an express messenger from Kanto (the Kamakura bakufu) arrived, bringing Kanto Migyosho (an official message from Kanto) from Morotoki HOJO, shikken at Kamakura.

他方、2月8日に日本政府は韓国の戦時局外中立宣言を無視する形で、日本軍を仁川広域市へ上陸させ、その後漢城へ進駐し、締結された。
On the other hand, the Japanese government ignored the Korean proclamation of neutrality by extending the Japanese troops to Incheon City; finally the troops got stationed in Hanseong and then the treaty was signed.

高島藩藩士北沢与三郎はその力にあやかろうと彼の死体から肉を切り取り、持ち帰って味噌漬けにして焙って食べたとの逸話が残されている。
Yosaburo KITAZAWA, a feudal retainer of Takashima Domain, who wanted to have his strength, took a part of his flesh home, marinated it with miso, then grilled and ate it.

流通経済の発達で国内の水運がさかんになると、荘園からの年貢減少に苦しむ大寺社ではその維持のために船から関銭を徴収することとした。
With the development of distribution economy, water transport became active and large temples and shrines, which suffered from the decrease of nengu (land tax) from shoen, tried to collect sekisen (toll) from the ships to maintain the income.

その後、福澤は、請願書の案文制作や、当時の権令（県令）柴原和や政府の高官の西郷従道などに書簡を送付し、教示するなどして支援した。
After that, FUKUZAWA had supported the movement, making a draft of a petition, or sending letters enlightening the matter to the vice governor (prefectural governor) at that time Yawara SHIBAHARA and a senior government official Tsugumichi SAIGO and others.

「一、内匠頭には少々存念があったようなので、その意を家臣が達するためにやむをえずに大勢で示し合わせた場合は徒党とは言いがたい。」
1, It seems that Takumi no Kami held some grudge, and for his retainers to get together just to fulfill his will cannot be considered a faction.

この頃には江戸の同志や遅れて出した同志も足して130人を超えていたが、神文返しによってその数は60人以下になったといわれている。
Although their comrades totaled over 130 people including the ones in Edo and who handed it in later, the number went down to less than 60 after giving the oath back.

物語によっては、その後間者が連判状を盗もうとして発覚、瑤泉院が内蔵助の真意に気づき彼を罵った事を後悔するという場面がある場合も。
In some stories, it says that Yozenin only found out about the letter when the spy was trying to steal it, and she regretted saying rude comments to Kuranosuke after realizing his true intention.

「御雇（おやとい）」とは（とくに外国人に限らず）武家でない身分の者を、その専門技芸において幕府の「御用」に徴用することを指した。
Oyatoi' refers to the hiring of someone (unnecessary to be a foreigner) who does not belong to a samurai family for his or her special skills or knowledge in order to accomplish the bakufu's 'goyo' (official business).

その他に翻訳作業に関わった者は、巻頭に名前が出てくる石川玄常、『蘭学事始』に名前が出てくる烏山松圓、桐山正哲、嶺春泰などがいる。
The other participants in the translation work were Genjo ISHIKAWA, whose name appeared in the preface of Kaitai Shinsho, as well as Shoen KARASUYAMA, whose name appeared in 'Rangaku Kotohajime,' Shotetsu KIRIYAMA, Shuntai MINE and so on.

明治時代に市町村を統合した時には、同じ郡の中に同じ名の町村がある場合には重複しないように改名させたが、違う郡ならそのままにした。
When a town or village of the same name existed within the same county, the central government had the town or village to rename to avoid overlapping during which the mergers of municipalities were made in the Meiji period; yet the same names were left as they were when they existed in the different counties.

蜂起中に困民党メンバーやその同調者が使用したとされる「自由自治元年」という'年号'は、日本史上、最終期の私年号と考えられている。
The name of the era, 'First year of Free Autonomy' used by the Konminto Party members and their sympathizers, was regarded as a shinengo (private name of a era) in the end term in Japanese history.

そして、天津条約を締結し、その条文内で中国とイギリスをともに「自主の邦」として並列的に位置づけることを明文化することに成功した。
After the war, the Treaty of Tianjin was concluded and its provision clearly stated that both China and Britain should be positioned as 'equally independent nations.'

そのため、民間からの資本を入れてでも建設をおこなうべきだという声が出たが、実際に鉄道を見せないことにはそれすら進まないと考えた。
Then, some insisted that it should be constructed even with some private capital, but also they thought that they needed to show people an actual railway in order to attract capital.

平家の残党及び源義経一党らの追捕がもともとの任務であったが、その後全九州の御家人の統轄にあたるようになり、大宰府の機能も継承した。
The search and capture of the remnants of Heike (the Taira family) and the party of MINAMOTO no Yoshitsune had been the original mission, but it effectively inherited the function of Dazai-fu (the local government office in Kyushu region) as well, as it subsequently adopted the supervisory role of the gokenin for the entire region of Kyushu.

その上で武士の生活態度や信条というモデルケースから日本人の精神的な土壌が醸成された過程を分かりやすい構成と言葉で読者に伝えている。
He explained then the process in which Japanese spiritual base was fermented using model cases of samurai behaviours and principles in simple construction and words.

このことから、事件の発端となった能員と頼家の密謀そのものが事件後に北条氏によってでっちあげられた捏造であったとする見方も成り立つ。
Based on the above, there could be one view that the very conspiracy hatched by Yoshikazu and Yoriie was falsified by the Hojo clan after the whole incident was over.

しかしながら、吉野は承和の変で失脚し、その直後には緒嗣が亡くなる等の条件も重なり、以後は式家が再び政治の中枢に立つ事は無くなった。
However, Yoshino lost his position during the Jowa Incident, and right after the downfall of Yoshino, Otsugu died, making Shikike step aside the center of the politics afterwards.

そして、右大臣豊成を奉じて天下に号令し、その後天皇を廃し、塩焼王、道祖王、安宿王、黄文王の中から天皇を推戴するというものであった。
Moreover, the plan involved Udaijin Toyonari to present an announcement to the society, then to dethrone the Emperor, and to chose one of Prince Shioyaki, Funado no Okimi, Prince Asukabe, and the Prince Kibumi as the emperor.

初めは数人だったが、その数は段々増えて行き、6月10日 (旧暦)には3万人に達し、6月18日 (旧暦)頃には7万人に達したという。
It started with only a few people but the number gradually increased, reaching three million on July 24 and seven million on Augist 1, respectively, some historical materials said.

その意見に基づけば、明治維新以後は政治の中心が東京にあったのであるから、「東京時代」として一括されるべきではないかというのである。
From that viewpoint, the period of time after the Meiji restoration should be collectively referred to as the 'Tokyo period' because the political center has existed in Tokyo since the restoration.

その後新政府内部で鉄道建設について検討が行われ、明治2年（1869年）11月に自国管轄方式によって新橋・横浜間の鉄道建設を決めた。
Subsequently the railroad construction was debated within the new government and in November 1869, and it was decided to construct the railroad between Shinbashi and Yokohama under its own control and management method.

また、豪族による田荘・部曲の支配は、改新の詔で禁止されたはずだったが、その後も朝廷が田荘・部曲の領有を豪族へ認めた事例が散見される。
Moreover, although the Kaishin no Mikotonori edict was to ban gozoku families from ruling tadokoro and kakibe, several examples that the Imperial Court permitted ownership of tadokoro and kakibe even after the edict was announced have been found.

続いて、地下家官人制度の再編成を行っており（出納平田家による蔵人方統率など）、禁中並公家諸法度もその流れの一環として位置づけられる。
Subsequently, the bakufu reorganized the system of government officials from the Jige families (for example, the bakufu made the Suino Hirata family control the Kurodogata) and 'Kinchu narabini kuge shohatto' is considered to be a part of the reorganization.

この年の6月、平清盛の主導により、まだ3歳の新帝安徳天皇、父高倉上皇、祖父後白河法皇の福原行幸がおこなわれ、行宮もその地に置かれた。
That July, with Kiyomori's initiative, a new Emperor Antoku, who was still three years old, and the Retired Emperor Takakura, who was Antoku's father, and Cloistered Emperor Goshirakawa, who was his grandfather, paid a visit to Fukuhara and the Angu (temporary lodging built to accommodate an Imperial visit) was set up there.

新渡戸を含めたキリスト者たちにとって日本の精神的土壌をどのように捉えるかは大きなテーマであり武士道はその内の検証の一つとされている。
For Christians including Nitobe, it was a major theme on how to think about the Japanese spiritual base and Bushido was simply a verification.

当時の日本はまだ米や布を基準とした物々交換の段階であり、和同開珎は、貨幣としては畿内とその周辺を除いてあまり流通しなかったとされる。
Bartering with rice and cloths as standards was still the main method of obtaining necessary materials at the time in Japan; therefore, Wado-kaichin did not circulate as the currency well in Japan except in the Kinai region and its surrounding area.

武家が発給した文書の場合、文書作成そのものが右筆によるものでも署名・花押が発給者当人のものであれば、自筆文書と同じ法的効力を持った。
In the case of Monjo which were issued by Samurai families, they were leagally-effective if they contained the issures' signatures or Kao (written seal mark) even if the monjo themselves were written by Yuhitsu.

このため、軍部大臣現役武官制の採用によって組閣に軍部の合意が事実上必要となり、軍部によるその意向にそわない組閣の阻止が可能となった。
Therefore, by employing Gunbu Daijin Geneki Bukan sei, it was, in fact, necessary for the formation of a Cabinet to obtain the consent of the military and through the employment of this regulation the military was able to prevent the formation of any Cabinet.

それにより、非御家人である荘園領主側である公家や寺社にも御成敗式目による訴訟が受け入れられてその一部が公家法などにも取り入れられた。
Therefore suits using the Goseibai-shikimoku were also accepted by higokenin (non-vassals) such as court nobles, temples and shrines who were the lords of private estates and a part of those were adopted also in the kugeho.

ただし、『続日本紀』巻十五の同日条を見ると、同じく天皇による命令形式である詔として出され、その中に次の逸文が入っていたことが分かる。
However, according to an article with the same date in roll No.15 of 'Shoku Nihongi' ('Chronicle of Japan Continued'), it was issued in the same way as an imperial order, and it can be understood to have included the following lost description.

現在では「近江京」の条坊制の存在を否定する研究者までが「大津京」を用い、その概念や定義は極めて曖昧となり、研究に混乱をきたしている。
Now, even historians who deny the existence of the street plan use the word 'Otsu-kyo,' making the concept and definition of the word blur very much, which confuses historical study.

神官や儒者は思想上の問題から、戦闘にかかわる意思がないことを誇示するために、武士の印であった月代を剃らないでそのまま髪を残していた。
Shinto priests and Confucians, in order to show that they had no intention to fight for ideological reasons, did not make Sakayaki (shaved forehead), which was a symbol of samurai (warriors), and retained their hair.

そのため、犯罪者の更生を主な目的とした収容施設を作ることを火付盗賊改方長官である長谷川宣以が松平定信に提案し、人足寄場が設置された。
Therefore, Nobutame HASEGAWA, Director for Hitsuke Tozoku Aratame-kata (Investigative Division for Arson and Organized Robbery), suggested to Sadanobu MATSUDAIRA that an accomodation facility should be built mainly for the purpose of rehabilitation of criminals, so Ninsokuyoseba was set up.

そのためか、歴史学や考古学的な文脈においても、飛鳥時代あたりの飛鳥を指すのに「飛鳥京」という名称が必ずしも使われているわけではない。
Maybe because of the ambiguity of the term, the name 'Asuka-kyo' is not always used to mean the Asuka area in the Asuka period in historical and archaeological contexts.

また、一度除籍を受けた者は処分が撤回・赦免されない限りは官位の補任を受けられなかったため、その前に再度昇殿が認められる必要があった。
People who were once given jojaku shobun could not be appointed any official court rank unless the punishment was canceled/pardoned, so that they had to have their shoden granted again before appointment.

その後、出羽柵は天平5年12月26日 (旧暦)（ユリウス暦734年2月4日）に現在の秋田市に移設され、秋田城と改名されたと見られる。
Subsequently, it is considered that Dewa no Ki was relocated to present-day Akita City on February 8, 734, and was renamed Akita-jo Castle.

アメリカ合衆国は石炭補給基地の確保や、日本沿岸で漂流した自国民やその財産の保護、日本との自由貿易などの理由で日本との通商を試みていた。
The United States of America reached out Japan for the purpose of establishing free trade, securing a coal supply-base, and protecting American castaways and their property, and freely trading with Japan.

平等条約ではあったが、その内容は両国がともに欧米から押し付けられていた不平等条約の内容を相互に認め合うという極めて特異な内容であった。
Although it was an equal treaty, the contents were extreamly unique that the both countries approved each other the contents of the unequal treaty which both of them were respectively imposed by Europe and America.

北条義時の死去に伴い、伊賀光宗とその妹で義時の後妻伊賀の方が、伊賀の方の実子北条政村の執権就任と、娘婿一条実雅の将軍職就任を画策した。
Due to the death of Yoshitoki HOJO, Mistumune IGA and Iga no kata, his younger sister and the second wife of Yoshitoki, schemed to have Masamura HOJO, her biological son, to assume the position of shikken, regent to the shogunate, and to have Sanemasa ICHIJO, her son-in-law, to assume the Shogunship.

そのため、天下の氏姓は、源・平・藤・橘か、紀、菅原、大江、中原、坂上、賀茂、小野、惟宗（これむね）、清原などに集中されるようになった。
Therefore, the clan name and hereditary title in Japan came to concentrate on such names as Minamoto, Taira, Fuji, Tachibana, Ki, Sugawara, Oe, Nakahara, Sakagami, Kamo, Ono, Koremune, Kiyohara and such.

議会派はクロムウェルを護国卿に任命したが、その死後に護国卿を継承した子のリチャード・クロムウェルには政治力が無く、自ら辞任を申し出た。
Parliamentarians appointed their leader Cromwell as the Lord Protector of the Commonwealth, but, after his death, his child Richard Cromwell who succeeded the post of Lord Protector had little political clout and offered his voluntary resignation from the post.

その為、一般的な合戦解説では、後白河法皇の政略を加味しつつ、具体的な合戦経過は『玉葉』を交えつつも主に『吾妻鏡』と『平家物語』を採り。
Thus, as a general explanation of the battle, the authors of history books mainly reference descriptions of the specific progress of the battle in 'Azuma Kagami' and 'Heike Monogatari,' considering the political maneuver of Emperor Goshirakawa and adding the view of 'Gyokuyo.'

その後、紆余曲折はあったが、日米和親条約の平和的締結に向け、通訳やアメリカの思惑や情勢を詳しく知る者として、時には裏方として尽力した。
After arriving in Ryukyu, though initially faced with a number of difficulties, Manjiro's understanding of American motivations, as well as those of the Japanese, allowed him to serve as an interpreter during the treaty talks between the United States and the Empire of Japan.

その内容は上杉氏が隣国の堀秀治や最上義光の領内を攻めることを目的に道路や支城の整備・居城の築城をおこなっているという旨のものであった。
He informed Ieyasu that the Uesugi clan was building roads and subsidiary castles and constructing a residential castle to invade the territories of Hideharu HORI and Yoshiaki MOGAMI in the neighboring domains.

なお、旧函館県及び根室県の組織はそのまま北海道庁函館支庁及び根室支庁として、1890年11月5日の支庁制移行まで継続される事になった。
The organization of former Hakodate and Nemuro Prefectures was succeeded by Hakodate and Nemuro offices of the Hokkaido government, and continued until the transition to the subprefecture system on November 5, 1890.

その後、山城国長岡藩 (山城国)より永井直清が3万6,000石で入ってようやく藩主が定着し、以後、永井氏13代の支配で明治時代を迎えた。
After that, the entrance of Naokiyo NAGAI with 36,000 koku from Nagaoka domain, Yamashiro Province finally brought a settlement to the domain lord, afterward, Meiji Period came during the 13th Nagai clan's governance.

5月に内容を知った岩倉はその内容とともに自分を無視して熾仁親王に極秘裏に意見書を出した経緯に激怒、太政官大書記官の井上毅に意見を求めた。
In May, Iwakura came to know the contents of the proposal, got very angry about the contents and the fact that Okuma ignored Iwakura, and submitted the written proposal to Imperial Prince Taruhito, and then Iwakura consulted with Kowashi INOUE.

そのために『吾妻鏡』にも義経が勇士70騎で一ノ谷の裏山（鵯越）に立ち、鵯越から攻撃を仕掛けて一ノ谷を落としたというとしたいう記述がある。
Therefore, in 'Azuma Kagami,' the author wrote that Yoshitsune led seventy elite cavalrymen, stood at the rear side of Ichinotani (Hiyodorigoe), started his attack on the Taira clan from Hiyodorigoe, and took the Ichinotani fortress.

後に帝国議会が開かれた時に、当初衆議院の選挙権や貴族院_(日本)の多額納税議員の資格が与えられたのは、その多くがこうした地主層であった。
When Imperial Diet was held later, at first election franchise for House of Representatives or entitlement of councilor of large taxpayer in House of Peers were given to many of such landlord class.

現実の外交関係においては日清戦争での敗戦によって朝鮮が冊封関係から離脱し、そのことにより冊封と朝貢に基づく清朝の外交秩序は終焉を迎えた。
In the real diplomacy, Korea seceded from the relation of sakuho after Qing's defeat in Japanese-Sino War, and the Qing dynasty's diplomacy based on sakuho and choko ended at that time.

近世江戸幕府は「天下人＝将軍」、「天下の公儀＝幕府法」と位置づけ、そのもとに「地方的な公儀＝藩法」として大きく二元的な法社会を形成した。
The Edo bakufu formed the broadly-defined dual legal system which had 'Tenkabito = shogun' and 'the kogi of Tenka = the law of the bakufu' on top and 'the local kogi = the law of domains' at the bottom.

そのため、小規模農民や中小規模の地主を問わず、滞納や逃亡、民田への不正な登録変更などが相次ぎ、国家は安定した収入を得る事が出来なくなった。
Because of that, there were a succession of delinquency, desertation, illicit change of registration to private estate by small scale farmers and small or medium-sized landlords, and the state were unable to ensure the stable income.

その後、同様の規定は中断したり復活したりしていたが、1900年（明治33年）に、山縣有朋首相の主導で、軍部大臣現役武官制を明確に規定した。
Afterwards, the same restriction was repeatedly aborted and revived; however, Gunbu Daijin Geneki Bukan sei was redefined by Prime Minister Aritomo YAMAGATA in 1900.

御庭番出身の者が出世すれば当然に軽輩の職務である御庭番からは離れることになるがその子が新たに幕府に出仕するときは御庭番となる定めであった。
When an oniwaban got a promotion, he naturally resigned the position of oniwaban which was for the lower-class retainers, however when his child stared working for the bakufu, the first position of this child had to be the oniwaban.

その後、米国は熾烈な南北戦争に突入し、日本や清に対する影響力を失い、これらの国は結局、イギリスやフランス、ロシアが勢力を拡大してしまった。
Soon after, the United States entered into a fierce Civil War and lost much of its influence over both Japan and the Qing Dynasty, which allowed Britain, France, and Russia to expand their power in Asia.

その制度として当然のように当てはめられていた班田収授制が関連しないとすると、そもそも裏打ちとなる公的制度はなかったと考えられるようになった。
As described above, now it is considered that the system of periodic reallocations of rice fields (handen shuju sei) was not a backing public system of jori sei (a system of land subdivision in ancient Japan) and therefore it came to be thought that there was no backing public system in jori sei.

そのため表向きには『歯を大切にする』という意味の『尚歯』を会の名前に使い、尚歯会と名乗って高齢の隠居者・知恵者やそれを慕う者の集まりとした。
For this reason, they officially called themselves the Shoshikai by using a Japanese word 'shoshi'(尚歯) meaning 'to value dental care,' to make them out to be a group of aged hermits, wisdoms, or people who were attached to those of them.

太政官布告として布告された本法は、その後も長らくこの状態を保っていたが、時間の経過につれ、次第にこの規定の実効性が喪失していくこととなった。
This act introduced as edict of Grand Council of State remained intact for a long time after that, but lost its effectiveness gradually as time went by.

8代執権北条時宗の死後、有力御家人の安達泰盛と、内管領の平頼綱が対立し、頼綱方の先制攻撃を受けた泰盛とその一族・与党が滅ぼされた事件である。
After the death of the eighth regent Tokimune HOJO, the senior vassal Yasumori ADACHI and TAIRA no Yoritsune, Uchi-Kanrei (head of Tokuso Family [the patrimonial head of the main branch of the Hojo clan]) opposed each other and Yasumori, his family, and his party were destroyed in this incident in which Yoritsuna's party made the preemptive attack.

将軍問題は得宗が幕府の頂点にありながらも、その出自の低さ故に自ら将軍になる事の出来ない北条氏が最後まで乗り越える事の出来ない壁となっていた。
The Hojo clan couldn't get over Shogun issue in the end as Tokuso couldn't become Shogun due to his low status by birth eventhough he was the most powerful lord of the Kamakura bakufu.

そのため、北部九州から瀬戸内海沿岸にかけて多数の山城や連絡施設を築くとともに、最前線の大宰府には水城という防衛施設を設置して、防備を固めた。
Because of that, the administration built a large number of yamajiro (castle in a mountain) and facilities for communication from the northern part of Kyushu to the coast of the Seto Inland Sea, and set up a defense facility called mizuki (water fortress) in the front line Dazaifu (local government office in Kyushu region) so that it could reinforce their defenses.

また、内地人とは異なる慣習を持つ者が住む地域に対して内地に施行されていた法令をそのまま外地にも施行するのが相当かという実質的な問題も生じた。
Also, a practical question arose about whether it was proper to apply the laws, which had been enforced in the inland, without any modifications to Gaichi, where residents had different customs from the inland inhabitants.

ただし、アメリカ合衆国のように議院内閣制を採用していない国では、政党政治が実施されていても、その政権をさして政党内閣とは呼ばない場合が多い。
However, the cabinet of a country without a parliamentary cabinet system, for example that of the United States of America, is not usually referred to as a party cabinet, even though the country has a party system.

いずれにせよこれ以後、毎年の米の作柄によって、この数値を基準にして凶作年にはその二割とか三割といった具合に酒造が制限されていくようになった。
Whatever the reason, sake brewing was limited according to rice yields for each year, starting from this time, in such a manner that no more than 20 or 30 percent of these values was allowed in a poor harvest year.

第百十八国立銀行→1880年に第百三十六国立銀行に合併され、その後1898年に百三十銀行（保善、安田、富士銀行を経て現在のみずほ銀行）に合併
The 118th National Bank -> merged into the 136th National Bank in 1880, and then merged into the Hyakusanju Bank in 1898 (the current Mizuho Bank after the Hozen, the Yasuda, and the Fuji Bank).

その為、「成り上がり者が調子に乗っている（天狗になっている）」といった侮蔑の意味を込めて保守派が改革派をそう呼んだところから来ているという説。
One theory says that the conservatives scornfully called the reformers Tengu because 'parvenus got carried away and became like a Tengu.'

通常の諸大夫成の場合、幕府より朝廷への年賀使として高家が上京する際に口宣頂戴奉書をまとめて持参し、その高家が口宣案をまとめて江戸へ持ち帰った。
In the case of gaining ordinary shodaibusei rank, an officer from a koke (a privileged family under the Tokugawa Shogunate), who went to the Imperial court for New Year's greetings, put together a Guzenchodaihosho (a document to solicit an order from the emperor) and brought it to the court, bringing back a Guzen-an (Imperial order for solicitation) to Edo.

が、その一方で、中央官僚は科挙による人材登用が本格化して増加し、周辺異民族も不穏な動きを見せているため、軍事費、人事経費が膨大なものとなった。
On the other hand, however, more central government officials were employed through Kakyo (Imperial Examination) in earnest, and surrounding different ethnic groups were exhibiting disquieting behavior, and as a result, military expenditure and the cost for personnel affairs swelled.

明代の官田の税は民間の小作料よりは低かったが、それでも例えば蘇州府では1畝当たりの平均税率がその4割にも達し、官倉への輸送費用も自弁であった。
The tax on kanden in the Ming period was lower than private farm rent, but in Suzhou Prefecture, for example, the average tax rate per ridge was 40% of it and the cost of transportation to government warehouses was paid by themselves.

時村の誅殺を命じたのは貞時であり、そのために貞時は前日に北鎌倉明月院・浄智寺近辺の山内亭から側近の北条師時の屋敷に移り、時村の誅殺に成功する。
It was Sadatoki who ordered to kill Tokimura, and to do so, Sadatoki moved, on the previous day, to the residence of Morotoki HOJO, his close associate, from Sannai-tei near to Meigetu-in Temple and Jochi-ji Temple in Kita (north)-Kamakura, and succeeded in killing Tokimura.

陸奥国は、金山や良馬に恵まれる一方、その国司は、朝廷の支配に属さない蝦夷を帰服させ、しばしば離反を繰り返した俘囚を服属させる任務を帯びていた。
While Mutsu Province was a place with good goldmine and breeding of good horses, the governor of it was on a mission of subduing some tribes of Ezo who did not come under the yoke of the Imperial Court, and subsuming other tribes of Ezo who once submitted (Fushu) but often seceded from the Imperial Court.

甲賀武士達は山中でその地の利を生かしてさまざまな奇襲をかけ、また時には夜陰に義尚の本陣に迫って火や煙を放つなど、さんざん幕府軍を苦しめたという。
It is said that Koga warriors took a geographical advantage in the mountains to make various surprise attacks against the bakufu army and tormented them by using fire and smoke on Yoshihisa's headquarters during the night.

それによって御台所の立場は不動のものとなったが、約100年もの間、御台所不在の期間が続き、その間は先代将軍の正室や将軍子女らが、大奥を主宰した。
As a result, Midaidokoro's position was consolidated, but during the Midaidokoro's absence for about 100 years, the previous Shogun's lawful wife or Shogun's children organized O-oku.

その12日後、引付衆一番頭人で寄合衆と思われる北条宗宣らが貞時の従兄弟で得宗家執事、越訴頭人、幕府侍所所司で寄合衆と思われる北条宗方を追討した。
In twelve days after that, Munenobu HOJO, who was considered the chief of Hikitsukeshu (coadjustors of the high court) as well as a Yoriaishu member (a member of the top decision making organ), and others chased Munekata HOJO, a male cousin of Sadatoki, who was considered chamberlain of the Tokuso family, and a Yoriaishu member as well as Ossotonin (the head of legal institutions of Kamakura bakufu and Muromachi bakufu) and Samurai-dokoro shoshi (Governor of the Board of Retainers).

大正時代に入って間もない頃、国の主導による本格的な神武陵一帯の整備が始まると、その拡張の必要などにともなって、洞村は自体の移転を余儀なくされる。
Shortly after the beginning of Taisho period, the government started official improvement of the area around the mausoleum of Emperor Jinmu, and due to the expansion of the area and so on, Hora Village was forced to relocate.

彼らは京都において、長州藩藩士桂小五郎、久坂玄瑞、その他京都に集う志士達と交流を重ねるうちに尊皇攘夷の志をますます堅固なものとして行ったのである。
In Kyoto, they came to have a firmer conviction of Sonno Joi as they exchanged opinions with other patriots such as feudal retainer of Choshu Domain Kogoro KATSURA and Genzui KUSAKA.

以上が「甲子の宣」の大氏、小氏、伴造氏の発展形であり、その間にさらに氏族の再編が進められ、朝臣52氏、宿禰50氏、忌寸11氏に収（おさ）められた。
Those described above are a developed form of Ouji, Kouji, and Tomo no Miyatsuko in 'Kasshi no Sen' and the clan system was further reorganized to include 52 clans of Ason, 50 clans of Sukune, and 11 clans of Imiki.

藤原鎌足（のちの藤原鎌足）は、蘇我氏による専横に憤り、大王家（天皇家）へ権力を取り戻すため、まず孝徳天皇と接触するも、その器ではないとあきらめる。
FUJIWARA no Kamako (latter-day FUJIWARA no Kamatari), getting indignant at the tyrannical ruling by the Soga clan and intending to recover authority to the great king family (Imperial Family), first approached Emperor Kotoku to learn that he was not a man of such caliber, much to his despair.

そしてその指導の下に旧軍とは別に、新式の編成で新式の装備を有する「別技軍」を組織し、日本式の訓練を行ったり日本に留学させたりと、努力を続けていた。
Under the advisors' instruction, they set up the 'Byeolgigun' (a modernized special military force) apart from the existing traditional army, organized it in a new way and had it newly-equipped, continuing with such efforts as performing Japanese-style training and sending some members to Japan for study.

(1)代々同じ家が就任する世襲名主制、(2)一年ごとに交代する年番名主制、(3)その中間型（世襲ではないがある者が複数年勤める形）の3つがあった。
There were three selection procedures for the position: (1) the Heredity Nanushi system would require the legacy in a member of the same family having successively assumed an office in a Nanushi or Shoya position; (2) the Nenban Nanushi system required a yearly family rotation; (3) the final procedural type was a hybrid of the former two (This type was not heredity, but certain persons served in the position for several years).

その後、に公布され、翌に施行された日本国憲法では日本国憲法前文及び日本国憲法第1条で国民主権が定められ、天皇主権は排された（日本国憲法第98条）。
Afterwards, promulgated in 1946 and taking effect the following year, the Constitution of Japan set forth the sovereignty of the people in the preamble as well as Article 1, in turn, abolishing the imperial sovereignty (Article 98 of the Constitution of Japan).

アメリカ海軍の東インド艦隊はかつて来航したことがあったが、そのときはイギリス海軍やロシア海軍艦艇のように帰ったため、今回も同じだろうと考えていた。
The Shogunate believed that the East India Squadron would simply turn back, as they had done once in the past like the British and Russian navy ships.

また、10日ごとに（「延喜式」では毎月1度）市における時価を上中下の3等に分けた（その中でも更に高値安値などの3段階表記をしたため、実質は9等）。
Also, divided prevailing price in the cities into three ranks as upper, middle, lower (each was described as three ranks further such as expensive or cheep, so it was actually nine ranks) every 10 days (once a month in the 'Engishiki' [an ancient book for codes and procedures on national rites and prayers]).

ただし、この「開国和親」表明は外交団に対するものであり、新政府内にも未だ攘夷を支持する者もいることから、国内に対してはその事実を明確にはしなかった。
However, the announcement of 'opening of a country to the world and amity' was made only to the foreign diplomats, and still there were some supporters of Joi within the new government, so that the fact was not disclosed domestically.

編纂が進むにつれてその思想体系などが整備され、やがて水戸学と呼ばれる学問の一派へと成長し、水戸藩士は皆等しく水戸学の尊皇論の影響を受けることとなる。
As the compilation progressed, the system of thought came to be developed, which resulted in the formation of a school of learning called Mitogaku, and all the feudal retainers of Mito Domain were affected by the sonnoron (the thought respecting the Emperors) of the Mitogaku.

そのため海軍の黎明期にはオランダ人が指導の中心となったが、明治新政府に替わってからはイギリス人を顧問に据えることでイギリスに習った海軍運営となった。
As a consequence, in the early days of the Japanese Navy it was primarily Dutchmen who led the way; with the birth of the new Meiji government, however, Englishmen were employed as advisers, and as such, the administration of the Navy followed the British model.

したがって時代によっては、時の将軍が最も信頼する乳母や側室などが、その将軍の絶対権威のみを背景に、奥向き一切を取り仕切っていた場合もあったのである。
Therefore, sometime a wet nurse or concubine of the Shogun at that time were trusted to administer the inner part of the house based on the Shogun's absolute authority.

その背景については、律令制の弛緩による有力者からの圧迫もあるが、弘仁年間が極度の農業不振の時期であったことが『日本後紀』などから明らかになっている。
As for its context, other than the pressures from persons of influence as a result of laxity in the Ritsuryo system, it was the time of slump in agriculture during the Konin era, as was evident from 'Nihon Koki' ('Later Chronicle of Japan') and so on.

新田分知を受けた者であっても江戸幕府からは通常の大名旗本と同様に扱われるが、その領地の治政は多くの場合本家に依存して独自の治績が残ることは希である。
Even those who received shindenbunchi were treated equally as ordinary daimyo or hatamoto, but the administration of their territories was, in most cases, dependent on their head families and their unique administration was a rare case.

『日本政記』など一般向けの歴史書も大友皇子即位説をとったから、幕末の知識人の間で大友天皇の即位は常識化しており、明治時代の初めまでその状態が続いた。
Since general history books, such as 'Nihon Seiki', supported the Prince Otomo enthronement theory, the enthronement of Prince Otomo was a prevailing view among intellectuals at the end of the Edo period and in the early Meiji period.

1719年の朝鮮通信使申維翰の『海遊録』によれば、都（首都）は初め大和にあり、その後豊臣秀吉が大坂に、徳川家康が江戸に移したと認識されていたという。
According to 'Kaiyuroku' written by Sin Yu-han, a member of Chosen Tsushinshi (the Korean Emissary), the capital in Japan was first located in Yamato, and after that Hideoyoshi TOYOTOMI moved it to Osaka and then Ieyasu TOKUGAWA transferred it to Edo.

その後の土御門泰福が陰陽頭になった時（天和 (日本)3年5月（1683年））諸国の陰陽道の支配を土御門家に仰せ付ける旨の「霊元天皇綸旨」が下された。
When the follower, Yasutomi TSUCHIMIKADO assumed the post of Onmyodo head in May 1683, 'Emperor Reigen's Rinji' was issued, stating the control of Onmyodo in all the provinces should be left to the Tsuchimikado family.

また、履中は襲津彦の孫黒姫を后とし市辺押盤皇子を産み、その皇子は襲津彦の曾孫に当たる?媛（はえひめ）を后としてのちの顕宗、仁賢の2天皇を産んでいる。
Emperor Richu married Kurohime, the grandchild of Sotsuhiko, as his wife to have ICHIBE no Oshiwa no Miko who married Haehime, the great-grandchild of Sotsuhiko, as his wife to have the later two emperors, Kenzo and Ninken.

この文字はそれが祀られていたとされる場所の名から「カタカムナ文字」と呼ばれ、その文字を使用していた文明として「カタカムナ文明」が提唱されたのである。
These characters were called 'Katakamuna characters' from the location where they were enshrined and 'Katakamuna Civilization' was advocated as the civilization in which the characters were used.

木津川の合戦に使われた船については信長公記、多聞院日記やオルガンティノの報告書などに記載が見られるが、寸法・装備などその実態については詳らかでない。
Ships used in the battle of the Kizugawa river are described in Shinchoko-ki (Biography of the Warlord Oda Nobunaga), Tamonin nikki diary, Organtino's report and so on, but realities in detail such as its measurements/equipments are unknown.

治承4年（1180年）2月に譲位して上皇となった高倉の最初の社参が、その年の3月から4月上旬にかけて、従来の慣例を破って安芸の厳島神社でおこなわれた。
Takakura, who abdicated the throne and became the retired emperor in March 1180, firstly started Shasan (visit to shrines or temples) in Itsukushima-jinja Shrine in Aki Province, which broke the traditional custom, from April to early May in that year.

その内容は陸海軍の組織と編制などの制度、および勤務規則の設定、人事と職務の決定、出兵と撤兵の命令、戦略の決定、軍事作戦の立案や指揮命令などの権である。
The contents of the power are to establish a regulation of organization or reorganization of the Army-Navy or the working regulations, to decide the personnel affairs and duties, to command dispatch and withdrawal of troops, to decide a strategy, to plan the military operation and to supervise and command.

刑事に関する事項が失効していることは争いはないが、民事に関する事項について現在でも効力が残っているか、残っているとしてその範囲等については争いがある。
While it is widely accepted that provisions with regard to criminal proceedings have lost effect, there are disputes over whether the Fukoku remains valid related to civil disputes, and if so, which are the provisions remaining in effect.

その後任をめぐって旧進歩党_(日本)・旧自由党_(日本)両派の対立は深刻化し、妥協点を見出せないまま、大隈首相は独断で進歩派から犬養毅を後任に推した。
While the confliction over the successor between the both former Progressive and the former Liberal factions (Japan) became worse, it could not reach a compromise, Prime Minister OKUMA recommended Tsuyoshi INUKAI for the successor from the Progressives on his own authority.

ともかく「戦陣訓」には耗弱した軍の組織の反映があり，聡明なる兵隊はそれを読んだ時点で，すでに兵隊そのものの危機を予感したかもしれない。」と述べている。
Anyway, 'Senjinkun military code' reflects the drastically weakened militaty organization, and therefore, a clever soldier would have already expected the crisis of the army when he read it.'

この時、日本正教会がロシアと関係が深かった事から、ニコライ堂とその関連施設も標的になりあわや焼かれる寸前であったが、近衛兵などの護衛により難を逃れた。
At that time, St. Nicholas Church and the related facilities were also targetted and about to be burned out because of the deep relationship between Japan Orthodox Church and Russia, but it was saved by the defence of the Imperial Guards.

そのため、南樺太に施行すべき法律を勅令で定めるほか、施行される法律については勅令により若干の地方的又は種族法的な性質を有する特例を設ける方式を採った。
Thus, laws which should be enforced in Southern Sakhalin were specified by the imperial edicts, and for such laws the edicts also established some exceptions having regional or tribal characteristics.

これは、台湾や朝鮮とは異なり南樺太は内地からの移住者が多かったため、内地からの移住者については内地の法令をそのまま適用するのが相当であったためである。
That's because many residents of Southern Sakhalin were immigrants from the inland unlike Taiwan and Korea, and it was considered proper that the laws of the inland were applied to the immigrants without modifications.

家督相続によって戸主となった者は廃絶家がその本家である場合に限って裁判所の許可を得て現在の家を廃家したうえ本家を再興することができる（旧民法762条）
A person became a head of a family according to succession to family headship can only revive own head family after being permitted by a law court and abolishing the current household (the Old Civil Codes, Article 762).

討たれた家の者も、ともかくは面目を保て、時章の子や孫は家格は下がったとはいえ、幕府に一応の要職を得られ、その波紋を最小限に食い止めることが出来ている。
The face of the family of the killed (Toshiaki) could be kept anyway, and Toshiaki's children and grandchildren were given certain important governmental posts, keeping the repercussions to a minimum, though their family statuses were lowered.

そう読むかどうかは、後世の『保暦間記』に軸足を置くか、それとも数日遅れで京に伝わった、その範囲でリアルタイムな記録に軸足を置くかによって変わってくる。
Whether you consider the above description right or not depends on whether you place importance on descriptions in 'Horyakukanki' of after ages or on the real-time information received in Kyoto in several days' delays.

第一条　この法律は、東京都を新しく我が平和国家の首都として十分にその政治、経済、文化等についての機能を発揮し得るよう計画し、建設することを目的とする。
Article 1: This law aims to plan and construct Tokyo Metropolis so as to develop fully the functions of politics, economy and culture of Tokyo as the capital of the peace state.

そして、その調査結果をふまえて、建前としての酒造株高ではなく、酒屋に申告させた酒造石高を基準として酒の生産量を三分の一にするようにという法度を発した。
Based on the investigation results, the bakufu issued an act to reduce sake production to one-third according not to shuzokabu amount which was only a nominal one, but to sake brewing kokudaka breweries had declared.

軍用手票（ぐんようしゅひょう）とは、戦争時において占領地もしくは勢力下にて軍隊が現地からの物資調達及びその他の支払いのために発行される擬似紙幣である。
Gunyoshuhyo is pseudo currency issued during wars for military forces to pay for commodities and other necessaries in its occupying areas or areas under their control.

これに基づき、別系統の宋本で補った『四部叢刊三編』（上海市商務印書館,1935年）所収の景宋本、および、その重印本（中華書局,1960年）が見られる。
Based on these, there are 景宋本 which was included in '四部叢刊三編' (Shanghai City Commercial Press, 1935) supplemented by books printed in Sung which belonged to other lines and its 重印本 (Zhonghua Book Company, 1960).

その結果、諸侯の蔵屋敷が大坂に集まるようになり、藩の年貢米・産物を大坂で売却して江戸や領国における政治運営の費用に充てるという構図が形成されるに至った。
As a result, the feudal lords were encouraged to build a storehouse attached to the residence in Osaka and trade rice and other goods brought from their domains in order to cover their cost of administration in Edo as well as in the respective domains.

日本では、当時の唐の升を導入し、大升を約0.71リットル（新京升の約0.4倍）、その3分の1の小升を約0.24リットル（同0.1倍）としたとの説がある。
Japan introduced the sho of the Tang Dynasty, and established both the unit of daisho (larger sho) that had the volume of about 0.71 liters (about 0.4 size of the new kyomasu [masu mainly used in Kyoto]) and the unit of shomasu (smaller sho) that had the volume of about 0.24 liters (a third of daisho, and about a 10th size of the new kyomasu), a theory says.

6月19日、教育勅語などと共に、衆議院の「教育勅語等排除に関する決議」および参議院の「教育勅語等の失効確認に関する決議」によって、その失効が確認された。
On June 19, 'Resolution on eliminating Imperial Rescript on Education and others' by the House of Representatives and 'Resolution on confirming the lapse of Imperial Rescript on Education and others' by the House of Councilors confirmed it became null and void along with Imperial Rescript on Education

もはや鏡山案はそのままの形では成り立たない状況となっており、上記のような発掘成果を受けた新たな条坊復元案が金田章裕や井上信正などによって提示されている。
Currently the Kagamiyama proposal cannot be supported any more as it is, and newer jobo reconstruction proposals based on the result of excavation described above are presented by Akihiro KINDA, Nobumasa INOUE, and others.

武田氏滅亡後、本能寺の変の混乱を経て甲斐国は徳川家康によって平定されるが、その折に武田家の旧臣達を配属されたのが徳川四天王にも数えられる井伊直政である。
After Takeda clan ruined, Kai Province was conquered by Ieyasu TOKUGAWA by way of the disorder of Honnoji Incident, at the time, the old retainers of the Takeda Family were alloted to Naomasa II, counted one of the Tokugawa-shitenno (four generals serving Tokugawa Ieyasu).

古くは縄文時代の終わり、約2500年前頃よりアジア大陸から、春秋時代やその後の戦国時代 (中国)にかけての混乱と戦災を避けて日本に渡ってきたと思われる。
It seems that they came to Japan avoiding turmoil and war damage of the Chunqiu period to the later Warring States period (in China) from the Asian Continent about 2500 years ago, at the end of the Jomon period in days gone by.

それまで国政を全面委任されていた幕府に対し、朝廷から改革の指示が下るという前代未聞の事態に幕府内は混乱するが、結局その大部分を受け入れざるを得なかった。
For the bakufu which had been fully entrusted with the administration of the country, being ordered to reform by the imperial court was an unprecedented event and the bakufu got confused, but it had to finally accept almost all of the order.

その反面、国鉄の保有する車輌は蒸気機関車だけでも174形式1118両、客車3067両、貨車20884両におよび、運用・整備・修理に大きな困難が発生した。
On the other hand, it amassed a huge fleet of trains with 1,118 Model 174 locomotives, 3,067 passenger trains, 20,884 cargo trains and consequently faced an enormous difficulty for operation, maintenance, and repair.

第2条は、政治の中枢となる首都の設置、畿内・令制国・郡といった地方行政組織の整備とその境界画定、中央と地方を結ぶ駅伝制の確立などについて定めるものである。
Article 2 was to stipulate the establishment of the capital as the political center, the organizations of local administrative offices in Kinai (regions surrounding the capital city), Ryoseikoku (provinces) and counties, the border demarcation between the regions, and the establishment of ekiden-sei (the transportation system) to connect the capital with the other regions.

飛鳥池遺跡そのものが飛鳥寺の傍に存在しており、同寺または「造飛鳥寺司」と称される同寺造営のための臨時の官庁（造寺司）の関連施設と考えるのが適当であること。
The Asukaikekobo ruins are located beside Asuka-dera Temple and it is appropriate to consider that the ruins were the affiliated facilities of either Asuka-dera Temple or a temporary authority (Zojishi [officials in charge of building temples]) called 'Zo Asuka-dera jishi.'

菱沼一憲（国立歴史民俗博物館科研協力員）は著書「源義経の合戦と戦略 ―その伝説と実像―」（角川選書、2005年）で、この合戦について以下の説を述べている。
Kazunori HISHINUMA (research partnership member of the National Museum of Japanese History) stated his theory on this battle in his book, 'The battle and strategy of MINAMOTO no Yoshitsune: His legend and real image' (Kadokawa Sensho, published in 2005), as follows.

その後、神祇官末期に設置された宣教使による大教宣布を強化するために、わずか半年で教部省に改称され、宮中祭祀は分離されて宮内省式部寮に移されることとなった。
Following the creation of the Ministry of Divinities, a mere six months later its name was changed to kyobusho (Ministry of Religion) in order to disseminate further the Imperial Edict (of 1870) for the Establishment of Shinto through the efforts of the senkyoshi (Shinto missionaries) who had been established in the final days of the Department of Divinities; the religious services of the Imperial Court were separated from this Ministry's jurisdiction and placed under the control of the shikiburyo (Bureau of Rites) of the Imperial Household Agency.

その一方で、重商主義から来る金銭崇拝的傾向が瀰漫し、賄賂政治が横行したとされ、また幕府伝統の重農主義を重んずる松平定信ら譜代大名から反撥されるようになる。
Meanwhile, his mercantilism is said to have caused prevalence of mammonism and graft, and this began to meet a resentment of 'fudai daimyo,' including Sadanobu MATSUDAIRA, who put a high value on physiocracy that the Edo bakufu conventionally had taken.

今後は（紫衣を許された住職の能力を以て）紫衣を与えるべきかどうかを良く選別し、その住職が紫衣を与えるに相応しい住職である事が分かれば紫衣を与えるべきである。
From now on, talents and abilities of the chief priest for the purple robe should be examined and only those who deserves should be allowed to wear the purple robe.

しかしながら、次第に年寄の上層部が家老として、分化するようになり、年寄と呼称される役職は、家老そのものではなく、家老に次ぐ役職である場合が一般化していった。
However, over time, the upper class officers in Toshiyori posts came to be distinguished as Karo officers, and generally, most Toshiyori did not become Karo itself but the next post down.

その建築様式は合理的な構造、豪放な意匠で大仏殿にはふさわしいものであったが、日本人の好む穏やかな空間とは相容れない面もあり、重源が死去すると大仏様も衰えた。
Although the architectural style, incorporating rational structure and a bold design, was suitable for the Great Buddha Hall, it was incompatible with the Japanese preference for a serene space, and so Daibutsu-yo lost popularity after the death of Chogen.
The architectural style is practical in structure and bold in design, which was ideally suited for housing the Great Buddha statue, but there were aspects that conflicted with the Japanese fondness of gentle spaces, and the daibutsu-yo style went into decline following Chogen's death.

大奥は時代が下るにつれて規模が肥大化し、それに伴って数多くの役職が置かれていったが、その頂点に立つのが上臈御年寄や御年寄といった取締役（統括管理職）だった。
The scale of O-oku increased in later times, many posts were established and at the top of such posts were managers (umbrella administrator) like Joro Otoshiyori and Otoshiyori.

その中で使い古された具足を身に付けている者達を発見し、「あの者らは甲州からの家臣団であろう」と言い、確認が取れると「あれこそが本来の赤備え」と言ったという。
Ieyasu is said to have told, discovering some warriors in worn-out armor among them, like 'Those warriors should be the vassals from Koshu.', and after the confirmation, 'That is a real Akazonae.'

このような場合でも、ただ「出雲」や「長門」とだけ言えば出雲国や長門国を指すことになるので、その市町村を指すときには常に「市」や「町」を付けなければならない。
When the old provincial names are adopted, 'city' or 'town' must be attached to avoid misunderstanding; for example, if someone just says 'Izumo,' or 'Nagato,' these names mean Izumo Province and Nagato Province respectively; therefore, if the speaker means Izumo City or Nagato City, he needs to speak the entire name without omitting 'city.'

近隣諸国との関係が悪化する中でも民間や地方ベースでは交易が続けられており、とくに江南地方は経済拡大が続いていたこともあって、その規模はむしろ発展していった。
Although the relationship with neighboring countries was worsened, trade among ordinary citizens continued, and Japan's trade with the Jiagnan region was getting especially prosperous with the development of its economy.

当時、条約の未締結国であった清国から神戸に渡ってきた華僑は、居留地には住むことができず、その西側に多く住み着き、南京町 (神戸)といった中華街を築いていった。
Chinese abroad who came to Kobe from Qing with which Japan had not signed a treaty at that time, were not allowed to live in The Former Foreign Settlement, settling on its west side, building Chinatowns called Nanjing-machi Town (Kobe).

寛永5年（1628年）：目付豊島明重が、西の丸表御殿で縁談のもつれから老中井上正就に斬りつけ、正就と制止しようとした青木忠精を殺害し、その場で自害した豊島事件
1628: the Toshima incident, in which Inspector Akishige TOSHIMA attacked a member of the Shogun's council of elders, Masanari INOUE, in nishi no maru palace (a castle compound to the west of the main compound) with his sword due to complications caused by an offer of marriage and killed Masanari as well Tadakiyo AOKI who was trying to stop him and committed suicide.

賠償金は1912年に清朝が滅亡した後も、清朝を引き継いだ国家とみなされた中華民国にそのまま負わされ、中央政権が軟弱な基盤しか持ちえなかった理由の一つとなった。
Even after the Qing dynasty perished, the reparations were succeeded by the Republic of China because it was considered to be a nation that succeeded the Qing dynasty, and that was one of reasons that the central government had weak foundations.

そのため、『弘仁格』編纂段階において、面積制限の規定が削除されていたために当該部分を削除した文章が採録され、それが『類聚三代格』に採用されたと考えられている。
Therefore, stipulations on the restriction of space was deleted at the time when 'Koninkyaku' (collection of various Imperial orders issued during Konin era) was compiled, and the sentence without restriction clause were recorded on the Koninkyaku, which are believed to have been adopted in 'Ruijusandaikyaku.'

明治時代以前の日本には、国の中に国と同じ名を持つ郡はあっても、同じ名を持つ町や村は存在しなかったので、そのほとんどは近代以降に作られた新地名ということになる。
In Japan before the Meiji period there existed names of counties that were the same with the provincial names within the provinces; however there was no towns and villages that had the same names with the provincial names; therefore, it turns out that the names of towns and villages that are the same with the provincial names are almost all new place names made after the modern times.

整備なった大輪田泊をそのうちに取り込む「和田京」造営計画は地形的制約もあって計画のみに終わったが、清盛は、大輪田泊を見下ろす山麓に福原京を築いて遷都を強行した。
The construction plan of 'Wada-kyo', including Owada no tomari in good condition, ended in just a plan because of geographical constraints, but Kiyomori forced the capital relocation by building Fukuhara-kyo in the foothills overlooking Owada no tomari.

しかし吉良か上杉の間者が聞き耳を立てていたので口頭で討ち入りのことを伝えることはできず、その場では「他家に仕官するので最後に殿にご焼香させてください」と述べた。
However, he was unable to verbally tell her about the raid, since the spies of the Kira and Uesugi families were listening in, and told her 'please let me offer incense for my lord for the last time, as I will be working for another family.'

平城朝においては観察使制度の設置等政治改革に積極的に取り組み、嵯峨朝を経て旅子を母とする淳和天皇が即位するとその外伯父として累進し、右大臣ついで左大臣に至った。
During the Emperor Heizei era, FUJIWARA no Otsugu worked on political reforms, including establishment of the system of inspecting local governments, and rose to higher positions during the era of Emperor Junna (emperor after Saga) as uncle of Emperor (mother of Emperor Junna was FUJIWARA no Tabiko, sister of Otsugu), eventually was appointed to Udaijin (Minister of the Right) and Sadaijin (Minister of the Left) in a row.

稲田側こうした一連の行動に怒った本藩側の一部過激派藩士らが、明治3年5月13日_(旧暦)（1870年6月11日）、洲本城下の稲田家とその藩士らの屋敷を襲撃した。
One group of radical retainers on the Honpan side, who got upset about a series of unacceptable conduct of the INADA side, attacked the residences of the Inada family's and their retainers' near the Sumoto-jo Castle on June 11, 1870.

ところが明治天皇は黒田の辞表のみを受理して、他の閣僚には引き続きその任に当たることを命じるとともに、内大臣の三條實美に内閣総理大臣を兼任させて内閣を存続させた。
However, Emperor Meiji didn't accept the resignation except KURODA's, and ordered the other ministers to stay in their positions and newly appointed Sanetomi SANJO as Prime Minister keeping him as Minister of the center, in order to maintain the cabinet.

法令等において日本の外地を植民地と呼称した例としては、昭和7年9月3日予算外国庫ノ負担トナルベキ契約ヲ為スヲ要スル件に使用例があるが、その他には殆どみられない。
For example, Japan's overseas territory is referred to as a colony in 'Requirements for making contracts borne by the national coffers' issued on September 3, 1932, but few other laws or regulations call such territory a colony.

この「生類憐れみの令」は、幕府の権威の失墜につながらないよう、「徳川禁令考」など、幕府やその関係者が編纂した法令集からは意図的に削除されているともいわれている。
It is said that the 'law prohibiting cruelty to animals' was intentionally deleted from the collection of laws compiled by the Shogunate, so as not to damage the Shogunate's authority.

考古学上の成果によると、一般的な城柵は小高い丘上に官衙が設置され、その周辺に鎮兵の住居を配置し、周囲を土塁、材木列塀などを巡らし、望楼を設けて防御を固めている。
According to archaeological findings, a general josaku was consisted of an office mounted on an elevated hill, around which the residents of soldiers were located, with earthen walls and fences made of lumber around them, as wells as watchtowers to reinforce defenses.

しかし大石の討ち入りが成功したという報を聞き、大野は歓喜してその場で自害したとするもの（実際に板谷峠に大野の墓が現存しているが、後世の人間に作られたといわれる）。
When he received the news that Oishi's raid ended in success, he was very delighted and committed suicide there (although Ono's grave is at Itaya Ridge, it is said that it was created by people years later.)

しかし、その後の国際情勢の変転に伴い、1950年（昭和25年）には、軍隊に匹敵する装備を持つ警察予備隊が創設され、この事務を掌理するため警察予備隊本部が置かれた。
However, due to the change in international situations, the National Police Reserve, which had equal equipment as the Army, was formed and the National Police Army Head Quarters was created to manage its administration.

万治2年（1659年）、幕府は寛永通寳の輸出を禁止したため、長崎市中島銭座では貿易取引専用に中国の銭貨を模した銅銭を鋳造し、その一連の銭貨は長崎貿易銭と呼ばれる。
As the bakufu prohibited Kanei Tsuho from being exported in 1659, zeniza in Nakajima, Nagasaki City minted copper coins imitating Chinese coins only for the purpose of international trade, and those coins were called Nagasaki Boeki-sen.

訳：輿に乗る者は、徳川一門、国主、大名の息子、城主、侍従以上の嫡子、50歳以上の者、医者、陰陽道の者、病人等許可されている者に限り、その他の者は乗せてはならない。
Translation: Only those with permission may ride a palanquin, such as the Tokugawa family, landed daimyo, the sons of daimyo, castle lords, legitimate children of rank higher than jiju (chamberlain), people over fifty, doctors, men of Onmyodo (the way of Yin and Yang), the sick and so on.

この事件により、一時、外国軍が神戸中心部を占拠するに至るなどの動きにまで発展したが、その際に問題を起こした隊の責任者であった滝善三郎が切腹する事で一応の解決を見た。
This incident expanded to the temporal occupation of the center of Kobe by the foreign military, but the person in charge of the troop that caused the incident, Zenzaburo TAKI, committed suicide by disembowelment, which led to a tentative solution.

そのうち堀部武庸（太刀）、礒貝正久（槍）、倉橋武幸、杉野次房、赤埴重賢、三村包常、菅谷政利、大石信清（槍）、村松高直（槍）、寺坂信行の10士が吉良邸内へと突入した。
There were ten people who broke into Kira's property; Taketsune HORIBE (sword), Masahisa ISOGAI (spear), Takeyuki KURAHASHI, Tsugifusa SUGINO, Shigetaka AKABANE, Kanetsune MINOMURA, Masatoshi SUGAYA, Nobukiyo OISHI (spear), Takanao MURAMATSU (spear) and Nobuyuki TERASAKA.

元赤穂藩士たち、およびその子孫は町人からさえ「義挙に加わらなんだ不忠者」と蔑まれ、味噌、醤油さえ売ってもらえず、出自を隠して変名を名乗るほかなかったとも伝えられる。
The former Ako retainers and their descendants were labeled as 'unfaithful retainers who did not participate in the heroic deed' and were looked down upon even from commoners, and they had to hide their place of birth and change their names because they were unable to buy even miso or soy sauce.

しかし、嵯峨朝以降式家は徐々に北家に圧倒されていくが、その一因として、良継の一人息子である藤原託美の事故死による、平城・嵯峨両天皇の外戚である良継系の断絶があった。
However, Fujiwara Shikike gradually went under and was overwhelmed by Fujiwara Hokke after the era of Emperor Saga, partly due to the extinction of the Yoshitsugu family (maternal relatives to Emperor Heizei and Emperor Saga) caused by the death of FUJIWARA no Takumi, the only son of Yoshitsugu.

そのため、世論の非難（日本内部）が高まり、暴徒と化した民衆によって内務大臣 (日本)官邸、御用新聞と目されていた国民新聞社、交番などが焼き討ちされる事件が起こった。
Because of this, the criticism increased in the public opinion (inside of Japan), and the people who turned into a mob burned out the official residence of Minister of Home Affairs, Kokumin Shinbunsya which was regarded as a pro-government newspaper company, police stations and so on.

『保暦間記』の記述は『鎌倉将軍執権列伝』（安田元久編、1974年）内の「執権北条貞時」（五味克夫）313頁にあり、その他の史料でどう書かれているかも紹介されている。
The descriptions in 'Horyakukanki' are included in 'Shikken Sadatoki HOJO' (written by Katsuo GOMI), on the 313th page of 'The lives of shikken to shoguns in the Kamakura period' (compiled by Motohisa YASUDA in 1974), where descriptions of the incident in other historical documents are included as well.

その内容は、安政の大獄の処分者の赦免および復権、前越前藩主松平慶永の大老就任、徳川慶喜を征夷大将軍後見とする、過激派尊攘浪士を厳しく取り締まる、などから成っていた。
The contents of the petition included the remission and reinstatement of those punished due to Ansei no Taigoku (suppression of extremists by the shogunate), Yoshinaga MATSUDAIRA, former lord of the Echizen Domain, to assume Tario (chief minister), Yoshinobu TOKUGAWA to act as guardian for Seii Taishogun (literally, 'great general who subdues the barbarians', also called as Shogun) and the crackdown of the roshi who radically supported Sonno joi.

しかし無論、儒教思想がそのまま取り入れられた訳ではなく、儒学の中では『四書』の一つとして重要視されている『孟子』を、国体にそぐわないものであると評価する思想家も多い。
However, it is not just an adoption of Confucian thought and many of the thinkers evaluated 'Moshi (Mencius)' which was emphasized as one of the 'The Four Books of Confucianism' that were unsuitable for national policy.

その為、居住国国民であり、居住国に忠誠を誓っている事を示す目的で、一世や二世である親がわざと日本語を教えなかったり、日本文化を継承させない環境で育った世代が存在する。
Some generations were not made by their parents to inherit Japanese culture because their parents, who were first or second generations, chose not to teach their children Japanese in order to show allegiance to their country of residence.

とりわけ、鵜飼吉左衛門から安島帯刀宛への書簡には井伊直弼暗殺の秘事が記されていたとされ、幕府にその内容が漏洩したことで安政の大獄ではより厳重な処分となったといわれる。
Especcially, the letter from Kichizaemon UGAI to Tatewaki AJIMA was said that it contained the secret conspiracy to assassinate Naosuke II, and the leakage of its contents resulted in receiving stricter punishment in the Ansei no Taigoku.

灯油などを入れるプラスチック製の容器（通称：ポリタンク）は一斗缶の代替として作られたものであり、その容積は1斗（18リットル）か、それより少し多い20リットルである。
The plastic tank for storing kerosene and other liquid (commonly called poli-tank [polystyrene tank]) was made as a replacement for Ittokan, of which volume is 1 to (18 liters) or a bit larger, 20 liters.

その実態は1930年代に存在していた道路や畦道に基づく「机上の復元案」といえるものであるが、大宰府に条坊制による街区の存在を指摘し、学界に注意を喚起した功績は大きい。
The actual state was 'a desk reconstruction plan' based on streets and causeways that existed in the 1930s, but its achievements to point out existence of city blocks in jobosei and to promote awareness of the academic society are significant.

その後、1967年にドン・ファンの息子に当たるフアン・カルロス1世 (スペイン王)が皇太子に指名され、1975年にフランコが死去するとブルボン家による王制が復活した。
Subsequently in 1967, Juan Carlos I (King of Spain), a child of Don Juan, was nominated as a Crown Prince who the revived monarchy of Bourbon family after Franco died in 1975.

当時の根本法令であった律令においては、原則として国の土地は全て国有地であり、公の土地を民衆へ耕作割り当てを行い（口分田）、その収穫から徴税する（租）と規定されていた。
According to the Ritsuryo Code which was the fundamental law at the time, all the land in the country were, in principle, state-owned, and such public lands were allotted to common people for their cultivation (this allotment was called 'kubunden'), and it was stipulated that the collection of taxes be made from their harvests (this tax was called 'so').

その結果、西郷や板垣らの征韓派は一斉に下野（征韓論政変または明治六年政変）し、1874年の佐賀の乱から1877年の西南戦争に至る士族反乱や自由民権運動の起点となった。
In consequence, Saigo, Itagaki and others who supported Seikanron went into opposition (this incident is called the 'Seikanron Coup' or the 'Coup of 1873'), and they became leaders of the revolt by Shizoku (family or person with samurai ancestors) from Saga War in 1874 to Satsuma Rebellion or the Freedom and People's Right Movement.

そのような状況下で、消極論者の右大臣岩倉具視を擁しながら、漸進的な伊藤博文・井上馨（長州閥）とやや急進的な大隈重信（参議・大蔵卿・肥前藩出身）を中心に運営されていた。
Under the condition, the dispute regarding introduction of constitutional government system was led by Tomomi IWAKURA, Minister of the Right, who was in a passive attitude, Hirobumi ITO and Kaoru INOUE, who aimed gradual introduction (Choshu clique), and Shigenobu OKUMA (Sangi, Okura-kyo [Minister of the Treasury], from Hizen Domain), who aimed earlier introduction.

たとえば、倭屯倉は、垂仁朝や景行朝に大王自らが設置したと『記・紀』に伝えられているもので、その地は現在の奈良県磯城郡三宅町の地を中心とした一帯であると推定されている。
For example, the 'Kiki' says the great kings of Suinin and Keiko dynasties were personally involved in the process of establishing Yamato miyake in the area believed to be the surrounding area of today's Miyake-cho, Shiki-gun, Nara Prefecture.

アメリカ側の記述によると、最後に本来ならメニューを持ち帰るべきところを料理その物を懐紙に包んでもって帰り、しかも、様々な料理を一緒くたに包んでいた事に驚いた、という.
According to a recorded account by one of the Americans, the Japanese guests wrapped their food in kaishi (paper carried inside one's kimono) and returned home with it--a practice that surprised the Americans.

建国当初の宋通元宝にはじまり、歴代の改元のたびに、その年号をつけた新銭を鋳造したため、太平通宝・淳化元宝・至道元宝・咸平元宝・景徳元宝・祥符元宝といった銅銭が見られる。
Starting with Song Yan Tong Bao, which was minted around the founding days, every time they changed the name of an era, they minted new coins with its name, which resulted in the variations of copper coins such as Tai Ping Tong Bao, Chun Hua Tong Bao, Zhi Dao Yuan Bao, Xian Ping Yuan Bao, Jing De Yuan Bao and Xiang Fu Yuan Bao.

そのうち片岡高房（槍）、富森正因（槍）、武林隆重（槍）、奥田重盛（太刀）、矢田助武（槍）、勝田武堯（槍）、吉田兼貞、岡島常樹、小野寺秀富の9士で吉良邸内へ突入している。
There were nine members who broke into Kira's property; Takafusa KATAOKA (spear), Masayori TOMINOMORI (spear), Takashige TAKABAYASHI (spear), Shigemori OKUDA (sword), Suketake YADA (spear), Taketaka KATSUTA (spear), Kanesada YOSHIDA, Tsuneki OKAJIMA and Hidetomi ONODERA

たとえば、越前国の敦賀氏、熱田大宮司家らが藤原氏から養子を迎えて「藤原朝臣」を名乗ったり、それらの氏の女子をめとり母系によって「藤原朝臣」その他の氏姓を称した例もある。
For example, the Tsuruga clan of Echizen Province, the Atsuta-Daiguji family adopted a son from the Fujiwara clan and called themselves Fujiwara Ason; also they took the daughter of the Fujiwara clan in marriage and named 'Fujiwara Ason' by the maternal line; examples of other clan names and hereditary titles also exist.

一国（この場合の「国」は令制国でもあり、大名の領国（後の藩）のことでもある）に大名が居住あるいは政庁とする一つの城を残してその他の城はすべて廃城にするというものである。
This decree stipulated disposal of all castles except one castle for feudal lord's residence or government office in one province (the province here means not only a province but also feudal lord's territory [subsequent domain]).

カマドは時代が下るごとに発達し、「壁」の外へ向かって張り出していくようになるが、実際には竪穴住居の堀くぼめた部分が狭まってそのぶんカマドが発達していると考えられている。
The stove developed over time and began to protrude outward beyond the wall, but this is believed to have been a development resulting from the pit dug into the dwelling becoming narrower.

しかし、その後の経済発展により生じた銭貨不足を補うため、明暦2年（1656年）、幕府は江戸浅草鳥越 (台東区)および駿河国沓谷（くつのや）に銭座を設け鋳銭を命じている。
In 1656, however, in order to make up for scarcity of coins due to the subsequent economic development, the bakufu established zeniza in Torigoe, Asakusa, Edo (Taito Ward) and in Kutsunoya, Suruga Province and ordered mintage.

堺は「檻房中にて唯（ただ）昏睡し居り」、小暮は「房内にて突然癪を起して苦しみ居るも、何等の手術も施さず其儘（そのまま）に打捨て置」かれた（6月26日付け東京二六新聞）。
SAKAI 'simply lay in a coma in his cell,' and KOGURE 'suddenly had a fit and writhed in agony but was left as she was without any treatment.' (the article as of June 26 in Tokyo Niroku Newspaper).

このため、後鳥羽天皇は退位時にこれまでの慣例であった在位中の昇殿をそのまま院御所に持ち込む規定を取りやめて80名近い殿上人を44名に削減する「リストラ」を断行している。
Therefore, Emperor Gotoba, by canceling a rule of bringing the shoden in his reign into the ingosho, which had been a custom, performed 'restructuring' at his abdication, reducing tenjobito from nearly 80 to 44.

しかしながら、その解釈は鎌倉時代末期から南北朝時代 (日本)のもので、同時代の『実躬卿記』の同年5月8日条にも「凡珍事々々」とある通り、北条一門の暗闘の真相は不明である。
However, the interpretation was made in the era from towards the end of the Kamakura period to the period of the Northern and Southern Courts (in Japan), and as described 'a very strange incident' in the article on May 8, the same year, in 'Sanemikyoki' (Kugyo (top court official) Sanemi's diary), the truth of secret feuds in the Hojo clan is unclear.

酒株は、同一国内であれば譲渡や貸借も許されたので、酒屋が経営不振になったり、相続人がいない場合、近くの有力酒屋がその酒株を買い集めて、経営規模を拡大することがよくあった。
Sakekabu was allowed to be transferred and leased within the same province, so when a sake brewery faced financial trouble or did not have an heir, the dominant sake brewery in the neighborhood often bought sakekabu of those troubled breweries to expand its operations.

更に『続日本紀』の和銅2年7月1日 (旧暦)（ユリウス暦709年8月10日）の条に出羽柵に武器を運搬したとの記載があることから、その時点には出羽柵が存在したことがわかる。
Additionally, since an article dated August 14, 709 of 'Shoku Nihongi' (Chronicle of Japan Continued) records that weapons were transported to Dewa no Ki, it is suggested that Dewa no Ki had existed by then.

天孫降臨の時に先導を行った天忍日命（あめのおしひのみこと）の子孫とされ、佐伯氏とは同族関係であるとされている（一般には佐伯氏を大伴氏の分家とするが、その逆とする説もある）。
It is said that the clan descended from Ameno Oshihi-no-Mikoto, who served as a guide in Tensonkorin (the descent to Earth of the grandson of the Sun Goddess) and had a kindred relationship with the Saeki clan (the Saeki clan was generally regarded as a branch family of the Otomo clan, though some say the opposite is true).

耳塚　豊臣秀吉による文禄・慶長の役の際、海を隔てて首しるしを持ち帰れないために、その代わりとして持ち帰った耳を集めて葬ったものと伝えられる塚で、首塚と同様の意味合いをもつ。
Mimizuka (tomb of ears) is a tomb where the ears of the killed persons in the Bunroku-Keicho War were said to be gathered and buried as the substitute of heads, because it was impossible to bring back the severed heads from overseas; it has the same meaning as Kubizuka.

その他に弾正忠を称した武将としては戦国きっての梟雄・松永久秀や武田氏家臣の三弾正こと高坂昌信（逃げ弾正）、真田幸隆（攻め弾正）、保科正俊（槍弾正）などが特に知られている。
In addition to Nobunaga, the well-known busho (Japanese military commander) who called themselves danjo no chu are Hidehisa MATSUNAGA who was one of the most fierce warriors in Sengoku period (period of warring states) and the three danjo in the vassals of Takeda clan: Masanobu KOSAKA (the nige [fleeing] danjo), Yukitaka SANADA (the seme [offensive] danjo) and Masatoshi HOSHINA (the yari [spear] danjo).

この地方統治構造の変化と共に登場した武士は、その初期の一部において、例えば平将門などのように豪族的な性格を持つものであるが、古代史と同様な意味合いでの豪族しては扱われない。
Samurai appeared along with this change in the structure of local governance, and some had a character of Gozoku like TAIRA no Masakado, in part of the initial stages, but were not treated as Gozoku in the meaning same as that in the ancient history.

再興した者はその家の戸主となり廃絶家の氏を称するが、廃絶家前の財産など各種の権利を引き継ぐ訳ではないため、単に家の名を残し、本家と分家といった家系を残す程度の効果しかない。
A person who revived a household can be the head of the family and refer to the name of the abolished family, but won't be given property, so the meaning of restoration of a family is to take over the name and retain the family line such as a head family and a branch family.

銅鏡は宝器として珍重され、後期になって副葬され始めるようになった後漢鏡は、不老長寿への祈りを込めた文が刻まれ、その鏡を持った人は長寿や子孫の繁栄が約されるというものだった。
While it was a highly appreciated treasure equipment, mirrors of the Later Han, which came to be buried together with others in the late Yayoi period, had the engraved prayer for perpetual youth and longevity, meaning those who had got the mirror were guaranteed for longevity and fertility.

この報告を受ける形で1886年1月26日、3県及び北海道事業管理局を統廃合して内務省 (日本)管轄の北海道庁に移行する廃県置庁が行われることになり、3県はその役目を終えた。
Based on this report, the three prefectures and Hokkaido Works Administration Bureau were reorganized into the Hokkaido government which was under the Ministry of Home Affairs on January 26, 1886 and the three prefectures went out of existence.

後漢で1.98リットルに一度減るが、その後は魏 (三国)・西晋で2.02リットル、隋・唐で5.94リットルなどと増え続け、明代には10.74リットルとほぼ現代と同じになった。
In the age of the Later Han Dynasty, 1 to was reduced to 1.98 liters, but after that, the size continued to grow as 1 to was set at 2.02 liters in the age of the Wei and West Jin Dynasties, 5.94 liters in the age of the Sui and Tang Dynasties, and was set at 10.74 liters, which was almost the same size as present, in the age of the Ming Dynasty.

その報告を受けて、孝謙天皇は仲麻呂を傍らに置いて、塩焼王、安宿王、黄文王、橘奈良麻呂、大伴古麻呂を前に「謀反の企てがあるとの報告があるが自分は信じない」との宣命を読み上げた。
After receiving the report from the hearing, Empress Koken, with Nakamaro beside him, read an imperial edict in front of Prince Shioyaki, Prince Asukabe, Prince Kibumi, TACHIBANA no Naramaro and OTOMO no Komaro that established her disbelief in the conspiracy even though there was a report that confirmed the ensuing rebellion.

その直後に朝鮮半島で起きた起きた東学党の乱への軍事介入を機に日清戦争が始まると、広島市に大本営と帝国議会を移して戦時体制を確立し、日本を勝利に導いて清国と下関条約を締結した。
Immediately after that, when Sino-Japanese War broke out starting with military intervention to Donghak-to disturbance occurred in the Korean Peninsula, ITO transferred the Imperial headquarters and Imperial Diet to Hiroshima City to establish the wartime regime and led Japan to victory and concluded Treaty of Shimonoseki with Qing.

ただこういった形態は一度に持ち歩ける商品も限られ、また売り歩ける面積も限られるため、明治時代から大正時代・昭和とその姿を減らし、日本国内ではほとんど見ることができなくなった。
However, since the amount of goods which could be carried at a time and the area a vendor could cover were limited, the number of those vendors decreased through Meiji, Taisho, and Showa eras, and now, it is almost impossible to find those vendors.

逆に無株者酒屋の中には、それまで買い揃えた醸造器などをこのまま無駄にしてはなるものかと、休株にしている株持ち酒屋から、その株を高価でゆずってくれと水面下で募る者もあらわれた。
On the contrary, behind the scenes some mukabumono breweries asked for kabumochi breweries who held yasumikabu to give them sakekabu at a high price in order not to let brewing barrels and other equipment they had bought go to waste.

第二次世界大戦前まで支配的であった万世一系という概念に対する批判・懐疑から生まれたもので、昭和27年に水野祐が唱えた三王朝交替説がその最初のものでありかつ代表的なものである。
The changes of dynasties theories were born out of criticism and doubt against the concept of the unbroken imperial line which was dominant in Japan before the World War II, in which a changes of three dynasties theory, advocated by Yu MIZUNO in 1952 for the first time, was representative.

この時代は、前の天皇、文徳天皇朝で人臣初めて（藤原仲麻呂・道鏡は除く）の太政大臣に就任した藤原良房とその養子（甥）の藤原基経が、初期摂関政治等藤原氏の権勢を固めた時代だった。
During the period, FUJIWARA no Yoshifusa, who was the first subject appointed as Daijo-daijin (Grand Minister) in the reign of the former Emperor Montoku (except FUJIWARA no Nakamaro and Dokyo) and his adopted child (nephew) FUJIWARA no Mototsune attained the ascendancy of the Fujiwara clan including early Sekkanseiji (the power of Sekkan, meaning regents and advisers, governs the country) and so on.

11月29日 (旧暦)（1703年1月16日）、大石内蔵助は、赤坂今井の三次藩下屋敷にいる浅野長矩正室瑤泉院の用人落合勝信宛で赤穂藩藩金の使用明細書とその傍証資料を送っている。
On January 16, 1703, Kuranosuke OISHI sent a full statement and supporting evidence showing how much Ako Domain money they used, to the lord chamberlain of Naganori ASANO's wife Yozenin, Katsunobu OCHIAI who was in the Sanji domain owned a residence in Akasaka Imai.

その立場に変化が現れたのは、6代将軍徳川家宣の時代で、家宣が、御台所･天英院の父･近衛基煕を儀礼指南役として重用し敬意を表した事で、幕府役人はもちろん、大奥の儀礼も整えられた。
The status was changed during the sixth Shogun Ienobu TOKUGAWA regime, because Ienobu valued and respected Motohiro KONOE, the father of his Midaidokoro, Teneiin, as an instructor of ceremony, and therefore, rites of the officers of the feudal government and O-oku were maintained.

住居の大きさは最大9.4メートル×6.7メートルで、面積62.98平方メートルあり、多くの例が20平方メートルから30平方メートル前後の規模であるので、その2倍の大きさである。
The size was at most 9.4 by 6.7 meters, with floor area of 62.98 sq.m.--roughly double the size of many others that ranged from 20 to 30 sq.m.

第二次世界大戦前の法令で所得税法人税内外地関渉法（昭和15年法律55号）など表題に内外地という表現を含む法令があったが、外地の語は単独で用いられず、その範囲は定義されなかった。
Among the laws enacted before the World War II, several laws included the term Nai-gaichi (the inland and overseas territories) in its title such as Nai-gaichi income and corporate taxes interference law (Act No.55 of 1940), but the term Gaichi was not used by itself and the scope of the term was not defined.

その一方で、大和民族は朝鮮半島やベトナムなど、他の中華文明圏とは違い、中国に直接支配された経験はなく、受け入れた海外の文化（とりわけ中華文明）を独自に消化していく余裕があった。
On the other hand, the Yamato race could originally afford to assimilate foreign cultures (especially that of China), having had no experience of being controlled directly by China unlike other nations under the Chinese sphere of influence, such as the Korean Peninsula and Vietnam.

この時代の銅鏡の中には、中国大陸の年号が銘されている紀年鏡が13枚のうち12枚が含まれており、出土した古墳やその他の副葬品が製造された年代を推定するための参考資料とされている。
Because twelve out of thirteen Kinen mirrors, which were with the name of an era of China, were included in bronze mirrors produced in this period, these mirrors were used as references to estimate the era when the excavated tumulus or other burial goods were produced.

豊臣秀吉が主君で、その直臣である、上杉景勝の家臣直江兼続、毛利輝元の家臣小早川隆景、堀秀政の家臣堀直政はそれぞれ陪臣にあたり、陪臣であるが天下の仕置も務まると評価したものである。
Kanetsugu NAOE, Takakage KOBAYAKAWA and Naomasa HORI were respectively a vassal of Kagekatsu UESUGI, Terumoto MORI and Hidemasa HORI whose lord was Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI and who were his direct retainers, which means that such three vassals were respectively equivalent to baishin of Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI, and therefore, the above evaluation was given to indicate that they could play a role even in maintaining good order of the country although they were baishin.

富本銭発行直後に贋金（私鋳銭）を禁じる法令が出されたとする記録がなく、その最初の例が和同開珎発行後であること（もし、富本銭が流通貨幣ならば、贋金の存在を放置していたことになる）。
There is no record of an act that prohibits shichusen (counterfeit money) just after the issue of Fuhonsen coin, and such act was first established only after the issue of Wado-kaichin, which means shichusen was allowed if Fuhonsen coin was circulating money.

以上の点から、7世紀中～後半に、大化の改新と同様な改革が行われたことは、比較的見解の一致するところではあるが、その時期を645年よりもっと後に設定するべきであるとの考え方もある。
From the above points, though it is relatively well agreed that there were carried out reforms such as the Taika Reforms in the mid to latter half of the 7th century, there is a point of view that the date should be much later than 645.

事業者側でもそのような扱いをしている場合があり、たとえば近畿日本鉄道では、2004年ごろまで車内放送・駅構内放送・方向幕では旧国名を省略していた（例：大和西大寺駅 → 西大寺）。
There was a time that even some railway corporations omitted the old provincial name and called the stations with the old provincial names omitting added part; for example, in case of Kintetsu Corporation, announcements in the trains, broadcasting in the station precincts, and in the rollsigns, the old provincial names were omitted up to 2004 (an example: Yamato Saidaiji Station was called Saidaiji Station).

なお、仏教界には廃仏毀釈などで神道とその庇護者である明治政府との関係が悪化していたため、『共通の敵』であるキリスト教への敵対心を利用して関係を改善しようという動きも存在していた。
Because of the worsening relations with Shinto and the Meiji Government which had protected Shinto due to the anti-Buddhist movement at the beginning of the Meiji period, the Buddhist world showed some moves to improve such relations by taking advantage of hostility toward Christianity, or 'the common enemy.'

桂の新政策とその意欲の一方で、優詔政策の失敗など護憲運動への対応の迷走、政友会との決定的な対立、貴族院工作の失敗、山縣・寺内正毅ら陸軍内部からの不信が桂を追いつめていくことになる。
Although Katsura implemented new policies in earnest, a series of blunders in his politics, such as the failure in his Imperial Edict Tactics and countermeasures against the Campaign for the Defense of the Constitution, fierce conflict with the Seiyukai, failure in political maneuvering of the House of Peers, and a growing distrust of him among the people of the Japanese Army including Aritomo YAMAGATA and Masatake TERAUCHI, drove him into a corner.

その後、福岡県教育委員会、九州歴史資料館、太宰府市教育委員会、筑紫野市教育委員会によって条坊施工想定範囲内での発掘調査が断続的に行われており、現時点では下記のような成果を得ている。
Excavation and research within the area of the assumed jobosei area since then have been intermittently performed by the Fukuoka Prefectural Board of Education, Kyushu Historical Museum, Dazai-fu City Board of Education, and Tsukushino City Board of Education, with the following results:

令外の官が広汎に成立した中世においては、このような現実的な需要を受けて実際的な政務処理を律令法の条項と照らし合わせてその法的側面の補強をおこなう明法家という職務身分家系も登場した。
In the medieval period when ryoge no kan formed widely, families called Myobo-ke (scholars of the law) with a duty of lawyers emerged responding such realistic demands to reinforce legal aspects of practical governmental affairs by checking them against stipulations of ritsuryo codes.

その後新設された法典調査会で、穂積陳重、富井政章、梅謙次郎が旧民法の修正を基本としつつ、ドイツ民法の草案や各国の民法をも参照して、現行の民法（明治29年法律第89号）が起草された。
Subsequently in a newly-established Investigation Committee of Codes, Nobushige HOZUMI, Masaakira TOMII and Kenjiro UME, focusing corrections of the Old Civil Code and referring to the draft of the German Civil Code, drafted the present Civil Code (Act No.89, 1896).

空前絶後の支配領域をもったモンゴル帝国、元 (王朝)は再び中国を統一したが、その統治においても、政治上南人（元南宋の民、江南の人士）と漢人（元金の民、華北の人士）は区別されていた。
The Yuan dynasty, the Mongolian Empire which held the vast territory of all time, reunified China, but it made a distinction between nanjin (people of former Southern Sung, namely people of the Konan area) and kanjin (people of former Jing, namely people of the Kahoku area) in its ruling.

そのため吉宗は、倹約令で消費を抑える一方、新田開発による米増産、定免法採用による収入の安定、上米令、堂島米会所の公認など、米に関する改革を多く行ったため、「米将軍」の異名を取った。
Therefore, while controlling people's consumption with sumptuary decrees, Yoshimune implemented many rice-related reforms, such as development of new rice fields for increasing the rice harvest, adoption of 'Jomen ho' (the taxation system whose rate was determined by calculating the average rice harvest over the past 5, 10, or 20 years) for stabilizing the income of the Edo bakufu, issuance of 'Agemai-rei' (the decree ordering 'daimyo' to pay 100 koku rice for every 10 thousand koku it had), and permission for Dojima Rice Exchange, so Yoshimune was given a nickname of 'Rice Shogun.'

水野忠恒 (大名)（松本藩主7万石）が扇子を取りに部屋に戻ったところ、毛利師就（長府藩主5万7,000石）が拾ってくれたが、そのとき毛利は「そこもとの扇子ここにござる」と薄く笑った。
When Tadatsune MIZUNO (feudal lord) (the lord of Matsumoto Domain with 70,000 koku) went back to his room to get a folding fan, Morotaka MORI (the lord of Chofu Domain with 57,000 koku) picked it up for him by giving him a faint smile and said 'sokomoto's (casual way of saying you) fan is right here.'

間接打法･･･打撃具を直接打ちつけるのではなく、石材の一端にシカの角（つの）や獣骨のタガネを当て、槌で間接的に打撃を加えて石片をはぎ取り、その石片（剥片とよぶ）から石刃技法をつくる。
Indirect striking: Not by directly striking stones with hammers but by indirectly striking stones covered with deer's horns or chisel made of animal bones to peel off a piece of stone (called a flake) and making a stone blade from it.

例外として、大阪府の摂津駅は市名と一致する旧国名が（但し、2010年に阪急京都本線の摂津市駅が開業予定）、福島県のいわき駅は旧国名をひらがな化した市町村名がそのまま駅名になっている。
An exception is Settsu Station in Osaka Prefecture in which the old provincial name is used as the name of the station without attaching the name of the city; however, Settsushi Station will be open in 2010 along the Hankyu Kyoto Main Line; Iwaki Station in Fukushima Prefecture accords with the old provincial name and in it the city name is not added, but the name is in the Japanese syllabary characters.

例えば、2005年の大河ドラマ『義経 (NHK大河ドラマ)』でも、そのように描かれている（もちろん、ドラマなので考証性は問題にならないが、この説が一般に流布しているという点である）。
For example, in 'Yoshitsune' (NHK Taiga-dorama [Historical Drama]), produced in 2005, depicted as above (Of course authenticity as historical evidence is not very important since it was constructed as a dramatic production, but we can point out this theory was well circulate to the general audience.)

同年9月「地所売買放禁分一収税施設之儀正院伺」が大蔵省によって作成され、田畠永代売買禁止令の廃止とともに地租改正の実施が明治政府の方針として正式に決定されその準備が急がれたのである。
In the September of the same year the Ministry of Finance created the document titled 'To Seiin: On the matters of the abolition of the ban on trading and selling of farmland and establishing the tax collection system based on percentage' and submitted it to Dajokan Seiin, the Main Office of the preconstitutional Meiji government that became the Cabinet later, for approval; subsequently the ban on trading and selling of farmland was abolished by the government and the implementation of the land-tax reform was officially concluded as the policy of the Meiji government and the governent quickly made preparation for the enforcement of the reform.

最近の研究ではそもそもモンゴル帝国の国号としての「モンゴル・ウルス」そのものが本来的に「モンゴルの人々の集合体」というような意味合いで、地理的概念を含むものではないと指摘されている。
According to the recent research, it is pointed out that 'Mongol Ulus,' the name of the Mongolian Empire, had the meaning of 'the aggregation of Mongolian people' and did not include a geographical notion.

1966年、小説家の遠藤周作はその作品『沈黙』により日本の精神的土壌においては神の存在、絶対的な存在が根付かないすべてのものを腐らせていく沼が日本であると登場人物の神父に語らせている。
A novelist Shusaku ENDO have the priest as a character of his novel 'Chinmoku (silence)' said that Japan was a marsh where everything not based on God or absolute existences spoiled in the Japanese spiritual base

本著は封建社会の武士道を題材としているが同時に武士道を直接的に解釈したのではなく「武士道」という日本の精神的土壌に発現した現象をその根本から探り当て普遍的真理を導こうとするものである。
While the subject matter of this book is Bushido in feudal society, it is not a direct interpretation of Bushido, but a guideline for a universal truth for finding out the basis of Bushido as a phenomenon which appeared as a spiritual base in Japan.

種田が殺害された際、その場にいた種田の愛妾小勝は負傷しながらも、熊本電信局へ走り、「ダンナハイケナイワタシハテキズ」（旦那はいけない、私は手傷）と打った電報を、東京の親元に送信した。
When TANEDA was killed, his favorite concubine, Kokatsu, who was at the site, rushed to the Kumamoto telegraph office despite her injury and sent a telegram saying, 'Master is in danger, I am injured' to her parents in Tokyo.

そして、その手法としてよく用いられるのが、旧国名を冠して重複を回避する手法である（例：常陸太田市、武蔵村山市、美濃加茂市、近江八幡市、河内長野市、大和郡山市、土佐清水市、豊後大野市）。
The method often used to avoid the existence of plural cities with the same name was to attach the old provincial names to the city names that were to be duplicated city names (examples: Hitachiota City, Musashimurayama City, Minokamo City, Omihachiman City, Kawachinagano City, Yamatokoriyama City, Tosashimizu City, Bungo-ono City).

そのころ県内各島を巡回中であった警部安楽権中を乗せた汽船が、島の漲水港に入港するところであったが、大騒擾を傍観していた島民から事情を聞くと、踵を返して那覇市へ戻り、宮古の異状を伝えた。
Around that time, a police inspector 安楽権中 was patrolling the islands on a steam ship and was about to enter the Chosui Harbor of Miyako-jima Island, however, an islander who had observed the huge disturbance informed the police inspector about the incident, and thus he turned around and headed to Naha to report the abnormal situation of Miyako.

そのため、一般の民の中から、朝廷に出仕して、職務の名を負う品部（しなべ）、王名、宮号を負う名代（なしろ）・子代（こしろ）、屯倉（みやけ）の耕作民である田部（たべ）などが必然的に生まれた。
For this reason, naturally there came a group of people who worked for the Yamato Regime for various functions; these people included Shinabe who worked at the Imperial court, Nashiro and Koshiro who worked for king and prince, and Tabe who worked for the demesne as farmers.

例えば、3代家光夫人･鷹司孝子は夫との仲が極めて険悪で、正式に「御台所」と称することのないまま、結婚後程なくしてその居所を本丸から中丸に移され、大奥の実権はもっぱら春日局らが握っていた。
For example, since a wife of the third Shogun Iemitsu, Takako TAKATSUKASA was on extremely bad terms with her husband, she was transferred to her residence from Honmaru to Naka no maru (中丸) before being formally titled 'Midaidokoro' and Kasuga no tsubone held the real power in O-oku.

これら万次郎が幕府に徴用されたのは、英語話者やアメリカ滞在者としての経歴だけでなく、アメリカの目的が捕鯨基地であり、万次郎自身がそのアメリカの捕鯨船船員であったことも無視できないだろう。
The Shogunate valued Manjiro, not only for his English proficiency and experience in America, but also for his experience as a seaman on an American whaler, relating to America's intention that it would set up the base for whaling in Japan.

その中の一人イザベリナと呼ばれたゆり（後に杉本姓）という当時52歳の女性がプティジャン神父に近づき、「ワレラノムネアナタノムネトオナジ」（私たちはキリスト教を信じています）とささやいた。
Among them was then 52-year-old Yuri (later using Sugimoto as the surname), or Isabelina in the baptismal name, who came close and whispered in Father Petitjean's ear, 'we believe in the same religion as you' (we are Christians).

なお、日清戦争から日華事変甲号軍票までは明治時代に発行された明治通宝とよばれる政府紙幣のデザインを踏襲した縦型のものを使っていたが、その後は銀行券スタイルのものが発行されるようになった。
The military currency used during Sino-Japanese War through Ko-go currency used during the China Incident, vertical style ones followed a design of the government-issued bank note called Meiji Tsuho was adopted, but bank-note styled military currencies were issued afterwards.

『日本書紀』には、百済などからの渡来人が製作したの記述がある一方、紀元前1世紀頃、垂仁天皇（垂仁3年）の時代に新羅王子アメノヒボコとその従者として須恵器の工人がやってきたとも記されている。
In the Nihonshoki (Chronicles of Japan), it is written that Sueki was made by toraijin (settlers) and in the meantime, it is also written that the Sueki craftsman visited Japan as a follower of the Prince of Silla Amenohiboko around the first century B.C. during the reign of Emperor Suinin.

一之側から四之側までの4棟に加え、東長局、御半下部屋があり、格式に応じて一之側が上臈御年寄や御年寄、二之側、三之側がその他のお目見え以上の女中、四之側がお目見え以下の女中たちに配分された。
In addition to the four buildings from Ichi no soba (一之側) to Yon no soba (四之側), there were two buildings named Higashi nagatsubone and Ohashitabeya, and Joro Otoshiyori (high rank women servants who controls the servants in O-oku) and Otoshiyori were given Ichi no soba, other jochu of higher rank able to see the Shogun were given Ni no soba or San no soba, and lower rank jochu not able to see the Shogun were given Yon no soba in accordance with their rank.

ただし、寛政3年（1791年）に鋳造を停止された京都・姉小路車屋町にあった金座はその後も廃止されず、禁裏御用の金細工及び上方における金職人統制などを後藤家の支配に従って幕末まで行っている。
However, kin-za located in Anekoji Kurumaya-cho, Kyoto, where casting was stopped in 1791, was not abolished and gold working for official business of the Imperial Palace and control of gold workmen in Kamigata (Kyoto and Osaka area) and so on were performed under the control of the Goto family until the end of the Edo period.

一部の急進派は長野県北相木村出身の菊池貫平を筆頭とし、さらに農民を駆り出して十石峠経由で信州方面に進出したが、その一隊も11月9日には佐久郡東馬流(現小海町)で鎮台兵の攻撃を受け壊滅した。
Some radicals led by Kanpei KIKUCHI from Kitaaiki-mura Village in Nagano Prefecture, together with peasants, advanced to Shinshu area via Toishi Pass; however, the troop was also destroyed by the attacks of the Chindai Army in Higashimanagashi in Saku County (now Koumimachi) on November 9.

麓から頂上までを10合に分けるが、単純に高さや距離で等分しているのではなく、実際に歩いて登る際に要する時間がおおよその基準になっているため、険しい場所や坂の急な場所では1合の長さが短くなる。
The distance from a foot of mountain to the summit is divided into 10 go, and it is not simply divided equally with the height or distance but the rough criterion is the time which it takes to climb up by walking and thus the length of 1 go is shortened in a steep place.

征韓論が台頭したとき、そして実際に大韓帝国を併合する際（韓国併合）や、日韓同祖論が生まれて外地における同化政策（皇民化教育など）が進められるようになったときも、その思想的背景の一つとなった。
Japanese militaristic authorities utilized this theory as background support in many ideological situations; on the occasion of rising the Seikanron (Debate to conquer Korea), merging Korean Empires (the annexation of Korea) practically and when Nikkan Doso Ron (Japan and Korea have a common ancestor) was birthed, then the assimilation policy in foreign lands (for example, imperialization education on Korea during Japan's colonial rule) was implemented and went forward.

この説では冬季に行軍が困難であることや頼俊の報告は自分の不祥事の穴埋めをするための誇大報告とし、津軽半島、下北半島までが朝廷の支配下に入ったのは、その後の清原氏や奥州藤原氏によるものとする。
This theory mentioned the awkward point of the expedition troops marching and fighting in the severe winter conditions of the northern part of Japan; it is assumed that the report of Yoritoshi to the Imperial Court stating the grand victory over Ezo was exaggerated in order to cover up his disgraceful matter of losing the important official instruments; in reality, the conquest of Tsugaru and Shimokita Peninsula regions to be ruled under the Imperial Court was succeeded by the later expeditions operated by Kiyohara clan, or even later by the Oshu Fujiwara clan.

戦争終結後の数日目には、早くも新たな婦人団体が立ち上げられ、再び婦人参政権要求の声が上がり、翌年の総選挙で多数の女性議員が誕生したのも、そのような日本における婦人運動の成果であったと言えよう。
It is reasonable to say that it was thanks to the legacy of those women's movements that women's associations were re-formed as early as a few days after the war ended, demands for women's suffrage began anew, and several female members were elected to the Diet during the general election held in the following year.

1905年サンフランシスコに、The Japanese and Korean Exclusion League（日系韓国系排斥協会）が設立され、その後他都市、他州にも同様の組織が設立される。
In 1905, the Japanese and Korean Exclusion League was founded in San Francisco and similar organizations were later established in other cities in other states.

いかに大奥が取締役の職掌を制度上定めたとしても、その実際の運用にあたっては結局のところ「お上のご寵愛」という、将軍個人の極めて私的な感情によって左右される要素が介在することを排除できなかった。
Even if O-oku determined the authority of the administrator as a rule, the authority given in O-oku depended on the Shogun's private opinion and the O-oku could not stop the Shogun giving authority to his favorite.

その理由は『上記』で使われている豊国文字がサンカ文字とよく似ていることと、下総のサンカの伝承に「大友能直がサンカを1600人も殺し、昔から伝わっていた書物を奪った」というものがあることによる。
The reasons are the Toyo-no-kuni characters used in Uetsufumi are very similar to the Sanka characters and there is a legend that Yoshinao OTOMO killed 1,600 Sanka people and stole their ancient books.

日本は公使館警備用の軍を派遣して朝鮮国王を保護し、その後開化派が新政権を発足させ、朝鮮国王をトップとする立憲君主制国家をうちたてて、日本の助力のもとに近代国家への道を突き進む、というものだった。
After Japan protected the king of Korea by sending the troops for guarding the legation, the Progressive Party was to form a new government, establish a constitutional monarchy with the king of Korea at the top, and rush toward a modern state with Japanese assistance.

古くは京都や奈良、及びその周辺に都（みやこ）が置かれていたことが多く、山城国、大和国、摂津国、河内国、和泉国（京都府の一部、奈良県、大阪府、兵庫県の一部）は併せて畿内（「畿」はかきね・門の内側。
In ancient times, in many cases, capitals were located in places near Kyoto, Nara and their surrounding area, and areas including Yamashiro Province, Yamao Province, Settsu Province, Kawachi Province and Izumi Province (part of Kyoto Prefecture, Nara Prefecture, Osaka Prefecture and part of Hyogo Prefecture) were collectively called the Kinai region (which means within the wall) (provinces surrounding Kyoto and Nara).

一方、律令的戸籍制度も次第に行われなくなり、 10世紀には、地方豪族で実力を蓄えた者は、有力な貴族の家人となり、その氏姓を侵すようにさえなり、いわゆる冒名仮蔭（ぼうめいかいん）の現象が一般化した。
On the other hand, family registration system based on the ritsuryo system was gradually phased out; in the tenth century, people who became strong among powerful local clans became the retainers of the influential nobles and invaded clan names and hereditary titles; in essence, the phenomenon of so-called Bomei Kain (misrepresentation of one's clan name and hereditary title) became quite commonplace.

ここで重要なのはこれら院庁や政所はそれぞれ内部の政務を処理するだけであり、それらのいずれかが直接的に全体的な政務をとりしきったわけではなく、その間の交渉を通じて公家社会の政務が構成されるのである。
What's important here is that In no cho and Mandokoro handled only their internal government affairs respectively, and neither of them directly handled general government affairs, but negotiation between them made up government affairs of the court noble society.

その後、1937年（昭和12年）に宇垣一成（予備役陸軍大将）に対して天皇から首相候補に指名されて組閣命令が下った際、陸軍から陸軍大臣の候補者が得られずに組閣を断念せざるを得ない状態へ追い込まれた。
Afterwards, when Kazushige UGAKI (Yobieki Army General) was named by the Emperor to be a candidate for Prime Minister, he could not obtain a candidate for the Minister of War from within the Army and driven into a situation in which he had to give up forming the Cabinet in 1937.

タラス河畔の戦いに代表されるように、西方で匹敵するイスラーム帝国と軍事的衝突や交易など交渉があったが、唐朝はかつての秦漢帝国と異なり、その天下概念には匈奴のような対等国は基本的には存在しなかった。
Although the Tang dynasty had military clashes with the Islamic empire (Caliphate) at the west front such as the Battle of Talas or negotiations including trade, its notion of Tenka, unlike that of the Qin and Han empires, did not include the nations which stood on an equal footing with it, such as Xiongnu.

皐月の述懐によれば、皐月は兵庫県六甲山系の金鳥山中での調査中に父が「カタカムナ神社の宮司」であったと名乗る平十字（ひらとうじ）という猟師と出会い、その神社の御神体である巻物を見せてもらったという。
According to his remembrance, Kogetsu met a hunter named Hiratoji whose father was the 'Guji (chief of those who serves shrine, controls festivals and general affairs) of Katakamuna Shrine' during his investigation in Kincho-san mountain in Rokkosan in Hyogo Prefecture and he showed him the makimono, the shintai (sacred object) of the shrine.

実朝の代になっても様々な場面で政子が決定的な役割を担っていることも多く、もしこれをそのまま事実であったとするならば、北条氏を含めた東国御家人勢力とは別個に調停者としての政子の個性も認めねばなるまい。
Even during the reign of Sanetomo, Masako played a decisive role in various occasions, and if this was all true, the unique presence of Masako as an arbitrator should be acknowledged, along with the forces of vassals in the togoku including the Hojo clan.

そのため、政府内にも島津久光を筆頭に前原一誠・桐野利秋ら保守的な反対論者を多数抱えており、また西郷隆盛も「壮兵」といって、中下層士族の立場を考慮した志願兵制度を構想していて徴兵制には消極的であった。
Therefore, there were a lot of conservative people against it within the government, with Hisamitsu SHIMAZU as the leader, Issei MAEBARA, Toshiaki KIRINO and others, and Takamori SAIGO took a passive stance for conscription because he had his own plan of the volunteer 'sohei' military system in consideration of the middle to lower class samurai.

とりわけ開化派人士や、幼児等も含むその近親者への残酷な処刑は福澤らをして激しい失望感を呼び起こし、福澤は、天津条約締結の前月には自身が主宰する時事新報の紙面において、いわゆる脱亜論を発表するに至る。
As FUKUZAWA and his colleagues were deeply disappointed by the cruel execution to the sophisticated people of the Progressive Party and their relatives including children in particular, FUKUZAWA came to publish Datsua ron (a theory of turning away from Asia) in the Japanese newspaper Jiji Shinpo led by himself, on the previous month of the Tientsin Convention.

1920年公布の、大正9年勅令第124号（樺太ニ施行スル法律ノ特例ニ関スル件）ではいわゆる外地に組み入れられたが、その後の1942年には内務省 (日本)管轄下に入り、国内法が適用されるようになった。
According to the Proclamation in 1920, Imperial Ordinance no.124, 1920 (regarding exceptions in law which is enforced on Karafuto), Karafuto-Cho became part of the so-called outer territories (gaichi), later, in 1942 it fell under the jurisdiction of the Home Ministry (Japan) and the municipal law of Japan came to be applied.

また、嵯峨朝になると、種継の子で平城天皇の内侍司として権勢を握った藤原薬子とその兄藤原仲成が反乱を企てて断罪された薬子の変の発生に加え、嵯峨天皇・橘嘉智子の信頼を受けた北家の冬嗣の台頭も背景にある。
Furthermore, the Kusuko Incident, a failed rebellion by FUJIWARA no Nakanari and his sister Kusuko who was a daughter of Tanetsugu and held power as naishi no tsukasa (a female palace attendant) for Emperor Heizei, as well as the rise of FUJIWARA no Fuyutsugu from Fujiwara Hokke who won trust of Emperor Saga and TACHIBANA no Kachiko, also led to the decline of Shikike.

なお、武官にあたる自衛官（いわゆる制服組）のみならず、文民（文官）にあたる内部部局の防衛参事官、書記官等（いわゆる背広組）であっても、防衛大臣その他の国務大臣を兼ねることは禁じられていると解される。
Also, even if a candidate was a Self-Defense Official (the so-called uniform team), a civilian (civil officer), the internal Defense Counselor, or secretary (the so-called sebiro (business suit) team), it is understood that it is prohibited to be appointed concurrently as the Secretary of State for Defense and any other Minister of State.

そのため大木は、1880年にいわゆる御雇外国人として明治初期における日本の法学教育や立法などに功績を挙げたフランス人法学者ギュスターヴ・エミール・ボアソナードを中心に新しい民法草案の作成を指示した。
For that purpose Oki gave an instruction mainly to Gustave Emile BOISSONADE, a French jurist, who made a great contribution to law education and lawmaking in Japan in 1880, to prepare a draft of new Civil Code.

水野の三王朝交替説はその後様々な研究者により補強あるいは批判がなされていくが、現在では万世一系を否定する学者でも水野の唱えるように全く異なる血統による劇的な王権の交替があったと考えるものは多くない。
Later, Mizuno's changes of three dynasties theory has been reinforced or criticized by various researchers and at present even among the scholars denying the unbroken imperial line, not many think that there was dramatic change of sovereignty with the entirely different blood line as Mizuno advocated.

建久7年（1196年）、東大寺の俊乗坊重源は、大輪田泊の修築事業の中絶とその後の泊の損壊状況を嘆き、山陽道・南海道・西海道の諸国および荘園からこの港を経て運ばれる運上米のうち1石あたり1升を徴収した。
In 1196 Shunjobo Chogen in Todai-ji Temple deplored the derailment of reconstruction work for Owada no tomari and the latter damaged situation and collected one sho (of rice) per one koku of rice tax carried through this port from each province and shoen (manor in medieval Japan) in Sanyodo Road, Nankaido Road and Saikaido Road.

ドラマなどではこれは幸右衛門のその場の機転のようになっているが、『小野寺書状』によると吉良家臣は弓の使い手が多いという情報を事前につかんでいたので弓は発見次第に弦を切るよう事前に決めていたとしている。
A TV series makes it out like it was Sawaemon's spontaneous idea; however, according to 'Onodera Shojo,' they had previously received information that a lot of Kira's retainers were good at shooting arrows, and therefore they decided to cut off bowstrings as soon as they found them.

さらに、冬嗣の息子である藤原良房が嵯峨上皇の皇女源潔姫を降嫁されるなど、父同様上皇と皇太后に深く信任されたのに対し、緒嗣は長男の藤原家緒に先立たれる等、式家はその後有力な人材を出すことができなかった。
In addition, Hokke family won deep trust of the Retired Emperor Saga and Empress Dowager, shown by the fact that Fuyutsugu's son, FUJIWARA no Yoshifusa, got married with MINAMOTO no Kiyohime, Imperial princess of the Retired Emperor Saga, while Shikike family failed to produce influential figures due to incidents such as the death of FUJIWARA no Ieo, the eldest son of Otsugu.

実際の撰史事業はその都度機構（撰国史所）を設けて事務を行っていた（また、撰史に必要な公文書・記録類が集められたのが内記や外記であったということも図書寮が撰史事業に関わらなかった理由として挙げられる）。
In the actual work of compiling history books, the office work was done by establishing the institution (Senkokushisho [History Compilation Bureau]) (and official documents and records which were necessary for compiling history books were collected in Naiki [secretary of the Ministry of Central Affairs] or Geki [Secretary of the Grand Council of State], which was the reason why Zushoryo did not involve with the work of compiling history books).

その後暫くは、頼綱は追加法を頻繁に出すなど手続きを重視した政治運営を行っていたが、1287年（弘安10年）に、征夷大将軍源惟康が立親王して惟康親王となった時期に政治姿勢を一変させ、恐怖政治へと邁進した。
For a while afterwards, Yoritsuna carried out politics focusing on procedures, for example, frequent submission of additional laws, but in 1287, at the time when Seii Taishogun (literally, 'great general who subdues the barbarians') MINAMOTO no Koreyasu was given the title of Imperial Prince and became Imperial Prince Koreyasu, Yoritsuna changed his attitude toward politics suddenly and worked toward a reign of terror.

その間にも遅々として進まない司法省の草案作成に業を煮やした内務省 (日本)（戸籍などを扱う）や農商務省 (日本)（物権・債権の早期定義付けを求めた）からは、独自に民法草案の研究を開始する動きが見られた。
In the meantime the Ministry of Home Affairs (Japan) (that dealt with registers and so on) and the Ministry of Agriculture (Japan) (that asked for early definitions of real rights and credit obligations), getting exasperated at the slow progress of the draft making by the Ministry of Justice, showed their own movement of studying the draft of Civil Code.

本来の律令制は政務を上から順番に統属関係にのっとった形で処理するため、官僚機構において底辺にちかい部署はただ事務処理を行なうのみであり、その意思決定は上位機構をへて最終的には天皇が裁断するものであった。
In the original ritsuryo system, governmental affairs were processed in order, from the upper rank, following the line of governance, so departments near the bottom of the bureaucratic organization merely did paperwork, and their decision-making was ultimately done by the emperor through upper organizations.

これは貴族階級である官人層とそれ以外の被支配階級である平民の身分上の格差を定めるものではあったが、同時に能力主義によってその役割を定めるものであり、本来的には世襲制的な法構造を持つものではないといえる。
While this system was to define disparity of positions between government officials who are in the noble class and the other commoners who are in the subordinate class, it was, at the same time, to determine one's role based on meritocracy, and did not have hereditary law structure inherently.

そのためそれを防ぐことが急がれ、実態を調査、把握し、適正な数値に是正するために、寛文6年（1666年）、延宝8年（1680年）、元禄10年（1697年）、天明8年（1788年）などに全国調査を行なった。
Therefore there was a pressing need to prevent such disparities, and surveys were conducted nationwide in 1666, 1680, 1697 and 1788 in order to investigate and find out the actual situation and to correct the situations to obtain appropriate values.

牢屋廻り同心など最下級クラスでは二人扶持程度の俸禄でしかなかったものの、実際は諸大名家や町屋 (商家)からの付け届けなどでかなりの実収入があり、そのため岡っ引や目明しのような私的使用人を雇う余裕もあった。
Lower ranked doshin such as prison patrol doshin just received a ration for five persons, but in reality they had real handsome income as they received bribes from territorial lords and merchants, so they could afford to hire some private servants such as okappiki and meakashi (thief-takers).

明治時代、事実上武士が滅び、その思想のみがいたずらに活用されだした武士道爛熟期にあって、元武士階層出身者が中心となって臣民教育政策が施されたが、これはそこで歴史観が改められるのと同時に造られた標語である。
In the Meiji period, the age of samurai ended in effect, but the Bushido way of thought was used unnecessarily during its mature period, therefore mainly ex-samurais carried out subject education policy and the catch-phrase was made when the historical view was changed.

ただし、江戸時代に同様の事件で改易、取り潰しにあった大名家の家臣で徒党を組んで正面切った意趣返しをしたのは本件だけであり、その他の浪人に対し討ち入りをしなかったとして倫理的な批判が向けられたわけではない。
However, this was the only revenge done so openly by a faction of retainers from feudal lord families who experienced sudden dismissal and deprivation of positions, privileges, and properties and elimination of their clans, and therefore, it was not that other roshi were given logical criticism for not participating in the revenge.

またこれら明法家の勘申（明法勘文）は律令法を参照するものではあるものの、その取捨選択はたぶんに恣意的な側面もあり、中世において律令の規定が直接的に規範的作用をもつものではなかったということは注目に値する。
In addition, while such Myobo kanmon (written reports to the Imperial Court) by Myobo-ke referenced ritsuryo law, the choices were pretty arbitrary, and it is worthy of attention that ritsuryo provisions did not directly have normative influence in the medieval period.

こうした考え方は商工業が盛んになって民事的な訴訟が増加した幕藩体制になっても基本的には変わらず、その司法制度は専ら刑事裁判の遂行のためのものであり、民衆が自己の権利として裁判を請求することは出来なかった。
Such an idea did not change basically even in the shogunate system when civil suits increased due to activated trade and craft, and the judiciary system was entirely for performances of criminal trials, so that the people could not ask for trials as their own rights.

長浜三年寄（ながはまさんどしより）とは、豊臣秀吉の命を受け長浜城下町（49町・10組）を整備した町人衆のうち、組を代表する町年寄の十家が長浜十人衆と呼ばれており、そのうち更に有力であった三家のことである。
Nagahama sandoshiyori refers to most influential three families among Nagahama juninshu (10 influential families in Nagahama), 10 representative families of machi-doshiyori (ward head) in townspeople who built the Nagahama-jo Castle town (49 towns and 10 wards) under the order of Hideyoshi TOYOTOMI.

その内容は、侍(さむらい)、中間(ちゅうげん)、小者(こもの)ら武家奉公人が百姓・町人になること、百姓が耕地を放棄して商いや日雇いに従事すること、逃亡した奉公人をほかの武家が召抱えることなどを禁じたもの。
It banned the following things: Servants for samurai families such as samurai, chugen (warriors who took their orders from samurai) and komono (lowest-ranking warriors) settling as peasants or townspeople, peasants abandoning their farmland and engaging in business or working as day laborers, and samurai families employing servants who had fled from other samurai families.

北条得宗家執事の平頼綱は、鎌倉幕府鎌倉幕府の執権一覧北条時宗が死去し、その子北条貞時が9代執権となった翌1285年（弘安8年）、政治路線で対立していた有力御家人安達泰盛や泰盛派の御家人を霜月騒動で討伐した。
TAIRA no Yoritsuna, who was the steward of the Hojo Tokuso family (main branch of the Hojo family), avenged a senior vassal Yasumori ADACHI and other vassals of Yasumori's faction, with whom he had conflicts in political lines, in the Shimotsuki Incident in 1285, which was a year after Tokimune HOJO, who was one of the regents of the Kamakura bakufu (Japanese feudal government headed by a shogun), died and Tokimune's son Sadatoki HOJO became the ninth regent.

1881年3月、漸く大隈が左大臣（岩倉からみて上位）の有栖川宮熾仁親王に対して「密奏」という形で意見書を提出、その中でイギリス流の立憲君主制国家を標榜し、早期の憲法公布と国会の2年後開設を主張したのである。
In March 1881, finally Okuma secretly submitted opinions to Imperial Prince Arisugawanomiya Taruhito, Minister of the left (higher rank than Iwakura), recommended constitutional monarchy from England and insisted on earlier issue of constitution and establishment of the National Diet in two years.

その後律令制度の導入により朝廷の任命する官僚による地方統治と中央豪族の宮廷貴族化が計られるとともに、豪族のある者は政権の中枢を担う貴族となり、またある者は中央の官衙機構を担う中・下級の実務系の官人となった。
Thereafter, due to the introduction of the ritsuryo system (the system of centralized government based on the ritsuryo code), governing regions by bureaucrats who were appointed by the imperial court and to transform Gozoku who lived in the capital into court nobles were planed, and at the same time, some of Gozoku became nobles in charge of the nucleus of the government, and some became middle and low-ranking officials for practical works in charge of governmental bureaucratic structure of the central government.

また、そのルーツに関しても、黄河流域～山東半島、揚子江流域、満州～朝鮮半島など様々で、渡来の規模とともに今なお議論の対象となっている（最近の遺伝子研究ではおおむねにおいて渡来人は北東アジア起源が有力である)。
In addition, as to the roots, it is said that they originated from various places such as from the Yellow River basin to the Shandong Peninsula, the Yangzi jiang, or from Manchuria to the Korean Peninsula, and until now still the subjects of discussion are the roots and the scale of torai (one compelling theory is that Toraijin mostly came from the North East Asia according to the latest genetic research).

古代中国製の銅鏡には、神像と動物文を鋳出した神獣鏡が多く、その他、背面の文様によって「方格規矩鏡（ほうかくきくきょう）」「海獣葡萄鏡」「内行花文鏡（ないこうかもんきょう）」などさまざまな形式に分類されている。
A lot of divine beasts mirrors having deities' images and animal designs can be found in the bronze mirrors made in ancient China, and other mirrors are classified into various types such as Hokakukikukyo Mirror (designs of ruler and compass), Kaiju Budo Kyo Mirror (designs of animals and grapes) and Naiko Kamonkyo Mirror (semicircle designs) according to their designs on the reverse.

肩書として位階と勲等を用いる場合、古くからの儀典の慣例として、「正三位勲一等日本太郎」のように勲章を省くのが正式とされ、たとえば国会議員が死亡した場合の国会での弔詞でもそのような勲章省略の肩書で故人を呼称した。
According to the traditional protocol, the court rank and the medal for merit were formally put as the title without the decorations like 'Senior Third Rank, the First Order of Merit, Taro NIPPON,' which was seen as an example in the message of condolence for a member of the Diet read in the Diet.

これは御鈴廊下を隔てた表向きにおいて、大老や老中といった幕府の機構上の最高責任者がいても、時代によっては将軍が最も寵愛する御側用人がその将軍の権威のみを背景に幕政の諸事万端を司っていたことがあるのと同様である。
This happened across Osuzuroka, the political administration, although Tairo (chief minister) and roju (senior councilor) were assigned as chief governmental executives, the shogun's favorite sobayonin (lord chamberlain) administrated various government matters based on the Shogun's authority.

跡地はその後、「古津（古い港の意味）」と呼ばれるようになるが、平安京遷都直後の桓武天皇（天智天皇の曾孫）の詔（延暦13年11月8日 (旧暦)（（ユリウス暦）794年12月4日））によって大津の呼び名に復された。
After that, the remained site was called 'furutsu (meaning an old port),' but the original name Otsu was restored right after the moving of the capital to Heian-kyo by the imperial decree issued (on December 8, 794) by Emperor Kanmu (great-grandson of Emperor Tenchi.)

なお、1867年（慶応3年）にはアメリカ合衆国公使館員のポートマンに対し、江戸幕府の小笠原長行老中が「江戸・横浜間鉄道敷設免許」（日本人は土地のみ提供）を出しており、明治維新後の新政府に対してその履行を迫った。
Meanwhile, 'a railway construction permit between Edo and Yokohama' (Japanese would provide the land only) had been issued in 1867 by Nagamichi OGASAWARA, a roju (senior councillor) of the Edo bakufu, to Portman, an American legation attaché, and after the Meiji Restoration Portman pressed to the new government for its implementation.

だが、その後、同党からの入閣の約束を一方的に反故にして、文官任用令改正を行い、続いて文官分限令・文官懲戒令・治安警察法の制定、軍部大臣現役武官制の導入などで、政党を政府から排して超然主義による国家運営を目指した。
However after that, he unilaterally broke the promise to take the members of this party into the Cabinet and implemented revision of the Civil Service Appointment Ordinance followed by enactment of the ordinance on the status of civil servant, the ordinance on reprimand of civil servant and the Security Police Law, as well as introduction of Military ministers to be officers on active-duty rule to eliminate political parties from the government and aim for running the country by the doctrine of superiority.

日系アメリカ人は初めてアメリカにわたった第一世代のことを一世、その子供たちの世代を二世、三世、四世と呼んでいるが、イッセイ (Issei) やニセイ (Nisei) といった言葉は英語でも通用する言葉になっている。
Japanese Americans call the first generation who immigrated to the U.S. 'Issei,' their children 'Nisei,' 'Sansei,' and 'Yonsei,' but such words as 'Issei' and 'Nisei' can be used and understood in English.

徳川家光の時代から徳川綱吉の時代まで長く刃傷事件がなく、また綱吉時代に起こった殿中刃傷にしても、被害者がその場で殺害されており、ただ加害者を切腹させればよいだけで、被害者も加害者も生き残った例が長く存在しなかった。
There was no affair of sword fight from the Iemitsu TOKUGAWA to Tsunayoshi TOKUGAWA periods, and even for the affairs that happened inside the palace in the Tsunayoshi period, victims were killed on the spot and offenders were sentenced to seppuku; therefore, the example of both victims and offenders surviving did not exist for a long time.

氏姓制度（しせいせいど）とは、古代日本において、中央貴族、ついで地方豪族が、国家（ヤマト王権）に対する貢献度、朝廷政治上に占める地位に応じて、朝廷よりウヂの名とカバネの名とを授与され、その特権的地位を世襲した制度。
Shisei Seido (the system of clans and hereditary titles) is a system made in ancient Japan in which the Imperial Court gave the nobles living in the capital and the powerful local clans a clan name and a hereditary title according to each person's degree of contribution to the state (Yamato Sovereignty) and the position the person occupies in the Government of the Imperial Court and let them kept the special privilege by the hereditary system.

その後は、藤原純友の乱を平定した藤原忠文や、阿衡事件に関与した藤原佐世等を輩出したものの、平安時代中期以降は儒学によって立身する家系として数家がしばらく血統を保つのみとなり、鎌倉時代まで続いた家はほとんどなかった。
Thereafter, Fujiwara Shikike produced FUJIWARA no Tadabumi, who put down FUJIWARA no Sumitomo's War, and FUJIWARA no Sukeyo, who was involved with the Ako Incident, but from the middle of the Heian period, only a couple of families managed to keep their lines known as those that rose on the basis of Confucianism, and few could remain until the Kamakura period.

一つの都道府県に複数の運輸支局・自動車検査登録事務所がある場合、管轄区域をあまり考慮せず、単に所在地の都市名から名称を取ることが多く、釧路・和泉の場合は、所在地が旧国名をそのまま名乗る市であったに過ぎないと言える。
In case that there are plural Transportation branches and Car Inspection & Registration Offices, they often take names from city names in their locations and it can be said that in cases of Kushiro and Izumi, their locations only happen to be the cities which bear the names of old provincial names.

「混一」という言葉はモンゴル帝国時代に用いられ始めた用語であることが指摘されているが、その意味は当時知られていた世界としてのアフリカ大陸・ユーラシア大陸が境界なく渾然一体となっているという世界観を表しているという。
The term '混一,' which is said to have come into use in the age of the Mongolian empire, means the view of the world that the African continent and the Eurasian continent form a harmonious whole with no border.

戦国大名から統一政権を打ち立てた織田政権・豊臣政権の両政権では右筆衆（ゆうひつしゅう）の制が定められ、右筆衆が行政文書を作成するだけではなく、奉行・蔵入地代官などを兼務してその政策決定の過程から関与する場合もあった。
Under both the Oda and Toyotomi governments, which were established after the unification of the warring daimyo, there was an institution called the Yuhitsushu (corps of administrators), who not only created public documents, but also sometimes stood in as the Bugyo (magistrate) or the Daikan (local governor) of directly-controlled lands, taking part in the policymaking processes.

しかし官人層内部での地位格差が広がり、律令体制が本来意図していた能力主義とは異質に、特定の氏族から世襲的に官人が供給されるようになると、官人の役割をその属する家系ごとに措定するようになり、家系ごとの専門化がすすんだ。
However, as disparity of positions within government officials became wider and government officials became to be supplied from certain clans by heredity, not by meritocracy as intended by the ritsuryo system, roles of government officials became to be determined by the family lines to which they belonged and role of each family line became specialized.

その後、寛文8年（1668年）から天和 (日本)3年（1683年）までの期間に呉服屋の後藤縫之助らが鋳銭を請負い、江戸亀戸に大規模な銭座が設けられ、このとき鋳造された寛永通寳は文銭と呼ばれ、均質で良質なものであった。
Later, during the period from 1668 to 1683, Nuinosuke GOTO, Gofuku-ya kimono shop, undertook mintage, establishing large zeniza in Kameido, Edo, and Kanei Tsuho which was minted in this period, called Bunsen, had homogeneous and excellent qualities.

加えて、全国政権の所在地ではないが大宰府や平泉町といった古代の主要都市や、中世以降のいわゆる小京都、更には金沢市や松江市など史跡に恵まれた近世の城下町をも「古都」と美称する傾向があり、その定義は必ずしも厳密ではない。
It seems a definition of an ancient capital is not exact, because there is a tendency to call even old cities like Dazaifu and Hiraizumi, or so-called little Kyoto towns established in the medieval period, or castle towns of the early-modern times such as Kanazawa City and Matsue City with many historic sites as ancient capitals, though they had never been the center of national administration.

寺内正毅内閣総理大臣は1918年5月の地方長官会議にて国民生活難に関して言及したが、その年の予算予算編成において救済事業奨励費はわずか35,000円のみであり、寺内の憂慮を反映した予算編成になっているとは言えなかった。
Although Prime minister Masatake TERAUCHI had mentioned the hard living of citizens at the provincial governor meeting held in 1918, the grant-in-aid for the relief work in budgeting of that year was only 35,000 yen and his worry was not particularly reflected to the budgeting.

ちなみに、昭和20年（1945年）9月2日、東京湾の戦艦ミズーリ艦上で日本の降伏文書調印式が行われた際、この時のペリー艦隊の旗艦「ポーハタン」号に掲げられていた米国旗が本国より持ち込まれ、その旗の前で調印式が行われた。
Incidentally, on September 2, 1945, the signing of Japan's Instrument of Surrender was held on the battleship Missouri in Tokyo Bay--the flag that stood in the background had once flown on Perry's flagship Powhatan, and was brought from the United States for the occasion.

水野は、古事記で没した年の干支が記載されている天皇は、神武天皇から推古天皇までの33代の天皇のうち、半数に満たない15代であることに注目し、その他の18代は実在しなかった（創作された架空の天皇である）可能性を指摘した。
In the Kojiki, Mizuno focusing on that the Oriental zodiac signs of the year that emperor died were written for 15 emperors, short of half among the 33 emperors from Emperor Jinmu to Empress Suiko, pointed out the 18 rest emperors might not exist (fictional emperors).

この傾向は明治時代以降も続き、征韓論が台頭したとき、そして実際に大韓帝国を併合する際（韓国併合）や、日韓同祖論が生まれて外地における同化政策（皇民化教育など）が進められるようになったときも、その思想的背景の一つとなった。
It continued to support this theory in and after the Meiji period.

同族のなかの特定の者が、臣（おみ）、連（むらじ）、伴造（とものみやつこ）、国造（くにのみやつこ）、百八十部（ももあまりやそのとも）、県主（あがたぬし）などの地位をあたえられ、それに応ずる氏姓を賜ったところに特色がある。
The characteristic of this system of clans and hereditary titles is that a specific person within the same extended family was given a position which included Omi, Muraji, Tomo no miyatsuko, Kuni no miyatsuko, Momo amari yaso no tomo and Agata-nushi, and the Imperial Court granted the clan name and the hereditary title that corresponded each position.

しかしながら、地租改正当時の測量技術が未熟であったこと、時間と人員の制約から測量の専門家でない素人が測量にあたったこと、また税の軽減を図るために故意に過小に測量したことなどから、その内容は必ずしも正確なものではなかった。
However, the details of survey at the time of land-tax reform were not necessarily accurate; it was because the survey technique used was primitive, people who were not the specialists for survey engaged in the task owning to the constraints of time and human resources, and there existed people who deliberately underestimated their land to deduce tax.

そのため、籾を取った玄米の状態からかさはさらに減りだいたい70kg程度（およそ体積は0.4石である。数値は現在の普通酒と同程度より少し低い程度の精米歩合と考え算出）となり、これに同体積の水を加え酒造すると0.8石となる。
The rice is hulled into brown rice, which further decreases in amount to approximately 70 kg (About 0.4 koku in volume. These values are calculated based on the rice-polishing ratio slightly lower than that for present-day futsushu [regular sake]), and the same volume of water is added to this to brew 0.8 koku of sake.

帝国海軍の大規模戦役の歴史は、1895年(明治28年)の日清戦争に始り、1905年(明治38年)の日露戦争ではほぼ完全勝利したが、大東亜戦争（太平洋戦争）で米国海軍と戦い、艦隊戦力は壊滅状態となり、その後公式に消滅した。
The history of the large-scale military campaigns of the Imperial Navy began with the 1895 Sino-Japanese War and the 1905 Russo-Japanese War ended with the Imperial Navy's near perfect victory; however, in the Great East Asian War (the Pacific War) the fighting power of the fleets of the Imperial Navy was almost completely annihilated by the United States Navy and the Imperial Navy was officially dissolved at the end of the war.

江戸幕府を全ての武士の頂点とし、最高の統治機関としながらも、各大名がそれぞれの領地においてある程度独立した統治機構（藩）を形成していることと、米などを現物で納めさせて年貢とする石高制をその基礎においていることが特徴である。
It was characterized with the Edo bakufu as the supreme governing institution at the top of warriors, and yet with each feudal lord which maintained somewhat independent governing structure in its own territory (domain), as well as with the tax system based on annual yield of rice, Kokudaka-sei, whereby tax is paid by rice and other actual goods.

ただその場所については諸説があり、もっとも一般的な説は、明暦の大火によって、それまで評定の行われた酒井雅楽頭と安藤右京亮の屋敷が消失したため、以降伝奏屋敷を仕切って評定所を置いたというものである（石井良助・服藤弘司など）。
Among some theories about its location, the most common one suggests that it would have been placed in the compartment in the denso-yashiki (a residence for the imperial envoy) after residences of Sakai Uta no kami (the Sakai clan, Director of Music) and Ukyo no suke (Assistant Master of the Western Capital Offices), where the trials had been held were burnt down by the Great Fire of Meireki (according to Ryosuke ISHII, Koji FUKUHIRO and others).

なお、勲等に叙す慣習がなくなった今日でも、勲等を詐称することは、位階・学位その他法令に定めた称号、あるいは外国においてそれらに準ずるものを含めて軽犯罪法第1条15項において違法とされ、違反した場合、拘留又は科料に処せられる。
There is no institution of the medals for merit in Japan at present, but still, the false statement of the medals for merit, including the rank, the academic degree, and any other titles stipulated in the law as well as those corresponding to them in the foreign countries, is treated as illegal according to the Minor Offense Act Article 1 Section 15; the person who violates the law receives punishment like detention or light fine.

この間も御家再興運動を積極的に行っており、原元辰らを大坂へ派遣して広島藩浅野家の家老、戸島保左衛門と会見させたり、遠林寺の住職祐海を江戸に遣わして将軍徳川綱吉やその生母桂昌院に影響力が大きい隆光大僧正らに会見させるなどした。
During this time, he devoted himself to the restoration of the Asano clan by sending Mototoki HARA to Osaka to meet up with chief retainer of the Asano family in Hiroshima Domain, and Hosaemon TOJIMA and the head priest of Enrin-ji Temple Yukai to Edo to meet the highest ranking priest Ryuko who had a strong influence on Shogun Tsunayoshi TOKUGAWA and his biological mother Keishoin.

まず、同年12月に開催が予定されていた「郵政局（郵政関連の中央官庁で、一部で言われるような「中央郵便局」等ではない）」の開庁祝賀パーティーの際、会場から少し離れたところに放火を行い、その後、混乱の中で高官を倒し守旧派を一掃。
First, at the celebration party for opening the 'Post Bureau (not a 'Central Post Office' as some say but a central government office involved in postal services)' scheduled in December of that year, fire was to be set at some distance from the venue so that they could overthrow the high officials in the confusion to eliminate the Conservative Party.

埼玉県の日高市は諸説有るが日和田山と高麗郡の頭文字を取ったもので北海道南部の日高国（或いは、その国名の由来となった日高見国）とは関係せず、高知県の安芸市は土佐国安芸郡 (高知県)が由来であり広島県西部の安芸国とは関係しない。
There are several theories about the naming process of Hidaka City; however, it was made by combining the initials of Mt. Hiwada and Koma County and it has no relation with Hidaka Province of the southern part of Hokkaido (or the origin of the provincial name, Hitakami Province); The origin of the name of Aki City in Kochi Prefecture lies in Aki County, Tosa Province (Kochi Prefecture) and it has no relation with Aki Province in the western part of Hiroshima Prefecture.

また、大日本帝国時代には台湾と朝鮮半島を領有し、さらにアジアや南洋の各地に進出して分布域を広げ、その地域に一定の社会基盤を築いていったが、太平洋戦争(大東亜戦争)が終結した時、日本の主権が失われたため日本本土へ帰っていった。
In the Imperial Japanese period, they occupied Taiwan and the Korean Peninsula, moving into the countries of Asia and the South Seas, expanding their range of distribution and establishing a standardized social foundation; however, they returned to Japan's mainland as Japan's sovereign power was lost when the Pacific War (The Greater East Asian War) ended.

ただし、原本は万治4年1月15日_(旧暦)（1661年2月14日）の御所火災で焼失し、その後副本を元にして復元され、また公家などの写本もいくつも存在するものの、現存する本によって細かい語句などで違いがある事に留意の必要がある。
The original book was burnt in the fire at the Imperial Palace on February 14, 1661 but recovered on the basis of a duplicate, and there are also some copies made by the court nobles remaining; however, it should be treated with caution as some of the extant books have several differences in words and phrases.

これらの現象は従来は下克上の一言で片づけられてきた嫌いがあるが、戦国大名による領国支配の形態の研究が進むにつれ、その支配体制が決して専制的なものでなく、家臣団の衆議・意向を汲み取っていたものであるとの見方が多くなってきている。
These phenomena tended to be simply seen as gekokujo (an inverted social order when the lowly reigned over the elite) in the past, but as the study progresses on the form of territory ruling by daimyo in the Warring States period, more people think that the ruling system was never be autocratic and took into consultations and intentions of the vassalage.

実際に朝廷統制に用いられた法度としては、生活面においては「公家衆法度」や「若公家衆法度」などがあるが、前者は猪熊事件という一大醜聞が起きたために豊臣政権時代の公家法令の再確認という意味があり、後者は後水尾上皇がその促進者であった。
The laws which were practically used in controlling the imperial court were, for example, 'Kugeshu-hatto' (the laws for court nobles) and 'Wakakugeshu hatto' as the laws about daily life; the former was enacted for reconfirming the court noble laws during the reign of the Toyotomi government due to a great scandal called the Inokuma Incident, and the latter was promoted by the retired Emperor Gomizunoo.

その後は、しばらく陸奥は平穏であったが、依然として東北には陸奥国に編入しきれていない蝦夷の領域があり、頼義の遠縁にあたる大和源氏の源頼俊が出羽清原氏の援軍を得て、青森北端までを制圧し、陸奥国府の威光が東北一帯まで及ぶようになった。
After that Mutsu was calm for a while but there still remained the area in Ezo which was not annexed to Mutsu Province, so MINAMOTO no Yoritoshi from Yamato-Genji (Minamoto clan), who was remotely related to Yoriyoshi, subdued as far as the northern edge of Aomori with the troops of the Kiyohara clan in Dewa Province and the authority of Mutsu kokufu came to range throughout Tohoku area.

「首都圏整備法」（昭和31年法律第83号）では、東京都が首都であることを前提に、東京都の区域及び政令で定めるその周辺地域（首都圏整備法施行令により、埼玉県、千葉県、神奈川県、茨城県、栃木県、群馬県及び山梨県）を首都圏と定めている。
The 'Improvement Law of Capital Zone' (law No. 83, 1956), prescribes that the zone of Tokyo and its surrounding area (Saitama Prefecture, Chiba Prefecture, Kanagawa Prefecture, Ibaraki Prefecture, Tochigi Prefecture, Gunma Prefecture and Yamanashi Prefecture) are the national capital region

このときに討ち入り時の綱領「人々心覚」が定められ、その中で武器、装束、所持品、合言葉、吉良の首の処置など事細かに定め、さらに「吉良の首を取った者も庭の見張りの者も亡君の御奉公では同一。よって自分の役割に異議を唱えない」ことを定めた。
The program called 'reminders for people' was then decided, which stated the details of weapons, clothes, one's belongings and signals at the time of the raid as well as how to treat Kira's head, and also described that 'the one who cut off Kira's head and guards in the yard will be considered to be equal in terms of serving our deceased lord; therefore, you must not question your roles.'

当該制度改正により、日本で勲等の授与（叙勲）という行為が適用されなくなった後も、政府は勲章の授与（授章）について授章のみならず「叙勲」の表現も用いている（たとえば、官報の叙位叙勲欄は叙位授章欄などへ変更されずにそのままの名称である）。
After the amendment, bestowal of medals for merit, i.e., bestowal of an order, has not been done in Japan; still, the Japanese government is using the word 'bestowal of an order' as well as 'awarding of a decoration' to express awarding of a decoration (for example, the section of the official gazette has not been changed its title from Bestowal of an Order to Award of Decoration.)

この時期の銀の市場価格の変動は大きくまた下落傾向が顕著であった為、そして、その当時世界経済の主導的地位を占めていたイギリスが既に金本位制に転じていた為、銀本位制諸国は深刻な影響をうけ、19世紀の終りにはほとんどの国が金本位制に転じた。
Since fluctuation of market value of silver during this period was significant and tended to decline remarkably and the United Kingdom, which led the world economy around that time, already shifted to the gold standard, countries which adopted silver standard were seriously affected, so most of the countries shifted to the gold standard in the end of the nineteenth century.

そんな中、従来からの路線対立や、加波山事件の処理をめぐる紛糾などから1884年10月29日（秩父事件発生の2日前）、自由党は解党決議を可決するに至っていた（その後同党は1890年に再結成されるが、以後も解散・再結成・再編等を繰り返す。
Liberal Party approved a decision of dissolving the party on October 29, 1884 (two days before the occurrence of the Chichibu Incident) because of what with past policy confrontations and complications on solving the Kabasan Incident (thereafter, the Party was reorganized in 1890, but repeated dissolution, the re-formation, reorganization，and so on even after that.

その性質上当然に施行されるべき法律は別として、朝鮮統治のために設置された朝鮮総督府の長たる朝鮮総督が発する命令（制令）という形で立法権を委任するほか、内地に施行される法律につき勅令で朝鮮にも施行することができるようにする方針を採った。
With the exception of the laws that should be enforced in Korea for its nature, the government delegated the legislative power to the governor-general of Chosen Sotokufu, which was founded for the administration of Korea, by granting authority to issue orders (laws) and also allowed the laws enforced in the inland to be enforced in Korea with imperial edicts.

その成果の詳細は不明であるが、鎌倉時代には国内第一の港として「兵庫津（ひょうごのつ）」「兵庫島」あるいは「兵庫経島（ひょうごきょうじま）」と呼ばれるようになり、当時の兵庫津のようすは絵巻物『法然上人絵伝』や『一遍聖絵』にも描かれている。
The details of the result are not clear, but during Kamakura period the port came to be called 'Hyogo no tsu,' 'Hyogo jima' or 'Hyogokyo jima' as the primary port in Japan and the atmosphere of Hyogo no tsu in those days was painted also in picture scrolls such as 'Honen Shonin Eden' (illustrated biography of a Buddhist saint, Honen) or 'The Ippen hijiri-e' (Painting of St. Ippen).

また、その外敵が銅鐸祭祀を否定する集団で、支配下に置いた地域の住民に銅鐸祭祀を放棄させたと考えれば、銅鐸が壊れた状態で出土することや、三世紀に急速に銅鐸祭祀が廃れたこと、銅鐸の用途が全く伝わっていないことなどに説明が付くという説もある。
On the other hand, there is a theory that the hypothesis that the foreign enemy denied worship of dotaku and forced its local subordinates to abandon dotaku can explain the facts: that some dotaku were found broken, that worship of dotaku rapidly declined in the third century, and that the purpose have not been passed down at all.

ただし、継体天皇の即位に当たっては前政権の支配機構をそっくりそのまま受け継いでいること、また血統の点でも前の大王家の皇女を妻として入り婿の形で皇位を継承していることなどから、これを「王朝」として区別できるかどうか疑問とする考え方もある。
However, some scholars think that it is questionable to think that Keitai dynasty as a separate 'dynasty' because at the enthronement of Emperor Keitai he inherited the form of government as it was from the previous government, and in the blood line, he inherited the imperial throne as a man whose wife was a princess of the previous great kings family and became irimuko (man who takes his wife's premarital family name).

一方、第1次山本内閣への入閣という形で利益を得る事になった立憲政友会に対して、国民はもちろんの事、立憲国民党や政友会内部からも反発が噴出して尾崎行雄は岡崎邦輔らとともに政友会を離党する（岡崎は後に復党するが、尾崎はそのまま中正会を結党した）。
On the other hand, the Seiyukai was benefited by gaining the ministerial posts in the first Yamamoto Cabinet, which enraged not only the general public but also the Rikken Kokuminto members, and even some of the Seiyukai members including Yukio OZAKI, who resented it and left the Seiyukai together with Kunisuke OKAZAKI (although Okazaki returned to the Seiyukai later, Ozaki established a new party 'Chuseikai' [Centrist Justice Party]).

政友会がこの問題を持ち出したのはその年に行われた第17回衆議院議員総選挙で大敗したことに加えて、田中義一前総裁（元陸軍大臣・総理大臣）の総裁時代以来、在郷軍人会が政友会の有力支持団体化したことに伴う「政友会の親軍化」現象の一環とも言われている。
The reason why the Seiyukai (Rikken seiyukai) rose this matter was that they lost the 17th general election of members of the House of Representatives held that year, and in addition to that, since the period of the former Prime Minister Giichi TANAKA (former Minister of Army, Prime Minister), an association of reservists became the influential support group of Seiyukai which led to the phenomenon of 'pro-militarization of Seiyukai'.

一進会の設立当初、日本は一進会をそれほど評価してはいなかったが、一進会の設立後、宋秉畯は当時の日本の大佐、松石安治に対し書簡を送り、現状の高宗およびその官僚主導では大韓帝国の独立・維持は困難であると説明し、また京義線敷設の協力をも申し出ている。
Japan initially wasn't putting a high estimation in Isshinkai, but after it was founded, Song Byung-joon sent a letter to Yasuharu MATSUISHI, a Japanese Colonel of the times, to explain that current regime led by Gao Zong and the bureaucracy couldn't bring independence and maintenance to Korean Empire, and he also offered a cooperation for the construction of Keigi Railroad.

そして開拓使十年計画の満期を迎えた1882年、当初の計画通り北海道開拓使を廃止し、その当時置かれていた北海道開拓使の札幌市の本庁および函館市・根室市の2支庁のそれぞれの管轄区域に応じて道外と同様に県という行政区域を新たに3つ設定することになった。
When the Ten-year Plan of Development Commissioner was completed in 1882, Hokkaido Development Commissioner was abolished as originally planned, and it was decided that administrative districts called 'prefecture' were introduced just as outside Hokkaido and that three prefectures were newly established in accordance with jurisdictions of the government in Sapporo City and two offices in Hakodate and Nemuro Cities which had been administered by Hokkaido Development Commissioner.

その後、長沼は昭和9年、ひょうたん型の下の部分（前沼）が干拓事業により干拓され、後の昭和17年、沼の上の部分（後沼）が国の食料増産事業により干拓が行われ、排水路工事には満蒙開拓青少年義勇軍1000人と地元民1000人が招集され、昭和28年完工した。
After that, in 1934, the bottom part of the bottle-gourd-shaped Naganuma (front marsh) was reclaimed under the reclamation project, and in 1942, the upper part of the marsh (back marsh) was reclaimed under the national increase food production project, the construction was completed in 1953, gathering 1000 members of Volunteer Pioneer Youth Army of Manchuria and Mongolia and 1000 local people for the construction of drainage ditch,.

そのため、1918年に、日本の統治権が及ぶ各地域間の法令の適用範囲の確定及び連絡統一を目的とする共通法（大正7年法律第39号）（1918年4月17日施行）が制定された（2005年現在も廃止の措置は採られていないが、事実上失効していると解されている）。
Therefore, the Common law (Act No.39 of 1918) was enacted and came into effect on April 17, 1918 to determine the application range of the laws in these regions where Japan held sovereignty and to integrate those laws (As of 2005, no official measure has been taken to abolish the said Common law, but it is considered practically invalid).

その理由は、明治政府の雇った鉄道建設担当の英国人技師レイが詐欺まがいの人物で、それまで南アフリカ共和国の鉄道で使われていて、不要になってインドに当時置かれていた中古品（線路・車両）を使って鉄道を安上がりに建設して、私腹を肥やそうとしたからともいわれる。
The reason for this is said to be that a British railroad construction engineer called Ray who had been employed by the Meiji government engaged in fraudulent practices, scheming to line his own pockets by reducing costs through the use of used and unnecessary equipment (tracks and carriages); this equipment were being stored in India at that time, but had been used in the Republic of South Africa prior to that.

しかし、当時既に開設されていた電信によりいち早く彼らの蜂起とその規模を知った政府は、一部汽車をも利用して警察隊・憲兵 (日本軍)等を送り込むが苦戦し、最終的には東京鎮台の鎮台兵を送り郡境を抑えたため、11月4日に秩父困民党指導部は事実上崩壊、鎮圧された。
However, the government, getting information on their uprising and its scale instantaneously by telegram that had already been in use at that time, sent a troop of police and military police (Japanese Army) partially by train only to face uphill fights, but finally soldiers in Tokyo Chindai Army (garrison in Meiji period) brought the county boundary under their control, leading the leaders of the Konmin Party to the collapse and subjugation on November 4.

その後イギリス総領事のオールコックは著書『大君の都』の中で日本の本位貨幣である天保小判が金貨4ドル分の金を含有し、一分銀には素材価値以上の価値が設定されていたことにより金貨流出につながったことを認めているが、それは小判の大量流出が起こった後のことであった。
Later, an English consul general ALCOCK, in his book 'Okimi no Miyako' (the capital of the tycoon), admitted that gold coins were poured out of Japan because a value higher than that of raw materials was attached to ichibu-gin silver coins while Tenpo koban, Japanese standard coins, contained the same amount of gold as gold coins worth four dollars, but it was after the massive outpouring of koban.

のちに同法は廃止されたが、廃止理由は、東京都が首都でなくなったからではなく、あくまで同法の目的（首都の建設）が達成され、整備の対象を「首都」から「首都とその周辺地域」に広げるための発展的なものであり、後継の首都圏整備法とは連続性、一体性を有するものである。
Although this law was abolished later, it was not because Tokyo ceased to be the capital, but because the objective of the law (construction of capital) was accomplished and it was necessary to expand the area of city improvement from the capital to the capital and its surrounding region; the succeeding law, 'national capital region improvement law,' has a continuity and unity with the abolished law.

前官礼遇を受けるには一定期間の在任が必要で、陸軍出身の首相である林銑十郎と阿部信行がその条件を満たしていなかったために、陸軍への配慮から改正されたという（前官礼遇とは首相・国務大臣等の要職を一定期間経験したものに対して現職者に準じる礼遇を賜る当時の制度である）。
A Prime Minister was required to hold his post for a certain period of time to be granted the privileges later, and it is assumed that the definition was revised in consideration of the army because the two Prime Ministers, Senjuro HAYASHI and Nobuyuki ABE from the army, had not satisfied the condition (The system that existed in those days in which a person who had for a certain period of time occupied an important post such as a Prime Minister or a Minister of State was granted the same privileges as an incumbent was called 'zenkan reigu'.).

1854年の開国以来の混沌とした政治情勢を受けて半ば非常時の体制へ移行したものであるが、その主導者は幕府自身（幕閣）ではなく、薩摩藩主の父・島津久光および朝廷の公武合体派公卿らに主導されて出された勅使による圧力の下、やむを得ず改革を迫られたというのが実情である。
Although the bakufu shifted to the quasi-emergency regime due to the chaotic political situation since the opening of the country to the world in 1854, such change was not initiated by the bakufu itself (the cabinet officials of the Shogunate) but was forced under the pressure from the imperial envoy dispatched by the initiation of Hisamitsu SHIMAZU who was the father of the the lord of the Satsuma Domain as well as the court nobles supporting Kobu Gattai (an idea of uniting the court and the shogunate), so the reality was that the shogunate had no option but to carry out the reform.

また、討ち入りの時に生き残ってしまったために「途中で逃げ出した」とする悪評を立てられた吉良家家老の左右田孫兵衛は、討ち入り後も配流された吉良義周のために尽くし、その死後は生涯他家への仕官を断ったことから、吉良家への忠節を尽くした家臣とみなされ汚名は除かれたと言われる。
Chief retainer of the Kira family Magobe SODA was rumored to have run away in the middle of the battle since he survived the raid; however, he proved himself to be a loyal retainer by refusing to work for anyone else but Yoshimasa KIRA for the rest of his life even after Kira's exile, and gained his reputation back.

長崎の町年寄りは、元禄5年（1692年）および元禄7年（1694年）に、長崎では殺生禁止が徹底していないので今後は下々の者に至るまで遵守せよ、という内容の通達を出しているが、その通達の中でも、長崎にいる唐人とオランダ人については例外として豚や鶏などを食すことを認めていた。
Since the prohibition on killing animals was not thorough enough, the ward head in Nagasaki issued a circular notice to preserve the law among ordinary people twice, in 1692 and 1694, but the notice made an exception of Chinese and Dutch residents who were allowed to eat chicken and pork.

しかし、伊達家には慶長5年（1600年）10月6日付中嶋左衛門宛伊達政宗書状、10月14日、10月19日付今井宗薫宛政宗書状、その戦功を賞する返書として10月24日付伊達政宗宛徳川家康書状が残されており、慶長5年10月6日に何らかの戦闘行為が行われたのは間違いないであろう。
However, the Date family has kept Masamune DATE's letter to Saemon NAKAJIMA (中嶋左衛門) dated October 6, 1600, Masamune's letters to Sokun IMAI dated October 14 and 19, and Ieyasu TOKUGAWA's letter to Masamune DATE dated October 24 to praise him for his distinguished military act and therefore, there is no doubt that any battle took place on October 6, 1600.

天狗党の乱（てんぐとうのらん）とは、元治元年3月27日 (旧暦)（1864年5月2日）に起きた、水戸藩藩士藤田小四郎ら尊皇攘夷過激派による筑波山での挙兵と、その後これに関連して各地で発生した争乱のことである（元治元年12月17日 (旧暦)（1865年1月14日）に主導者投降）。
Tenguto no Ran (Rebellion of Tenguto) was raising of an army at Mt. Tsukuba on May 2, 1864 by the radical party of Sonno Joi (19th century slogan advocating reverence for the Emperor and the expulsion of foreigners) including Koshiro FUJITA, a feudal retainer of Mito Domain and others, as well as the following related conflicts occurred all over the country (the main leader surrendered on January 14, 1865).

『波賀聞書』によると、庭の見張り組は「五十人組は東へ回れ」「三十人組は西へ回れ」などと声高に叫ぶことであたかも百人以上の大勢が討ち入ったかに装ったとしており、これが功を奏し、長屋にいた吉良家臣たちは本当にその人数がいると信じ込み、ほとんどの者が恐怖で長屋から出てこなかったという。
According to 'Haga Kikigaki,' most of Kira's retainers became too scared to come out from their long house since the guards in the yard truly made Kira's retainers believe that there were more than a hundred people joined up for this raid by shouting 'a group of fifty go around to the east' and 'a group of thirty go around to the west.'

韓日併合の目的を達成した一進会は、その後、韓国統監府が朝鮮内の政治的混乱を収拾するために朝鮮の政治結社を全面的に禁止したため、解散費用15万円を与えられ、他の政治結社と同様に解散したが、一進会を率いた宋秉畯らは朝鮮総督府中枢院顧問となり合併後の朝鮮の政治にも大きく影響を与え続けた。
After Isshinkai accomplished the annexation between Korea and Japan, Kankoku Tokan-fu (South Korea Protection Agency) entirely forbade making any political association in Korea in order to suppress the political confusion in Korea, so they were compelled to dismiss as the other political associations did in exchange of 150 thousand yen given as dissolution allowance, but Song Byung-joon and others who had been leading Isshinkai assumed office as adviser of Chusuin (a government office in Korea) of Chosen Sotoku-fu (Governor-General of Korea) and kept affecting on the Korean politics after the annexation.

従来の藩が租税として集めた米をまとめて江戸や大坂の蔵屋敷を経由して同地の米問屋に売却するというこれまでの米の流通システムが崩壊して、個々の農民が地元の米商人などに直接米を換金してその代金を納め、地元の米商人が全国市場に米を売却するようになるなど、商業や流通に対する影響も大きかった。
The land-tax reform also had a large effect on Japanese commerce and distribution system; that is, prior to the reform rice collected as tax from various clans were sold and distributed by wholesale dealers in Edo or Osaka through storehouses of various clans in Edo or Osaka; the reform allowed farmers to change their rice to cash directly at local rice merchants, who sold rice to the market across the country; thus the previous distribution system collapsed.

、徳川秀忠が幕府御船手頭向井忠勝に建造させた史上最大級の安宅船「安宅丸」は、総櫓及び船体の総てに防火・防蝕を目的とした銅板貼りが施されていた事が幕府の公式な記録から確認されており、1635年当時、軍船の表面に金属板を貼るという発想が存在していた事そのものは疑いがたい事実と言えよう。
From the official bakufu documents it is confirmed that the 'Atake Maru', the largest Ataka bune in history, which Hidetada TOKUGAWA ordered Tadakatsu MUKAI, the chief of the bakufu navy to build, had all oars and the whole hull covered with copper plates for the prevention of fire and erosion, which proves a definite fact that an idea of covering the surface of a warship existed in 1635.

これに対し、明治憲法下で命令事項とされていたものは、それが日本国憲法下でも命令事項である場合は引き続き命令としての効力を有するが、法律事項である場合は原則として1947年12月31日限りでその効力が打ち切られた（日本国憲法施行の際現に効力を有する命令の規定の効力等に関する法律1条）。
An order under the Meiji Constitution, however, is deemed valid if only it stipulates matters which should be stipulated by an order under the current Constitution as well, whereas if such an order stipulates matters which should be stipulated by law under the current Constitution, it ceased to be effective in principle on December 31, 1947 (Act on Effect, etc. of Provisions of Orders Effective as of Time of Enforcement of the Constitution of Japan, Article 1).

その後、1886年（明治19年）2月27日に公布された各省官制（明治19年勅令第2号）では、次官以下の「陸軍省職員」、「海軍省職員」については、「武官ヲ以テ之ニ補ス」として、原則的に武官を任用すると定めたものの（陸軍2条、海軍2条、通則25条）、大臣については特に定めを置かなかった。
After that, according to each ministry regulation (imperial edict Vol.2, 1886), publically announced in February 27, 1886, with regards to 'officers in the Department of War and the Department of the Navy' lower than the Suke (vice minister) rank, 'military officers are eligible to be appointed this position' and it was determined that military officers would be installed in principal (Army regulations, article 2; Navy regulations, article 2; General regulations, article 25); however, there were no rules about the ministers.

日露戦争の開催を決定した御前会議においては明治天皇と第1次桂内閣の5閣僚（総理・外務・大蔵・陸軍・海軍各大臣）と5元老（伊藤博文・井上馨・大山巌・松方正義・山縣有朋）の計11名で構成され、統帥部の出席は認められずにその決定に従って作戦計画を作成することになっていた（政略主導の両略一致）。
The conference in the presence of the Emperor where the Russo-Japanese War was decided to go was consisted of 11 members who were the Emperor Meiji, 5 Cabinet members of the First KATSURA Cabinet (Prime Minister, Foreign Minister, Minister of Finance, Army Minister, Navy Minister), 5 Genro (elder statesman) (Hirobumi ITO, Kaoru INOUE, Iwao OYAMA, Masayoshi MATSUKATA, Aritomo YAMAGATA), supreme command staff was not admitted to attend it, and the plan of strategy was going to be made according to the decision at the conference (congruency of politics and strategy with the main leadership of politics).

その頃、司法卿江藤新平は箕作麟祥によるナポレオン法典の邦訳を支援して、同法典の直輸入の検討も含めた早期の民法制定を指示して、太政官や司法省を中心に何度か民法の案が作成された（1870年の「民法決議」、1872年の「皇国民法仮規則」、同年の「司法省民法全議」、1873年の「民法仮規則」）。
About that time Shinpei ETO, who was the administrator of the Ministry of Justice and supported Rinsho MITSUKURI in translating the Code Napoleon, issued an instruction for the enactment of the Civil Code as early as possible; the Civil Code included reviews of the direct import of the Code Napoleon, and some drafts of the Civil Code were made mainly by the Daijokan (Grand Council of State) and the Ministry of Justice (these included the 'Minpo Ketsugi' (Civil Law resolution) in 1870, 'Kokoku Minpo Kari Kisoku' (Tentative Rule of Imperial Civil Law) in 1872, 'Shihosho Minpo Zengi' (all Justice Department resolutions on Civil Law) in 1872, and 'Minpo Kari Kisoku' (Tentative Rule of Civil Law) in 1873).

その後も田近陽一郎が『高千穂古文字伝』（1876年）を著すなど一部の研究者はにわかに活気づいたが、教部省主導ということからも伺えるように軍人や政治家の国粋主義宣伝の材料にされてしまい、また原本が学会ではまったく認知されていない神代文字で書かれていたことから、一般の学会ではほとんど無視された。
After that, Yoichiro TAJIKA wrote 'Takachiho Komoji Den (Takachiho ancient characters history)' in 1876 and some researchers were suddenly fueled, but this was used by military men and statesmen as advertisement of nationalism, as you can see from the introduche, and also because the original book was written in ancient Japanese characters not recognized by the academic society, it was mostly ignored in general academic societies.

これは鈕の下部及び側面に紐で長期間吊るされた事による「擦れ」と考えられる痕跡や、内部の突帯に舌が当たった為にできたと思われる凹みの形での損傷が確認される銅鐸があるためであり、梵鐘のように胴体部の外面を叩く事でできたと考えられる痕跡のある物はないため、そのように鳴らしたような再現図は誤りである。
This can be guessed because some dotaku have marks of 'abrasion'on lower and side areas of the crown due to prolonged use for hanging a string, or marks of damage (dent) on the inside raised-area due to contact of the tongue, and therefore, a reproduced image of dotaku where they are rung by hitting the outer surface of the body like Buddhist temple bells is wrong because no such marks are found.

大日本帝国憲法、衆議院議員選挙法が公布された翌日（1889年（明治22年）2月12日）、黒田は鹿鳴館で開催された午餐会の席上において「超然主義演説」を行って政党との徹底対決の姿勢を示したが、その一方で立憲改進党前総裁（実質は党首）で外務大臣 (日本)の大隈重信を留任させて条約改正の任にあたらせた。
The day after the Constitution of the Empire of Japan and the election law of the members of the House of Representatives were issued (February 12, 1889), KURODA made the speech called 'speech of the doctrine of superiority' in order to show his attitude to cope with the political parties to the bottom in the luncheon held at Rokumeikan, and on the other hand, he had Shigenobu OKUMA, who was also the former president of the Constitutional Progressive Party, stay in the position of Minister of Foreign Affairs (Japan) to assign the mission to revise the treaty.

遠景の後について、中原親能・武藤資頼が継いだとする説もあるが、瀬野精一郎は、遠景後の後継者について諸説あることをまとめた上で、「鎮西奉行は一般的呼称にすぎず、鎌倉幕府の正式な官職名ではなかったとする説（佐藤進一説）もあるごとく、その性格がなお不明瞭な点が多いことに起因しているといえる」と指摘している。
There are theories stating that NAKAHARA no Chikayoshi and Sukeyori MUTO succeeded the post of Chinzei Bugyo after Tokage, but alluding to the existence of numerous theories regarding the successor of Tokage, Seiichiro SENO (Japanese historian) points out that, 'The Chinzei Bugyo was nothing but a common title and we can say that this is due to its vague nature as a job as there are theories denying it an official title (theory purported by Shinichi SATO).'

赤穂浪士のお預かりを担当した松平定直の家臣波賀清大夫が赤穂浪士たちから話を聞き、それをもとにして書いた『波賀聞書』では、表門隊で最初に梯子を上って邸内に侵入したのは大高源五と小野寺幸右衛門であったといい、大高が飛び降りざま名乗りを上げ、吉田沢右衛門と岡島八十右衛門もそのあとに続いて上っていったとしている。
In 'Haga Kikigaki' (Haga's verbatim account) by Seidaibu HAGA, who was Sadanao MATSUDAIRA's retainer and in charge of confinement of Ako Roshi, it says that based on what he heard from Ako Roshi, it was Gengo OTAKA and Sawaemon ONODERA from the front gate party who climbed up the ladder and broke into Kira's property with Otaka announcing his name when jumping off the gate, and Sawaemon YOSHIDA and Yasoemon OKAJIMA followed after him.

しかし、豪族を、「勢力のある一族」「有力な一族」という意味での一般的な使用（例えば「南北朝時代の○○国△△郡の豪族」というような使用）では、豪族という形容は、その後の時代の地頭や悪党、国人出自などの領主クラスの大名分の武家に対してしばしば使用され、戦国時代・安土桃山時代まで豪族という形容をすることがある。
However, in the general use of Gozoku as the meaning of 'a potent clan' or 'powerful clan' (for example the use like 'Gozoku in △△ District, OO Province' in the period of the Northern and Southern Courts), the term 'Gozoku' was often used to describe Jito (manager and lord of manor), Akuto (a villain in the medieval times), and samurai families at the same level as daimyo in the feudal lord class from Kokujin (local samurai) in the subsequent periods, and they were sometimes described as Gozoku until the Sengoku Period (Period of Warring States) and the Azuchi-Momoyama period.

平安時代には、『日本後紀』の弘仁3年（812年）6月条に大輪田泊修築のことが記されるのをはじめ、造大輪田船瀬使がおかれ、防風と防波を兼ねて石の堤（石椋）を築くなど、たえず修築がおこなわれ、その経費を充当するため勝載料もしくは船瀬庄田稲を徴収していたことのあったことが各種の文献資料 (歴史学)で確認されている。
During the Heian period, as the reconstruction of Owada no tomari is described in the June 812 chapter in 'Nihonkoki' (Later Chronicle of Japan), Zo Owada funaseshi was set up and the reconstruction work was always done like building stone dikes (iwakura) for storm and wave prevention and so on and to cover the cost, shosairyo (custom duty for freight) or funaseshodento was levied, which is confirmed in various documents (historical study).

位階や旭日章・瑞宝章などのその他の勲章は仕官して公務員（当時は官吏）となれば勤続年数などの一定の条件で大抵誰でも受勲することができ、また官吏では無い兵 (日本軍)や民間人でも対象となったが、金鵄勲章は軍人軍属のみでかつ相応の戦功がなくては授与されず、大将や皇族軍人といえども相応の武功がなければ授与されなかった。
In terms of other orders, including courtly rank and the Orders of the Rising Sun and Orders of the Sacred Treasure, when it came to civil servants (at the time, they were termed 'government officials') in government service, once they fulfilled the prescribed condition--for example, working continuously for a certain number of years--almost everyone would receive such medals, and non-government soldiers (in Japan's army) or civilians could also receive them; the Order of the Golden Kite, however, was limited only to military personnel, and furthermore was only granted to those who had sufficiently distinguished themselves in battle, meaning that simply being a general or an army officer of imperial blood, without distinguished service in battle, would not bring one this medal.

その後、総理となった犬養毅が軍縮をしようとしたところ、五・一五事件で決起将校に殺害され政党政治が終結を迎え、戦時中には軍の圧力により逼塞状態にあった鳩山一郎が、戦後に総理就任を目前で連合国軍最高司令官総司令部からこの時の事を追及されて、軍部の台頭に協力した軍国主義者として公職追放となるなど皮肉な歴史を辿る事となった。
Later, ironic histories were repeated, which means that Tshuyoshi INUKAI, who became Prime Minister tried to do disarmament, was killed by an officer who rose in revolt at the May 15th Incident, then the party government came to an end, and Ichiro HATOYAMA who was confined during the war by the military pressure was accused by the General Headquarters of the Allied Powers and purged as a militarist cooperated the rise of the military just before the assumption of the Prime Minister after the war.

アジア系移民で特に母国の公用語に英語が含まれない国出身の家庭では、英語以外の母国語が使われるケースが多いが、その中でも日系人に限り、半数以上の家庭で英語のみが使われ、英語が主流という家庭も含めるとほぼ4分の3までもが家庭内でも英語を会話に用いており、日本語が使われているケースは他非英語系アジア移民の率の半分ほどである。
Even though Asian immigrant families, especially those whose mother tongues do not include English, often use other languages than English at home, more than half of Japanese immigrant families use only English at home, and if you include the families who use mainly English in this number, this proportion climbs to 3/4 of households, and Japanese families who use Japanese is as low as a half of the rate of non English speaking Asian immigrants using their native tongues at home.

明治憲法下では軍の統帥権が天皇にあったが、編成権（部隊編成、予算編成など）に関しては国務大臣が補弼するのか。それとも、憲法に明記されていなかったが、慣習的に軍令については国務大臣が輔弼せず統帥部（陸軍：参謀総長。海軍：軍令部総長）が補弼することとなっていたことにより、その大権に含まれるのかどうかが大きな論点となっていた。
Under the Meiji Constitution, the supreme command of the army belonged to the Emperor, but whether the organization rights (troop organization, budget organization, etc.) were assisted by the Minister of State or, although it was not described in the Constitution, or it was included in the supreme command, because the military orders were assisted traditionally not by the Minister of State but by the supreme command staff (the Chief of the Military General Staff, the President of the Naval General Staff) was the major point of the dispute.

その後、乙未事変で閔妃が暗殺された。（殺害現場にいた純宗の言で『乙未事件ニ際シ、現ニ朕ガ目撃セシ国母ノ仇、禹範善』となっているだけでなく、この禹範善は『禹ハ旧年王妃ヲ弑セシハ自己ナリトノ意ヲ漏セリ』と自ら犯人であることを漏らしている。(アジア歴史資料センター『在本邦韓国亡命者禹範善同国人高永根魯允明等ニ於テ殺害一件』)）
After that, Empress Myeongseong was assassinated in Itsubi Incident (Sunjong who was at the crime scene said, 'I witnessed Woo Beomseon) killed our mother in Itsubi Incident', and also Woo Beomseon confessed to have killed Empress.) ('A case of Woo Beomseon), a Korean refugee in Japan, murdered by GO Yeong-Geun and 魯允明.' [Japan Center for Asian Historical Records])

ところで、5月4日に宗方が「誅せられ」という、その状況が『実躬卿記』5月8日条にあり、5月4日に、時村殺害は宗方の命令であるという噂に対処するため、貞時が師時亭で評定を行っていたところに宗方が「推入来」したため、北条貞時は佐々木時清を使わせて「暫不可来臨之由（暫く来ないで欲しいと）」　と伝えようとしたが、「打合、共落命」してしまったという。
By the way, the description of the situation in which Munekata 'was killed due to a crime' on May 4 is included in the article on May 8 of Sanemikyoki as follows: on May 4, Sadatoki was having a meeting for deciding a measure to handle the rumor that Tokimura was killed by an order of Munekata at the Morotoki's residence, and Munekata 'was going to come there;' Therefore, Sadatoki sent Tokikiyo SASAKI to inform Munekata that 'they did not want his participation,' but they became to 'fight with each other, with both losing their lives.'

埼玉県秩父地方は昔から養蚕が盛んであったが、当時の同地方の産業は生糸の生産にやや偏っており、さらには信州（長野県）など他の養蚕地域に比べてフランス市場との結びつきが強く（秩父郡内における最初の小学校はフランスの援助で設立され、そのために当時の在日フランス公使館の書記官が秩父を訪れたほどである）、上述の大暴落の影響をより強く受けることとなった。
In Chichibu region in Saitama Prefecture sericulture had been thriving business for a long time, however, at that time the industry there was somewhat biased to raw silk production and in addition had been more strongly connected to the French market than other silk-farming regions such as Shinshu (Nagano Prefecture) (the first elementary school in the Chichibu County was established by French aid, therefore, a secretary in a French legation in Japan visited Chichibu) and as a result it had a greater influence of the above-mentioned heavy fall.

老中松平定信は、その著書『宇下人言』（うげのひとごと）の中でかなりのページ数を裂いて当時の醸造業界のあり方について触れ、「酒というものは値段が高ければ飲むことも少なく、安ければ飲むことが多い。民のために、物価の安定が望まれる日用品とはしょせん性格の違う商品である。多く入荷すれば多く消費し、少なく入荷すれば少なく消費するものである」と述べている。
Sadanobu MATSUDAIRA who served as roju (a member of shogun's council of elders) wrote much about the sake-brewing industry of the day in his book 'Ugenohitogoto' (an autobiography of Sadanobu MATSUDAIRA), and he said: 'sake is not drunk much when it costs much. It is drunk much when it does not cost much. After all, it differs in nature from daily necessities for which the prices are expected to be stable for our people. The more that is in stock the more will be drunk, and the less that is in stock the less will be drunk.'

一方、社名やその他の語を付けて区別することもあり、群馬県の上信電鉄では旧国名の「上野（こうずけ）」を冠した場合に上野 (台東区)や上野市の「上野（うえの）」と混同する恐れがあるため上州富岡駅のように「上州」を冠しているが、旧国鉄及び東日本旅客鉄道では前述の例に倣って「上野」と「上州」のいずれも用いず群馬藤岡駅のように現在の県名を冠する駅名を付けている。
On the other hand, there were cases in which station names were distinguished through means of adding company names or some other words; in the case of Joshu Dentetsu in Gunma, 'Joshu' is added to Tomioka Station and the station name is made to 'Joshu Tomioka Station'; the reason for this naming lied in that if the provincial name of 'Kozuke' is added, there is a possibility of being confused with 'Ueno' (Taito-ward in Tokyo) or 'Ueno' of Ueno City; Japanese National Railways and East Japan Railway Company used neither 'Kozuke' nor 'Joshu,' following the examples cited above and made a new station name by adding the current prefecture name Gunma.

元寇での戦役や異国警護の負担から没落した無足御家人の借入地や沽却地を無償で取り戻すことが目的と理解されてきたが、現在ではむしろ御家人所領の質入れ、売買の禁止、つまり3ヶ条の（2-a）所領処分権の抑圧が主であり、（2-b）はその前提として失った所領を回復させておくといった二次的な措置であり、それによる幕府の基盤御家人体制の維持に力点があったと理解されている。
It used to be understood that the purpose of the policy was to repossess, without compensation, the lands sold due to drying up and the lands lent to musoku gokenin (vassal without territory) who got impoverished due to the military campaign at the time of Mongol invasion attempts against Japan and the burden of guarding against the invasion by foreign countries, but it is now understood that the main purpose was rather to prohibit pawnage and trading of shoryo by Gokenin, which means the depression of right to dispose of shoryo as specified in 2-a among the three Articles, and 2-b was a secondary measure to have the lost shoryo returned to Gokenin as the premise of implementing 2-a, all of which seem to put weight on maintaining the Gokenin system which was the foundation of bakufu.

桂太郎首相は、戦争中の政局の安定を図るため、立憲政友会との提携を希望して原敬との間で次の政権は政友会総裁の西園寺公望に禅譲するという政権授受の密約を交わす（ただし近年の原と桂の双方の日記の研究によって、当初はその時期を明確にしていなかったこと、日比谷焼討事件後の桂内閣の弱体化に危機感を抱いた双方の合意によって具体的な時期が定まったことが明らかになっている）。
Taro KATSURA, Prime Minister, expected the alliance with the Seiyu party in order to stabilize the political situation during the war and made a secret promise with Takashi HARA that he would transfer the position of Prime Minister to Saionji (however, the recent study on the diaries kept by Hara and Katsura proved that, at first, they did not clarify the date of transfer and that they decided the date, with a sense of crisis about the weakened Katsura cabinet after the Hibiya Incendiary Incident).

この結果、土地は天皇のものであり、臣民は天皇または領主からその使用を許されているに過ぎないと考える公地公民制思想（王土王民説）や封建領主による領主権や村などの地域共同体による共同保有といった封建制度的な土地保有形態が完全に崩壊し、土地にも保有者個人の所有権が存在する事が初めて法的に認められることになり、土地が個人の財産として流通や担保の対象として扱われるようになった。
As a result, the idea in that all land was under the sole ownership of the emperor and individuals were merely borrowing the land from the emperor or the idea in that feudal lords had the land ownership or the idea of cooperative ownership by local communities such as villages were completely collapsed; private land ownership by individuals was recognized legally for the first time in Japan; and land came to be treated as the objects of circulation or collateral as the property of individuals.

彼ら急進派の政府転覆計画は結局は具現化をみるには至らなかったが、その後発生した1884年（明治17年）6月の群馬事件は、群馬県の下部自由党 (明治)員が、妙義山麓に困窮に苦しむ農民を結集し、圧制打倒の兵をあげようとしたものであり、さらに同年9月に発生した加波山事件は、茨城県の加波山に爆裂弾で武装した16人の急進的な民権運動家が挙兵し、警官隊と衝突するというものであった。
After all the plot of overthrowing the government of the radicals was not realized, but in subsequent Gunma Incident occurred in June 1884, local members of the Liberal Party (Meiji period) in Gunma Prefecture, gathering peasants in poverty at the foot of Mt. Myogi, tried to raise an army against suppression and furthermore in Kabasan Incident occurred in September of the same year sixteen democratic radicals armed with bombs raised an army and encountered the police force.

泰盛与党として罹災したのは泰盛一族の他、小笠原氏、足利氏、伴野氏、伊東氏、武藤氏（少弐氏）、その他は藤原相範、吉良満氏、殖田又太郎（大江泰広）、小早川三郎左衛門、三科蔵人、天野景村、伊賀景家、二階堂行景、（大井）美作三郎左衛門、綱島二郎入道、池上藤内左衛門の尉、行方少二郎、南部孫二郎（政連？）、有坂三郎、鎌田弥藤二左衛門尉、秋山人々など、幕府創設以来の有力御家人層の多くが見られる。
Victims of this battle among the members of Yasumori's party other than the Yasumori family were the Ogasawara clan, the Ashikaga clan, the Tomono clan, the Ito clan, and the Muto clan (Shoni clan) and many powerful gokenin since the foundation of Kamakura bakufu also suffered, such as Ainori FUJIWARA (藤原相範), Mitsuruuji KIRA, Matataro UETA (Yasuhiro Oe), Saburozaemon KOBAYAKAWA, Kurodo SANKA, Kagemura AMANO, Kageie IGA, Yukiie NIKAIDO, Mimasakasaburozaemon (OI) (美作三郎左衛門), Jironyudo TSUNASHIMA (綱島二郎入道), a lord of Tonaizaemon IKEGAMI (池上藤内左衛門), Shojiro YUKIKATA (行方少二郎), Magojiro (Masatsura?) NANBU, Saburo ARISAKA, Yatonisaemoni KAMATA (鎌田弥藤二左衛門尉), and Hitobito AKIYAMA (秋山人々).

現在、日本においては明治維新以後の時代区分を明治時代・大正時代・昭和時代・平成時代と元号を冠して用いるのが一般的であるが、日本の歴史における時代区分において明治維新以前には鎌倉時代・江戸時代などといった政治の中心地から取られて呼称が用いられている（弥生時代、戦国時代 (日本)のようにその中心地が確定できない時代を除く）が通例なのに明治以後は元号で分けるのはおかしいという意見がある。
Today, the history after the Meiji restoration is generally periodized with the use of gengo (name for an emperor's period of reign), such as the Meiji period, Taisho period, Showa period and Heisei period, but the history before the Meiji restoration is normally periodized with the use of names of political centers, such as the Kamakura period and Edo period (except for the periods for which the political center cannot be ascertained, such as the Yayoi period and Sengoku period); thus there comes up a view that calling the periods after the Meiji restoration with their gengo is inappropriate.

これを『鎌倉年代記裏書』にある「討手陸奥の守宗宣、下野の守貞綱既に攻め寄せんと欲するの処に、宗方は殿中（師時の舘、禅閤同宿）の騒擾を聞き、宿所より参らるるの間...」と組合わせると、時村と共に北条庶流を代表していた大仏宗宣らが手勢を率いて宝戒寺近辺の殿中・北条師時の館の貞時に詰め寄り、その騒擾を察知した宗方が、これも手勢を率いて駆けつけようとしたところで大仏宗宣、宇都宮守貞、佐々木時清らに討たる。
When combining this with the description of 'When the chasers, Munenobu, Mutsu no Kami, and Sadatsuna, Shimotsuke no Kami, were going to attack, Munekata heard disturbing noise at Denchu (Morotoki's residence where Sadatoki, zenko (one of the three principal ministers with priesthood) stayed) and on his way to the residence from his lodging--' in 'Kamkura-Nendaiki-uragaki,' the following situation can be considered: Munenobu OSARAGI, who, together with Tokimura, was a representative of branch Hojo families, and his followers were getting closer to Sadatoki in Denchu (Mototoki HOJO's residence) near to Hokai-ji Temple, and detecting the disturbing noise, Munekata and his followers rushed to the site, and he was killed by Munenobu OSARAGI, Morisada UTSUNOMIYA, and Tokikiyo SASAKI in the fighting.

また、即位後もすぐには大和の地にはいらず、北河内や南山城などの地域を転々とし、即位20年目に大和にはいったことから、大和には継体天皇の即位を認めない勢力があって戦闘状態にあったと考える説（直木孝次郎説）や、継体天皇は女系の天皇で、近江の息長氏などは大王家に妃を何度となく入れているが、継体天皇はその大王家の母方といえる息長氏系統の王位継承資格者で、皇位簒奪のような王朝交替はなかったと考える説（平野邦雄説）がある。
Since the Emperor Keitai entered Yamato not immediately after the enthronement but the 20th year later after moving from place to place such as Kitakawachi or Minami-yamashiro, there are two following theories: One that considers due to a power in Yamato which didn't allow the enthronement of Emperor Keitai, the region was in the combat situation (theory by Kojiro NAOKI) and the other that, since Keitai, the emperor of the maternal side, was a successor to the throne in the linage of the Okinaga clan in Omi, which daughters often married those in the great king family, there was no such change of dynasties as usurpation of imperial throne (theory by Kunio HIRANO).

まず元禄14年8月19日 (旧暦)（1701年9月21日）に吉良家の屋敷が江戸城のお膝元呉服橋から当時江戸の外れといわれていた本所（現東京都墨田区両国 (墨田区)）の松平信望の上ゲ屋敷に屋敷代えとなり、さらにその直後の8月21日 (旧暦)（8月23日）には、庄田下総守（浅野を庭先で切腹させた大目付）、大友義孝（吉良義央と親しくしていた高家仲間）、東条冬重（吉良義央の実弟）の三名を同時に呼び出して「勤めがよくない」などと咎めて役職を取り上げた。
Kira was forced to change his residence located in Gofuku-bashi near Edo-jo Castle to the residence of Nobumochi MATSUDAIRA located in Honjo, the edge of Edo (current location of Ryogoku, Sumida Ward, Tokyo) on September 21, 1701, and on August 23, the bakufu then called the governor of Shimousa, Shoda (ometsuke who was in charge of Asano's seppuku in the yard), Yoshitaka OTOMO (a Koke member who was close with Yoshinaka KIRA) and Fuyushige TOJO (who was a biological brother of Yoshinaka KIRA) and took their positions away by saying 'your services were not good enough.'

古墳の編年などから大型古墳はその時代の盟主（大王）の墳墓である可能性が高いことなどから推測すると、古墳時代の前期（3世紀の中葉から4世紀の初期）に奈良盆地の東南部の三輪山山麓に大和古墳群・柳本大塚が展開し、渋谷向山古墳（景行陵に比定）、箸墓古墳（卑弥呼の墓と推測する研究者もいる）、行燈山古墳（崇神陵に比定）、メスリ山古墳、西殿塚古墳（手白香皇女墓と比定）などの墳丘長が300から200メートルある大古墳が点在し、この地方（現桜井市や天理市）に王権があったことがわかる。
Assuming from the high possibility of large kofun (tumulus) being a tomb of leader (great king) of the time by the chronological order of kofun and others, the following kofun tumulus show there was a sovereignty in this region (present day Sakurai City and Tenri City): Yamato-kofun Tumulus Clusters and Yanagimoto Otsuka Tumulus built at the foot of the Mt. Miwa, in the southeast of Nara basin in the early Kofun period (from about the middle of the third century to the early fourth century), and large scattered kofun with the hill length of 300 meters to 200 meters such as Shibutani Mukoyama-kofun Tumulus (identified as a mausoleum of Emperor Keiko), Hashihaka-kofun Tumulus (surmised by some researchers to be a grave of Himiko), Andonyama-kofun Tumulus (identified as a mausoleum of Emperor Sujin), Mesuriyama-kofun Tumulus, and Nishitonotsuka-kofun Tumulus (identified as the grave of Tashiraka no Himemiko).